Examine individual changes

'{{more footnotes|date=November 2010}} {{Governance}} <!--This article is in Commonwealth English--> '''Governance in higher education''' refers to the means by which [[higher education]]al (also tertiary or postsecondary) institutions are formally organized and managed, though often there is a distinction between definitions of [[management]] and [[governance]]. Simply, [[university]] governance is the way in which universities are operated. Governing structures for [[higher education]] are highly differentiated throughout the world. Noted by Altbach (2005: 16-18) the different models for higher education throughout the world nonetheless do share a common heritage. Coldrake, Stedman, and Little (2003: 5) also discuss the shared [[traditions]] and history of higher education worldwide. Internationally, [[tertiary education]] includes private not-for-profit, private for-profit, and public institutions governed by differentiated structures of management. Governance and management of [[postsecondary]] institutions becomes even more diverse with the differences in defining the relationships between higher and tertiary education (university education), postsecondary education, technical and [[vocational education]], and [[community college]] models of education. The issues are complicated by current debates over [[collegial]] and shared forms of governance contrasted to [[corporate]] and [[business]] forms of institutional governance. == Overview of governance == [[Image:Lincoln University NZ.jpg|thumb|275px|right|The library of [[Lincoln University, New Zealand]]]] The concept of [[governance]] for postsecondary education predominantly refers to the internal structure, organization and management of autonomous institutions. The organization of internal governance is generally composed of a governing board ([[board of regents]], board of directors), the [[university president]] (executive head, CEO) with a team of administrative [[chancellors]] and staff, faculty senates, academic deans, department chairs, and usually some form of organization for [[student]] representation. In the United States, state institution governing boards often emphasize the concept of [[citizen]] governance in recognizing that board members serve a [[civic engagement|civic]] role for the institution. Managing structures themselves have become increasingly complex to establish a means of organizing an equally complicated system of intraorganizational, interorganizational and governmental relationships. Whether college and university education, adult education, technical and vocational education, the complexities of managing education in today's world proves true at all levels of private and public education (for even the interdependence with [[primary education|primary]] and [[elementary education]] to the management of [[secondary education]]). As universities have become increasingly [[interdependent]] with external forces, institutions are accountable to external organizational relationships such as local and federal governments, equally in managing business and corporate relationships. The nature of the managing relationships characterize whether governance is corporate and business oriented or defined more by a collegial shared form of governance. "Governance" in this sense is discussed by Kezar and Eckel (2004: 371-398), whom define it at the macro-level of policy decision making. Kezar and Eckel (2004: 371-398) suggest governance is a multi-level concept including several different bodies and processes with different decision-making functions. In this way, governance is sometimes defined at difference to the internal management of institutions. Throughout the world, many [[Central government|federal]]<!-- not all national governments are "federal" -->, [[State (administrative division)|state]] and [[Local government|local]] governments have begun to establish coordinating and governing boards as both [[wikt:buffer|buffer]] and bridge to coordinate governance and institutional management. With the complexity of internal structures, the external relationships between institutions and local, state, and national governments are evidently equally differentiated given the different forms of [[government]] in the international system (making the concepts of governance for postsecondary education [[pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] in its broadest sense and usage). External governing relationships depends much on institutions, government policy, and any other formal or informal organizational obligations. Generally, institutions are recognized as autonomous actors with varying degrees of interdependence with, and legislated commitments to the external stakeholders, local and national government. ==Issues in university governance== Due to the influences of public sector reforms, several authors (Kezar and Eckel 2004; Lapworth 2004; Middlehurst 2004) point out that next to the concept of shared and participative governance a new form of governance has emerged, i.e. the notion of [[corporate governance]] of institutions that has increasingly become a more dominant approach to tertiary management. According to Lapworth (2004: 299-314), the rise of the notion of corporate governance and the decline of the shared or consensual governance can be seen to be a result of the decline in academic participation, growing tendency towards [[managerialism]] and the new environment where the universities are operating. [[Image:Gkvk.jpg|thumb|left|Administrative building at [[University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore]]]] The [[American Association of University Professors]] was the first organization to formulate a statement on the governance of higher education based on principles of democratic values and participation (which, in this sense, correlates with the [[Yale Report of 1828]], discussed by Brubacher (1982: 5) as the “first attempt at a formally stated [[philosophy of education]]” for universities, emphasizing at that time that [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] curricula following the establishment of democratic constitutional governance should not be replaced with retrogression to religious curricula). The [[American Association of University Professors|AAUP]] published its first "Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities" in 1920, “emphasizing the importance of faculty involvement in personnel decisions, selection of administrators, preparation of the budget, and determination of educational policies. Refinements to the statement were introduced in subsequent years, culminating in the 1966 Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities (AAUP 1966). The document does not provide for a “blueprint” for the [[governance]] of [[higher education]]. Nor was the purpose of the statement to provide principles for relations with industry and government (though it establishes direction on “the correction of existing weaknesses”). Rather, it aimed to establish a [[shared vision]] for the internal governance of institutions. Student involvement is not addressed in detail. The statement concerns general education policy and internal [[Business operations|operations]] with an overview of the formal structures for organization and management. In process and structure, the meaning with the end result is an organizational [[philosophy]] for shared governance in higher education. While institutions internationally do not directly have the same genealogy with the idea of shared, collegial governance, universities worldwide are loosely organized by similar structures and based on comparable models. McMaster (2007: 1-9) notes the different cultures in universities and the traditional relationships between faculty and administration, characterizing [[historical]] transitions and suggesting that universities today are undergoing transitions in [[culture]]. Kezar and Eckel (2004: 371-398) point out the substance of governance has changed during the last decades with more emphasis put on high stake issues and more incremental decisions made in a less [[collegial]] mode – the reasons for this stem from trends that have devalued the notion of [[participation (decision making)|participation]] and also from the external pressures for more [[accountability]] and demands for quicker decision-making (that sometimes is achieved through [[bureaucracy]]). McMaster (2007: 1-9) discusses the same changes in university management resulting from the “huge amount of additional [[administrative work]] at all levels within the university, and the requirement for a wide range of specialist skills in areas such as [[marketing]], [[HR management]], management [[accounting]], [[web development]] and [[instructional design]].” and the difficulties with the tensions that have resulted between collegial and corporate models of management. Dearlove (1997: 56-75) emphasises that, under the conditions of mass higher education, no university can avoid the need for some sort of bureaucratic management and organisation, though this does not mean that the importance of informal discipline and profession based authority (internal governance of universities) can totally be ignored. Lapworth (2004: 299-314) advocates what the author believes is a model of university governance with the positive aspects of corporate and collegial approaches. The issues in university governance discussed by these literatures are detailed by Coldrake, Stedman, and Little (2003) through a [[comparative]] study of current trends in [[Australia]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]], with poignant insight into the different models of governance for the management of higher education. Critical of the currents of change toward “corporate governance,” the authors cite reference to literature that calls for “re-balancing” of university governance, maintaining that the re-balancing “would amount to a clarification of shared governance” (Coldrake, Stedman, and Little 2003: 14). With changing roles in human resources and the external pressures for accountability affecting university relationships internally, McMaster (2007: 1-9) provides insights by defining management styles in terms of nested partnership between faculty and administration, contiguous partnership, and segmented partnership. With debates over the recent trends, university organizations, governing associations, and numerous postsecondary institutions themselves have set forth [[policy]] statements on governance. == Statements from educational organizations == === National Education Association (NEA): faculty governance in higher education === First published in 1987, the [[National Education Association|NEA]] statement on faculty governance in higher education is a straightforward point of view on their policy in support of shared governance. The policy maintains that faculty involvement in governance is critical. Providing research support, the organization states faculty should advise [[Academic administration|administration]] in developing [[curriculum]] and methods of instruction. Faculty is responsible for establishing degree requirements, takes primary responsibility in [[tenure]] appointments and the award of promotion and [[sabbatical]]. Addressing issues through [[collective bargaining]], the statement believes “administration and the governing boards of colleges and universities should accept the faculty's recommendations” ([[National Education Association]] 1987). The statement also maintains that faculty should be involved in salary decisions, [[evaluating]] administrators, and budgeting. The policy concludes with the assertion: <blockquote> State and federal government and external agencies should refrain from intervening in the internal governance of institutions of higher education when they are functioning in accordance with state and federal law. Government should recognize that conserving the autonomy of these institutions is essential to protecting [[academic freedom]], the advance of knowledge, and the pursuit of truth (NEA 1987). </blockquote> The policy statement references the AAUP's "1966 Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities." The basic principles evidently draw from the early AAUP statement on governance. Though the NEA makes no mention of students anywhere in the policy, the NEA like the AAUP does reflect the basic ideas and premise for the “responsibility primarily of the [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] to determine the appropriate [[curriculum]] and procedures of student instruction” (AAUP 1966). In this respect, the AAUP grants that considerations should be made for publicly supported institutions. Unlike the NEA, the AAUP elaborates more on the role of governing structures, including the role of the president to ensure “[[sound]] academic practices,” as the NEA suggests faculty rights to appeal flawed and improper procedures. In summation, where the AAUP discusses the [[organizational structure]] for governance and management in more detail while touching on student involvement, the NEA statement differs by detailing primarily faculty rights and responsibilities in shared governance. ==== Higher education policy: statement of community college governance ==== Noting the 1987 publication of "Policy Statement on Higher Education Faculty Governance", in 1989 the NEA issued a "Policy Statement on Higher Education Policy for Community College Governance." The NEA elaborates upon issues in support of shared governance for the management of community colleges, junior and technical colleges not addressed in their previous statement. The statement is based on the same principles, believing cooperative decision-making and collective bargaining in governance should be based on “collegial” relationships. Where statements from the NEA and the AAUP advocate the importance of faculty involvement in governance, the [[community college]] statement notes that many do not exercise the right when available and that faculty “at public institutions are not yet permitted to bargain collectively in many states” (NEA 1989). The NEA then elaborates upon the need for faculty participation. Again, the "Policy Statement of Community College Governance" correlates based upon the same underlying principles of the AAUP and NEA statement on faculty governance. The community college statement also elaborates upon structure and procedure not addressed in the previous statement, including the “ad hoc” and standing committees as discussed in the AAUP policy statement on governance. Where the AAUP statement discusses policy on students and their academic rights, with the community college statement the NEA (1989) does conclude on student involvement. ===American Federation of Teachers (AFT): statement on shared governance=== In 2002, the Higher Education Program and Policy Council of the [[American Federation of Teachers]] also published a statement in support of the shared governance of institutions. The policy statement is a response to the fact that many governing boards have adopted the "mantra of business” (American Federation of Teachers 2002). The AFT (2002: 5) iterates purpose by which higher education achieves [[democratic]] organizational processes between administration and faculty, believing shared governance is under attack in six ways: # the outsourcing of instruction, particularly to learning technologies; # redirecting teaching to part time and temporary faculty; # re-orienting curriculum to business oriented coursework; # the buying and selling of courseware for commercial exploitation; # for profit teaching and research; # with the formation of a “commercial consortia with other universities and private investors." Meaning, as many have begun to view education as business, they are not necessarily in the business of education. Accordingly, six principles affirm standards of [[academic freedom]], faculty participation in standards and curriculum, and faculty decisions on academic personnel as the AAUP first established principles of governance. The statement maintains that participation in shared governance should be extended, acknowledging that the way in which participation is expanded will vary from institution to institution; “but each group whose work contributes to the academic enterprise should be involved in a manner appropriate to institutional functions and responsibility” (AFT 2002: 8). The policy addresses unions and faculty senates, believing that they contribute to the maintenance of shared governance in institutions as well as the role of accrediting agencies to support management standards. In conclusion, the AFT emphasizes affirmation of the goals, objectives and purpose for shared governance in higher education. ==Statements from associations of governance== ===Association of Governing Boards (AGB): statement on institutional governance=== With recent debates and trends in the governance of institutions of higher education in the [[United States]], the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges (AGB) issued a statement on governance, most recently updated in 2010. The original statement was published with a correlating statement, “Governing in the Public Trust: External Influences on Colleges and Universities.” In the first statement on governance, the advisiory organization for institutional governance discusses facts and perceptions concerning governance, including specific facts related to institutional trends and perceptions that “internal governance arrangements have become so cumbersome that timely decisions are difficult to make” (AGB 2001: 3). The AGB statement then defines general principles upon which governing boards are to operate and the responsibilities of a governing board to the institution; the updated principles are below (AGB 2010).<ref>{{cite web|last=AGB|title=Statement on Board Responsibility for Institutional Governance|url=http://agb.org/news/2010-03/statement-board-responsibility-institutional-governance|publisher=AGB|accessdate=2011-06-13}}</ref> # The ultimate responsibility for governance of the institution (or system) rests in its governing board. # The board should establish effective ways to govern while respecting the culture of decision making in the academy. # The board should approve a budget and establish guidelines for resource allocation using a process that reflects strategic priorities. # Boards should ensure open communication with campus constituencies. # The governing board should manifest a commitment to accountability and transparency and should exemplify the behavior it expects of other participants in the governance process. # Governing boards have the ultimate responsibility to appoint and assess the performance of the president. # System governing boards should clarify the authority and responsibilities of the system head, campus heads, and any institutional quasi-governing or advisory boards. # Boards of both public and independent colleges and universities should play an important role in relating their institutions to the communities they serve. ====AGB statement on governing in the public trust==== With their statement on governing bodies, the AGB then provides statement on governing in the [[public trust]], iterating many of the same points concerning recent external pressures. The statement defines the historic role and [[Explanation|rationale]] behind the principles of [[citizen]] governance upon which state institutional boards operate. Again, addressing the nature of external influences in university governance, the AGB defines specific principles in maintaining accountability and autonomy in the public trust, including # the primacy of the board over individual members; # the importance of institutional [[mission statement|mission]]s; # respecting the board as both [[wikt:buffer|buffer]] and bridge; # exhibiting exemplary [[public]] behaviour; and # keeping [[academic freedom]] central (AGB 2001: 23-26). In conclusion, the statement asks for the reaffirmation of a commitment to citizen governance to maintain the balanced and independent governance of institutions. ===Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee (AVCC): statement on governance=== In October 2003, the [[Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee]] (AVCC), the council of [[Australia]]’s university presidents, put forward a “Chancellors and AVCC statement on university governance." Given national and institutional debates over the governance of tertiary education, the statement acknowledges the opportunities with developments in management and governing structures. The statement notes the role of the “business model” that has been advanced alongside the traditional models of governance in Australia. With reference to additional “third models” in introducing a discussion of the existing frameworks for the governance of tertiary education, the statement defines the legal autonomy of institutions and independence from external [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]]. Acknowledging the diversity of governing structures and believing a balance is necessary between internal and external forces, the organization maintains: “No single way to achieve an effective governance arrangement” (AVCC 2003: 3) is possible. In recognizing the differences in institutional structures and frames of reference, the statement offers operational good practices as generic principles and recommendations, also identifying [[nation]]al [[Protocol (diplomacy)|protocols]] for the success of Australian higher education. The recommendations address practices by which internal governing structures operate and how they can improve institutional governance for the Commonwealth of Australia. External relations, the role of faculty and students in governance are not approached except inasmuch as institutional board members should be appointed with their selection based on contributions “to the effective working of the governing body by having needed skills, knowledge and experience, an appreciation of the values of a university and its core activities of teaching and research, its independence and academic freedom and the capacity to appreciate the university’s external community needs from that university” (AVCC 2003: 6). The committee defines the [[Moral responsibility|responsibilities]] of university governance, including [[legal]] obligations and [[legislative]] requirements for the internal governing boards of Australian institutions. Accordingly, governing bodies “should make available a programme of induction and professional development . . . to ensure that all members are aware of the nature of their duties and responsibilities” (AVCC 2003: 6). The report concludes with protocol for annual reports, including report of risk management and additional steps to ensure [[good governance]]. ===The university governance in Africa=== The Panafrican Institute of university governance is a project set up by the Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie and by the Association of Commonwealt universities, in support of the Ministry of the higher education of Cameroon. It was launched during the World Conference on the Higher education of the UNESCO which was held in Paris from the 5th to the 8th July 2009, by the Rector of the AUF, Mr Bernard Cerquiglini, and the General Secretary of the ACU Mr John Tarrant. Based physically at the Yaounde - Cameroon, it is about a unique structure of support which aims at improving all the practices which contribute to the smooth running of higher education in Africa. Its vocation is to accompany the modernization of the governance of higher education thanks to the implementation of expertise, the modules of training, seminars and workshops and especially specific tools of management, analysis and evaluation. It spreads his actions on the whole domain of governance (academic, administrative, financial, social, numerical and of the research) and has a function of observatory of higher education in Africa . At this effect, the Institute founds its methods of work on its role of observatory of higher education, on its expertise in evaluation of mechanisms of functioning and decision-making in establishments, and thus on its capacity of analysis of the modes and tools of management of higher education. The Institute’s of universities action is founded around five major challenges: *a challenge of efficiency to develop the universities’ practices of governance and make them real actors of the development. *a technical challenge to help universities rationalize their means and realize in best their missions *a strategic challenge by the pooling of tools and the exchange of the good practices *an African challenge to realize an African community of higher education which transcends the language and political barriers *a political challenge through its network of partners and experts. The activities of the Institute in 2009–2010 are articulate around three types of actions: *the effective launch of the Institute *the knowledge of the mechanisms of university governance through two inquiries *initiatives of training, information and promotion. The Institute works in partnership with stakeholders and international institutions to accompany initiatives and realize actions which can contribute to the improvement of the functioning of higher education and more widely education in Africa. This is a will to work for the emergence of Africa of tomorrow. In Somalia, a seeming war ravage Country most of the structures including the education sector were appalling destroyed. However, private investors, opinion leaders with the help of a few intellectuals from far and near have established policies on which their institutions are run. A case in point is the University of Somalia. Among many policies herewith I release the Financial policies; Policy on Financial Management Policy Statement It is the responsibility of every officer of University of Somalia to ensure maximum transparency and integrity of the University’s financial transactions and systems. 1. Accountability and Management Subject to accountability requirements specified in the relevant legislation, Council as the governing body of University of Somalia is responsible for the management and control of the finances of the University (UNISO - FINANCE COMMITTEE 2013). This includes responsibility for the adoption and review of a budget for the University. Although the UNISO - FINANCE COMMITTEE permits Council to delegate certain of its powers and authorities, Council may not delegate its duties in relation to the annual adoption of a budget and the approval of the spending of funds available to the University by way of bequest, donation or special grant. In accordance with its statutory requirements, the University • prepares annual financial statements following the close of each financial year, certified by the Chairman of Council, the University Secretary and the University Chief Finance Officer submits annual financial statements to the Auditor-General prepares and maintains a Financial Management Practice and Procedures Manual of policy and procedures for the University's accounting and internal controls prepares and submits to the appropriate Minister in charge of Higher Education within four months of the close of the financial year an annual report which includes a copy of the audited annual financial statements. Council Finance Committee is the University's senior financial and resource planning body. The Committee is empowered, on Council's behalf, to approve revisions to budgets and formulate policy on investment management. Finance Committee assists and advises Council on financial and resource planning for the University and receives advice in turn from the University Secretary, regarding the educational profile, strategic plans, resource allocation, and performance. Finance Committee also receives advice on the asset management plan, the implementation and administration of the financial operations of University of Somaliaincluding investment of funds, payroll, accounts and purchasing, and public accountability requirements. Audit and Risk Management Committee of Council assists and advises Council on risk management and audit related matters, including the performance or discharge of functions and duties under the Financial Accountability policy 2013, the Financial and Performance Management Standard 2009 and the University's Risk Management Services Charter. The Finance Department prepares the University Consolidated Annual Budget, September Budget Report, and Budget Reviews for 30 December and 30 March. In addition to this, the Department also prepares the Financial Outcomes Report, and the Annual Financial Statements for the year ended 30 June each year. 2. Legislative environment The financial management of the University is governed by enabling legislation - the Universities and Other Tertiary Institutions (UNISO - FINANCE COMMITTEE) policy 2013 the Financial Accountability policy 2013 the Financial Accountability policy 2013 the University of Somalia Schools policy 2013 The accounting concepts and standards used by University of Somalia are in accordance with the Government of Somalia Financial Reporting Standards The University's annual financial statements and internal controls framework are audited by the Auditor-General in accordance with the Auditor-General of Somalia and Financial and Performance Management Standard 2009. Members of the University community are responsible for assisting with the satisfactory conduct of the audit as necessary and for complying with the legislative requirements. 3. Funding allocation and distribution University of Somalia is funded from a variety of sources including the following: Government funding through sponsorship of students Student fees (Appropriation In Aid) substantial support for specific research projects with grant funds channeled through other agencies, for example, the Somalia international NGOs for science and Technology agencies. Such agencies award grants to the University for use by individual members of staff or a research team for a project approved by the granting agency grants for development projects or other purposes investments on university lands proceeds from commercial units. Internally, funds are distributed on a monthly basis across the University based on the Consolidated Budget. The Annual Budget development is tied closely to the University's planning process and is approved by Council before the end of the year prior to its implementation. All University funds are consolidated in one basket and re-distributed according to a zero budget framework. 4. Financial functions, powers and authorities of the University University of Somalia is a body corporate, has a seal, and may sue and be sued in its corporate name. Under the UNISO - FINANCE COMMITTEE, the University may enter into contracts acquire, hold, dispose of, and deal with property appoint agents and attorneys engage consultants fix charges, and other terms, for services and other facilities it supplies Establish or administer trust funds. In addition to its main teaching, research and service functions, the University is also empowered to exploit commercially any of its facilities or resources for the benefit of the University. 5. Responsible officers The Vice-Chancellor, as chief executive officer, is responsible to Council for all aspects of the institution's management, including its financial affairs. The Vice-Chancellor is assisted in this duty by the following direct reports: the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Finance and Administration) - for administrative aspects the University Secretary – for financial control and accountability the University Chief Finance Officer - for planning, resource allocation and financial management. The University General Secretary is responsible for ensuring that the accountability obligations of University of Somalia are met. Heads of individual responsibility centres are responsible for the efficient and effective management of all funds under their control and are bound by the policies and practices set down by University of Somalia in line with its financial obligations. Detailed financial responsibilities, delegations and signing authorities are outlined in the Financial Management and Procedures Manual.(UNISO policies as developed by Mr. Buyera Saidi: MBA facilitator and Consultant) == View and missions of the Panafrican Institute of university governance== The philosophy of this Institute expands dialogue and shared experience between African university leaders on issues related to university governance. Methods will step out from the classical models of cooperation in which the “expertise“of the North are transmitted to “ addressee” and “consignee ” of the South, leading to the principals and attitudes of copy-write. African Universities can only develop if they succeed in inventing their own policies and procedures, all by taking into consideration international standards. To assist universities in the accomplishment of their missions in an efficient and modern way, the Panafrican Institute of university governance shall make use of the relationship it has with partners such as the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF) and the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU). The AUF-ACU partnership : It consists of two joined visions. Rounding on common objectives and shared missions, Anglophones, Francophones, Lusophones and Arabic-speakers will better enrich discussions on how to develop higher educational system. This illustrates the importance taken by cultural diversity in the World today, being an essential basis for development inside more harmonized globalization which takes into account each person’s identity and values. Therefore, our approach is that of the exchange of experience and good practices likely to be widespread within the framework of our institutions that most frequently lack real communication. About governance : Two approaches shall enable us to tackle the problems of higher education institutions’ governance in Africa. The first one is current. It consists of rationalizing, valorizing and modernizing both the university foundations and their various systems of functioning. It supposes to put on better the whole university structure : better management, transparency in the decision-making and the participation of all actors in the decision-making. The second approach of governance fundamentally questions the efficiency of the systems of functioning of universities, too much centered on the hierarchical authority of the State, and on that of the university and academic administration, whether it is to define the financing, programs, the qualifications and even the courses of training. The governance of higher education will succeed only if it allows creating a common space of meeting between the actors : political, socioeconomic, students, teaching and civil society. [http://www.ipagu.org Web site : www.ipagu.org] ===The case of South Africa=== [[South Africa]] faces issues related to the governance of their tertiary system of higher education that correlate with international trends. Hall and Symes (2005) discuss the state of South African higher education in the first decade of the country’s [[constitutional democracy]] at a time when the country has faced not only democratic transition but also the end of Apartheid racial segregation. With the South African transition to democracy in 1994, the national government and institutions of postsecondary learning envisioned the [[cooperative]] governance of higher education. For a developing country that faced “massive social exclusion” for the better part of a century – only to be challenged in 1970s and 1980s – Hall and Symes (2005: 205-206) note traditional models for governance in higher education, European and North American models of institutional autonomy are not entirely applicable to the South African context. The authors discuss the need for government “steering,” an idea originally envisioned in South Africa with the democratic transition, based upon a cooperative framework as a “conditional autonomy.” The goals and objectives for cooperative governance were thus established with the National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE) in 1994, detailed in its 1996 report. The South African National Commission on Higher Education was meant to serve as a “[[Buffer solution|buffer]] mechanism” between government and institutions to establish a [[system]] by which “autonomous higher education institutions would work in a range of partnerships with government and other stakeholders,” from the involvement of state supervision and consultation (Hall & Symes 2005: 200, 204, 210). Within the initial years of the democratic transition and the end of the [[Apartheid]], Hall and Symes (2005) note that the national government assumed a much stronger [[regulatory]] and [[bureaucratic]] control of South African postsecondary institutions than what had been originally expected. From the appointments to the National Commission on Higher Education, the 1997 Higher Education Act, and the 2001 National Plan for Higher Education, the national government has assumed direct command of [[curriculum]], funding and regulation over institutions with “weak or non-existent traditions of academic freedom” (Hall and Symes 2005: 201-202). Where the 1997 Higher Education Act and [[minister (government)|ministerial]] appointments provided the framework by which the national government could assert control over postsecondary institutions, the 2001 Education Amendment Act and [[white paper]] expressed the government’s motivations to take a strong position of power in the governance of South African higher education. Whereby, the “period from the 1997 White Paper to the 2001 National Plan for Higher Education has seen a systematic tightening of state control and the [[erosion]] of both the procedural and substantive autonomy of individual institutions” (Hall and Symes 2005: 210). Furthermore, Hall and Symes (2005: 201-202) note that while the ten universities reserved for white students during the apartheid maintained substantial autonomy, other institutions such as [[technical schools]] and “branches of the racially defined government bureaucracy,” continued to be governed by tight government intervention. The authors do not reject the need for government “steering,” and cooperative governance with the national government for the [[developing country]]. Nonetheless, where the concept of conditional [[autonomy]] remained vague with its vision in 1996, the authors suggest that given the direction the government and NCHE have taken, there need be a rethinking of the relationship between institutions and the newly established democratic government. ===European higher education=== Institutions of tertiary higher education in Europe have been under reform, following the common goals and objectives to develop new models for institutional governance. Sporn (2003: 31) for [[EDUCAUSE]] discusses the restructuring of higher education with “notions of new public management", which the author correlates to neoliberal economic models. The author directly relates these currents in the management of European [[higher education]] with the influence of U.S. models for approaching change in higher education. Changes in the [[United Kingdom]]’s system of higher education are given as examples of [[neoliberal]] economic models. Increased managerialism with economic privatization and minimizing internal governing structures are common themes in the restructuring of UK higher education, which entails the “erosion of the power of unions and professionals and the increased importance of managers and nonexecutive, nonelected directors (Sporn 2003: 32). In general, the new [[managerialism]] in Europe involves four different trends: * [[Economic efficiency|Efficiency]] in finances with stronger managerial controls and deregulation of the [[Labour (economics)|labor]] market, i.e. ''the Efficiency Drive''. * [[Downsizing]] and [[Decentralization]], breaking up large institutions into smaller peripherary units with a small centralized managerial core and a split between public and private funding. * [[Excellence]], the ''In Search For Excellence Model'', which focuses on a more [[Human resources|human resource]] approach to institutional change with a mix of top-down and bottom-up organization * [[public services|Public Service]], with the merging of both public and private managerial practices. The European countries of [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] are provided as additional examples of the new managerialism in tertiary education. Noting that the countries do differ in their approaches to institutional change from that in the United Kingdom, these examples illustrate that the changes in the governance of European higher education “can be interpreted differently in varying contexts” (Sporn 2003: 33). In both Norway and Sweden, each have emphasized restructuring based on in vogue [[international]] trends with different approaches to reform that are characterized as common to continental Europe. New organizational forms for governance and [[leadership]] with the diversification of higher education have emphasized maintaining institutional [[autonomy]], harmonizing institutional standards, and expanding higher education with goals related to the neoliberal market model of education. Stressing quality of learning and leadership within higher education, restructuring by way of the key catchphrases such as accountability, changing management in Europe also includes providing for human resource goals such as [[staff development]]. Significant among these changes is the establishment of governing and coordinating boards with [[decision-making]] structures for collaboration in external and internal governance of higher education (as done in many states within the United States). Believing that there will be either a [[wikt:convergence|convergence]] or [[divergence]] between a strong administrative managerialism and faculty involvement in governance throughout Europe, the UK and U.S., the example of the system in [[Austria]] illustrates the potential for innovative approaches that grant autonomy to institutions with restructuring through an external board. In conclusion, Sporn (2003: 41) believes the new governing structures provide stronger leadership and management, but that institutions "should pay close attention to the role of faculty and shared governance." ===Shared governance and Jesuit Catholic universities=== Since the 1819 U.S. Supreme Court case ''[[Dartmouth College v. Woodward]]'' before the [[Yale Report of 1828]] (where the former was catalyst from the later, each of which upheld the [[separation of church and state]]) private universities in the United States generally maintain remarkable autonomy from local, state, and federal government. Questions might be raised over the role of shared governance in [[private education]]. A significant topic for discussion in ''Conversations on Jesuit Higher Education'', Quinn and Moore (1992–2004) support values of shared governance in Jesuit Universities. Quinn (30-31) notes the way in which [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] colleges and universities adopted principles of shared governance throughout the 1960s. Moore (26-28) begins by noting that the concept of shared governance is often viewed as inefficient in the [[corporate]] world. The author believes that shared governance is not a cumbersome [[system]] of [[management]], but necessary given the organizational dynamics and complexities of university systems. By contrast to corporate trends, the author maintains that the corporate “one-size-fits-all” system could not effectively suit institutional needs. From which, the perspective then affirms the AAUP tradition of shared governance as a sound system of organization and management in higher education, “essential to the long term interests of colleges and universities if they wish to remain competitive and academically credible” (Moore 26-28). The way in which shared governance is realized in Catholic colleges and universities does vary from institution to institution. In [[Jesuit]] institutions, when serving the role of a board member an individual of the formal order provides guidance on the philosophy of Jesuit education while facilitating “the mutuality so essential for shared governance before the law and in reality,” (Quinn: 30-31) respecting Catholic traditions with a democratic spirit of institutional governance. ==2001 Kaplan Survey on higher education governance== Sponsored by the AAUP and the American Conference of Academic Deans, the 2001 Survey of Higher Education Governance is a study done by Gabriel Kaplan, a doctoral student at Harvard University interested in replicating research done by Committee T of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) thirty years ago. The findings of the report detail the method with summary of the present state of shared governance. The findings include the state of the locus of authority and reforms as well as the analysis of the challenges facing Liberal Arts Colleges with the pressures of the current economic climate (Kaplan 2001). The preliminary results contain the raw data on the landscape of governance in higher education from a population of 1303 4-year institutions in the United States, with data compiled from both administrative structures and the faculty. The survey did not include participation from any population of students.<ref>http://www.aaup.org/NR/rdonlyres/449D4003-EB51-4B8D-9829-0427751FEFE4/0/01Results.pdf</ref> [[Image:Mizzou MemorialUnion.jpg|thumb|210px|right|Tower of Memorial Union at [[University of Missouri]]]] ==See also== {{Portal| University }} * [[American Association of University Professors]] * [[American Federation of Teachers]] * [[Comparative education]] * [[Educational leadership]] * [[Higher education]] * [[International education]] * [[National Education Association]] * [[Students' union]] * [[University organizations (annotated list)]] ==Further reading== * Birnbaum, R. 1991. ''How Colleges Work''. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. * Butts, R.F. 1955. ''A Cultural History of Western Education; its social and intellectual foundations''. New York: McGraw-Hill. * Heller, D.E., (Ed.). 2001. ''The States and Public Higher Education Policy''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. * Kaplin, W.A. & Lee, B.A. 1995. ''The Law of Higher Education: A Comprehensive Guide to Legal Implications of Administrative Decision Making'', (3rd Ed.). San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers. (For UK law, see Farrington, D.J. & Palfreyman, D. (2012) 'The Law of Higher Education' (2nd Ed.)(Oxford University Press), as updated on-line and as supported by an on-line 'HE Casebook' at the OxCHEPS website, www.oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk - also at the Resources page of that website see the reference to Shattock, M.L. (2008) 'Managing Good Governance in Higher Education' in the Open University Press 'Managing Universities and Colleges' series.) * Mingle, J.R. & Epper, R.M. 1997. "State Coordination and Planning in an Age of Entrepreneurship." In Goodchild, Lovell, Hines, & Gill, (Eds.). ''Public Policy and Higher Education'', Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing. * Rudolph, F. 1990 [1962]. ''The American College and University: A History''. Athens and London: The university of Georgia Press. * UNESCO. (2004). "Managerialism and Evaluation in Higher Education." UNESCO Forum Occasional Papers Series No. 7. Paris: Author. Available online [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001467/146741E.pdf]. ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * Altbach, G.P. 2005. "Patterns in Higher Education Development." In P.G. Altbach, R.O. Berdahl, and P.J. Gumport, (Eds.), ''American Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Social, Political, and Economic Challenges'', (2nd ed.). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. * [[Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges]]. 2001. "AGB Statement on Institutional Governance" and "Governing in the Public Trust: External Influences on Colleges and Universities." The Fundamentals. Board Basics. Washington, D.C.: Author. * [[Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee]]: the council of Australia's university presidents. 2003. "Chancellors and AVCC statement on university governance." Author. * [[American Association of University Professors]]. 1966. “Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities.” Retrieved September 26, 2002, [http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/issuesed/governance/default.htm] http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/issuesed/governance/default.htm * [[American Federation of Teachers]]. 2002. "Shared Governance in Colleges and Universities", Retrieved September 27, 2006, [http://www.aft.org/higher_ed/news/2002/shared_governance.htm] http://www.aft.org/higher_ed/news/2002/shared_governance.htm * Brubacher, J.S. 1982. ''On the Philosophy of Higher Education.'' San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. * Coaldrake, P., Stedman, L, and Little, P. 2003. "Issues in Australian University Governance." Brisbane: QUT. * Dearlove, J. 1997. “The academic labour process: from collegiality and professionalism to managerialism and proletarianisation?” ''Higher Education Review'', vol. 30, no. 1: 56-75. * Hall, M & Symes, A. 2005. “South African higher education in the first decade of democracy: from cooperative governance to conditional autonomy.” ''[[Studies in Higher Education]]'', Vol. 30, Issue 2, pp.&nbsp;199–212. * Kaplan, G. 2001. “Preliminary Results from the 2001 Survey on Higher Education Governance.” Sponsored by the American Association of University Professors and The [[American Conference of Academic Deans]]. * Kezar, A., Eckel, P. D. 2004. “Meeting Today’s Governance Challenges.” The Journal of Higher Education: vol. 75, no. 4: 371-398. * Lapworth, S. 2004. “Arresting Decline in Shared Governance: Towards a Flexible Model for Academic Participation.” ''[[Higher Education Quarterly]]'', Vol. 58, No. 4: 299-314. * Leadership and Governance in Higher Education. Handbook for Decision-makers and Administrators. 2011. Raabe Academic Publishers. http://www.lg-handbook.info * Middlehurst, R. 2004. “Changing Internal Governance: A Discussion of Leadership Roles and Management Structures in UK Universities.” ''Higher Education Quarterly'', Vol. 58, No. 4: 258-279. * McMaster, M. 2007. "Partnerships between Administrative and Academic Managers: How Deans and Faculty Managers Work Together. Association of Tertiary Education Management, Retrieved May 10, 2007, http://www.atem.org.au/downloads/doc/018_mcmaster.doc * Moore, R., Jr. 1992-2004?. "In Shared Governance, What Role for the AAUP?" ''Conversations on Jesuit Higher Education'', 28:26. [http://www.marquette.edu/library/collections/archives/Conversations/index3.html] * National Education Association. 1987. "NEA Policy Statements: Faculty Governance in Higher Education." Retrieved September 26, 2006, [http://www2.nea.org/he/policy6.html] http://www2.nea.org/he/policy6.html * National Education Association. 1989. "NEA Policy Statements: Statement on Community College Governance." Retrieved September 26, 2006, [http://www2.nea.org/he/policy-cc.html] http://www2.nea.org/he/policy-cc.html * Quinn, K.P., S.J. 1992-2004?. "Shared Governance: The Elusive Role of Jesuit as Trustee." ''Conversations on Jesuit Higher Education'', 28:30. [http://www.marquette.edu/library/collections/archives/Conversations/index3.html] * Sporn, B. 2003. "Convergence of Divergence in International Higher Education Policy: Lessons from Europe." ''Publications from the Forum for the Future of Higher Education'', Retrieved February 2007, [http://www.educause.edu/content.asp?page_id=666&ID=FFPFP0305&bhcp=1] http://www.educause.edu/content.asp?page_id=666&ID=FFPFP0305&bhcp=1 ==External links== * [http://www.vta.vic.edu.au/?Name=VTA_Services_excellencemain Excellence in Governance] Victorian TAFE Association * [http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/issuesed/governance/gov-resources.htm Resources on Governance], AAUP [[Category:Educational administration]] [[Category:Academia]] [[Category:Education policy]] [[Category:Educational research]] [[Category:Higher education]] [[Category:University governance]]'