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{{redirect|History of Germany since 1945|events after reunification|History of Germany since 1990}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox bilateral relations|Inter–German|East Germany|West Germany|filetype=svg|map=Inter–German Locator.svg}}
{{History of Germany}}
[[File: Buchenwald Slave Laborers Liberation.jpg|thumb|[[Buchenwald concentration camp]] after its liberation in 1945]]
The '''history of Germany from 1945–1990''' spans the period following [[World War II]] during the Division of Germany. The [[Potsdam Agreement]] was made between the major winners of World War II ([[United States|US]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], and [[Soviet Union|USSR]]) on 1 August 1945, in which Germany was separated into spheres of influence during the Cold War between the [[Western Bloc]] and [[Eastern Bloc]].
Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, [[Saarland]] was under French control until 1957. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany;<ref name="auto">{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 549|title-link=The German War}}</ref> mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wachsmann|first=Nikolaus|title=KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps|year=2015|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=544}}</ref> survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|German-speaking refugees and expellees]] arrived in western and central Germany from the eastern provinces and other countries in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there.<ref name="auto" /><ref>''Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 1939/50.'' Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt - Wiesbaden. - Stuttgart: [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], 1958, pp. 35-36</ref><ref>Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims. ''Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees'', Bonn: 1967</ref> Some 9 million Germans were POWs,<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 551|title-link=The German War}}</ref> many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
Germany was divided during the Cold War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] in the East, with the two regions not being reunited until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:
*{{flag|FRG|name=Federal Republic of Germany}} (FRG), established on 23 May 1949, commonly known as '''West Germany''', was a parliamentary democracy with a [[social democracy|social democratic]] [[Economy of West Germany|economic system]] and free churches and labor unions.
*{{flag|GDR|name=German Democratic Republic}} (GDR), established on 7 October 1949, commonly known as '''East Germany''', was the smaller [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[socialist republic]] with its [[totalitarian]] [[Leadership of East Germany|leadership]] dominated by the Soviet-aligned [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] (SED) in order to retain it within the [[Soviet sphere of influence]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/germany-1945-1949-a-case-study-in-post-conflict-reconstruction|title=Germany 1945-1949: a case study in post-conflict reconstruction|last=Knowles|first=Chris|date=29 January 2014|website=History & Policy|publisher=History & Policy|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref>
After experiencing its [[Wirtschaftswunder]] or "economic miracle" in 1955, West Germany became the most prosperous economy in [[Europe]]{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}. Under Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]], West Germany built strong relationships with [[France]], the United Kingdom, the United States, and [[Israel]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Editors|first=History com|title=Allies end occupation of West Germany|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/allies-end-occupation-of-west-germany|access-date=2020-07-18|website=HISTORY|language=en}}</ref> West Germany also joined the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) and the [[European Economic Community]] (later to become the [[European Union]]). East Germany stagnated as its economy was largely organized to meet the needs of the Soviet Union; the secret police ([[Stasi]]) tightly controlled daily life, and the [[Berlin Wall]] (1961) ended the steady flow of refugees to the West. The country was [[German reunification|peacefully reunited on 3 October 1990]] and [[Germany]] also has become a [[great power]] again in the world since that, following the decline and [[Peaceful Revolution|fall]] of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] (SED) as the ruling party of East Germany and the fall of communist East Germany (the GDR).
==Division of Germany==
{{Main|Allied occupation of Germany}}
[[File:Map-Germany-1945.svg|thumb|right|upright|Occupation zone borders in Germany, early 1946. The territories east of the [[Oder-Neisse line]], ceded to Poland and the Soviet Union, are shown as white as is the likewise detached [[Saar Protectorate]] (France). Berlin is the multinational area within the Soviet zone.]]
===Four military occupied zones===
{{further|Office of Military Government, United States|Soviet occupation zone|Allied-occupied_Germany#British_Zone_of_Occupation|French occupation zone in Germany|label1=US occupation zone in Germany|label2=Soviet occupation zone in Germany|label3=British occupation zone in Germany}}
At the [[Potsdam Conference]] (17 July to 2 August 1945), after Germany's [[unconditional surrender]] on 8 May 1945,<ref>{{cite book | last = Beevor | first = Antony | author-link = Antony Beevor | title = Berlin: The Downfall 1945 | orig-year = 2002 | year = 2003 | publisher = Penguin Books | isbn =0-14-028696-9 | pages = 402 ff }}</ref> the Allies officially divided Germany into the [[Partitions of Germany|four]] military [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|occupation zones]] — France in the Southwest, the United Kingdom in the Northwest, the United States in the South, and the Soviet Union in the East, bounded Eastwards by the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. At [[Potsdam]], these four zones in total were denoted as 'Germany as a whole', and the four Allied Powers exercised the sovereign authority they now claimed within Germany in agreeing 'in principle' the future transfer of lands of the former [[German Reich]] east of 'Germany as a whole' to Poland and the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Uniting Germany : documents and debates, 1944-1993|date=1994|publisher=Berghahn Books|others=Jarausch, Konrad Hugo., Gransow, Volker.|isbn=9781571810113|location=Providence|pages=1|oclc=30624400}}</ref> These eastern areas were notionally placed under Polish and Soviet administration pending a [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|final peace treaty]] (which was not formalized until 1990, 45 years later); but in actuality were promptly reorganized as organic parts of their respective sovereign states.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
In addition, under the Allies' [[Berlin Declaration (1945)]], the territory of the extinguished [[German Reich]] was to be treated as the land area within its borders as of 31 December 1937. All land expansion from 1938 to 1945 was hence treated as automatically invalid. Such expansion included the League of Nations administered City-State of [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (occupied by Germany immediately following Germany's 1 September 1939 invasion of Poland), [[Austria]], [[Sudetenland|the occupied territory of Czechoslovakia]], Suwalki, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxembourg, post 27 September 1939 "West Prussia", post 27 September 1939 "Posen Province", northern Slovenia, Eupen, Malmedy, the part of Southern Silesia ultimately detached from 1918 Germany by action of the Versailles Treaty, likewise, the Hultschiner Laendchen.
=== Flight and expulsion of ethnic Germans ===
{{further|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)}}
The northern half of East Prussia in the region of [[Königsberg]] was administratively assigned by the Potsdam Agreement to the Soviet Union, pending a final Peace Conference (with the commitment of Britain and the United States to support its incorporation into Russia); and was then annexed by the Soviet Union. The [[Free City of Danzig]] and the southern half of East Prussia were incorporated into and annexed by Poland; the Allies having assured the Polish government-in-exile of their support for this after the [[Tehran Conference]] in 1943. It was also agreed at Potsdam that Poland would receive all German lands East of the [[Oder-Neisse line]], although the exact delimitation of the boundary was left to be resolved at an eventual Peace Conference. Under the wartime alliances of the United Kingdom with the Czechoslovak and Polish governments-in-exile, the British had agreed in July 1942 to support "...the General Principle of the transfer to Germany of German minorities in Central and South Eastern Europe after the war in cases where this seems necessary and desirable". In 1944 roughly 12.4 million ethnic Germans were living in territory that became part of post-war Poland and Soviet Union. Approximately 6 million fled or were evacuated before the [[Red Army]] occupied the area. Of the remainder, around 2 million died during the war or in its aftermath (1.4 million as military casualties; 600,000 as civilian deaths),<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 557|title-link=The German War}}</ref> 3.6 million were expelled by the Poles, one million declared themselves to be Poles, and 300,000 remained in Poland as Germans. The [[Sudetenland]] territories, surrendered to Germany by the [[Munich Agreement]], were returned to Czechoslovakia; these territories containing a further 3 million ethnic Germans. [[Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia|'Wild' expulsions from Czechoslovakia]] began immediately after the German surrender.
The [[Potsdam Conference]] subsequently sanctioned the "orderly and humane" transfer to Germany of individuals regarded as "ethnic Germans" by authorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. The Potsdam Agreement recognized that these expulsions were already underway and were putting a burden on authorities in the German Occupation Zones, including the re-defined Soviet Occupation Zone. Most of the Germans who were being expelled were from Czechoslovakia and Poland, which included most of the territory to the east of the Oder-Neisse Line. The Potsdam Declaration stated:
{{quote|Since the influx of a large number of Germans into Germany would increase the burden already resting on the occupying authorities, they consider that the Allied Control Council in Germany should in the first instance examine the problem with special regard to the question of the equitable distribution of these Germans among the several zones of occupation. They are accordingly instructing their respective representatives on the control council to report to their Governments as soon as possible the extent to which such persons have already entered Germany from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, and to submit an estimate of the time and rate at which further transfers could be carried out, having regard to the present situation in Germany. The Czechoslovak Government, the Polish Provisional Government and the control council in Hungary are at the same time being informed of the above and are being requested meanwhile to suspend further expulsions pending the examination by the Governments concerned of the report from their representatives on the control council.}}
Many of the ethnic Germans, who were primarily women and children, and especially those under the control of Polish and Czechoslovakian authorities, were severely mistreated before they were ultimately deported to Germany. Thousands died in forced labor camps such as [[Lambinowice]], [[Zgoda labour camp]], [[Central Labour Camp Potulice]], [[Central Labour Camp Jaworzno]], Glaz, Milecin, Gronowo, and Sikawa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=198721097755610|title=An Exploration of the Inner Landscape of Experience|access-date=27 May 2014|publisher=H-Net Reviews|year=2004|first=Amy|last=Alrich|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611032512/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=198721097755610|archive-date=11 June 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Others starved, died of disease, or froze to death while being expelled in slow and ill-equipped trains; or in transit camps.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-2003-0703-500, Rückführung deutscher Kinder aus Polen.jpg|thumb|upright|August 1948, German children deported from the eastern areas of Germany taken over by Poland arrive in West Germany.]]
Altogether, around 8 million ethnic German refugees and expellees from across Europe eventually settled in West Germany, with a further 3 million in East Germany. In West Germany these represented a major [[All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights|voting block]]; maintaining a strong culture of grievance and victimhood against Soviet Power, pressing for a continued commitment to full German reunification, claiming compensation, pursuing the right of return to lost property in the East, and opposing any recognition of the postwar extension of Poland and the Soviet Union into former German lands.<ref>{{cite book|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|last=Stragart|first=Nicholas|publisher=Bodley Head|year=2015|page=556|title-link=The German War}}</ref> Owing to the Cold War rhetoric and successful political machinations of [[Konrad Adenauer]], this block eventually became [[Federation of Expellees|substantially aligned]] with the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]]; although in practice 'westward-looking' CDU policies favouring the [[NATO|Atlantic Alliance]] and the [[European Union]] worked against the possibility of achieving the objectives of the expellee population from the east through negotiation with the Soviet Union. But for Adenauer, fostering and encouraging unrealistic demands and uncompromising expectations amongst the expellees would serve his "Policy of Strength" by which West Germany contrived to inhibit consideration of unification or a final Peace Treaty until the West was strong enough to face the Soviets on equal terms. Consequently, the Federal Republic in the 1950s adopted much of the symbolism of expellee groups; especially in appropriating and subverting the terminology and imagery of the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]]; applying this to post-war German experience instead.<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 558|title-link=The German War}}</ref> Eventually in 1990, following the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]], the unified Germany indeed confirmed in treaties with Poland and the Soviet Union that the transfer of sovereignty over the former German eastern territories in 1945 had been permanent and irreversible; Germany now undertaking never again to make territorial claims in respect of these lands.
The intended governing body of Germany was called the [[Allied Control Council]], consisting of the commanders-in-chief in Germany of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union; who exercised supreme authority in their respective zones, while supposedly acting in concert on questions affecting the whole country. In actuality however, the French consistently blocked any progress towards re-establishing all-German governing institutions; substantially in pursuit of French aspirations for a dismembered Germany, but also as a response to the exclusion of France from the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. [[Berlin]], which lay in the Soviet (eastern) sector, was also divided into four sectors with the Western sectors later becoming [[West Berlin]] and the Soviet sector becoming [[East Berlin]], capital of East Germany.
[[File:Flag of Germany (1946-1949).svg|left|thumb|Provisional Civil Ensign]]
== Elimination of war potential and reparations==
=== Denazification ===
{{Main|Denazification}}
A key item in the occupiers' agenda was [[denazification]]. The [[swastika]] and other outward symbols of the [[Nazism|Nazi]] regime were banned, and a [[Flag of Germany|Provisional Civil Ensign]] was established as a temporary German flag. It remained the official flag of the country (necessary for reasons of [[international law]]) until East Germany and West Germany (see below) were independently established in 1949.
The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union had agreed at [[Potsdam]] to a broad program of decentralization, treating Germany as a single economic unit with some central administrative departments. These plans never materialised, initially because France blocked any establishment of central administrative or political structures for Germany; and also as both the Soviet Union and France were intent on extracting as much material benefit as possible from their occupation zones in order to make good in part the enormous destruction caused by the German Wehrmacht; and the policy broke down completely in 1948 when the Russians blockaded West Berlin and the period known as the [[Cold War]] began.
It was agreed at Potsdam that the leading members of the Nazi regime who had been captured should be put on trial accused of crimes against humanity, and this was one of the few points on which the four powers were able to agree.
In order to secure the presence of the western allies in Berlin, the United States agreed to withdraw from Thuringia and Saxony in exchange for the division of Berlin into four sectors.
Future President and General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and the US War Department initially implemented a strict non-fraternization policy between the US troops and German citizens. The State Department and individual US congressmen pressured to have this policy lifted. In June 1945 the prohibition against speaking with German children was loosened. In July troops were permitted to speak to German adults in certain circumstances. In September 1945 the entire policy was dropped. Only the ban on marriage between Americans and German or Austrian civilians remained in place until 11 December 1946 and 2 January 1946 respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Perry |last=Biddiscombe |title=Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the US Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948|journal= Journal of Social History|volume= 34|number=3|year= 2001 |page= 619|doi=10.1353/jsh.2001.0002 }}</ref>
=== Industrial disarmament in western Germany ===
{{Main|Morgenthau Plan}}
The initial proposal for the post-surrender policy of the Western powers, the so-called [[Morgenthau Plan]] proposed by [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]], was one of "pastoralization".<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box31/a297a01.html| title =Suggested Post-Surrender Program for Germany| access-date =27 January 2007| first = Henry Jr|last=Morgenthau| author-link = Henry Morgenthau, Jr.| date = September 1944| work = President's Secretary's Files (PSF), German Diplomatic Files, Jan.–Sept. 1944 (i297)| publisher = Franklin D. Roosevelt Digital Archives| quote = It should be the aim of the Allied Forces to accomplish the complete demilitarization of Germany in the shortest possible period of time after its surrender. This means completely disarming the German Army and people (including the removal or destruction of all war material), the total destruction of the whole German armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries which are basic to military strength. <nowiki>[. . .]</nowiki> Within a short period, if possible not longer than 6 months after the cessation of hostilities, all industrial plants and equipment not destroyed by military action shall either be completely dismantled and removed from the <nowiki>[Ruhr]</nowiki> area or completely destroyed. All equipment shall be removed from the mines and the mines shall be thoroughly wrecked.}}</ref> The Morgenthau Plan, though subsequently ostensibly shelved due to public opposition, influenced occupation policy; most notably through the U.S. punitive occupation directive [[JCS 1067]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael R. |last=Beschloss|title=The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945|page= 233}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Vladimir|last= Petrov|title=Money and conquest; allied occupation currencies in World War II|url=https://archive.org/details/moneyconquestall0000petr|url-access=registration|location= Baltimore|publisher= Johns Hopkins Press |year=1967|pages= [https://archive.org/details/moneyconquestall0000petr/page/228 228–229]}}</ref> and [[The industrial plans for Germany]]<ref name="Frederick H 1961 pp. 517">{{cite journal|first=Frederick H. |last=Gareau |title=Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany|journal= The Western Political Quarterly|volume= 14|number= 2 |date=June 1961| pages= 517–534 |doi=10.2307/443604|jstor=443604 }}</ref>
The "Level of Industry plans for Germany" were the plans to lower German industrial potential after [[World War II]]. At the [[Potsdam conference]], with the U.S. operating under influence of the Morgenthau plan,<ref name="Frederick H 1961 pp. 517"/> the victorious Allies decided to abolish the German armed forces as well as all munitions factories and civilian industries that could support them. This included the destruction of all ship and aircraft manufacturing capability. Further, it was decided that civilian industries which might have a military potential, which in the modern era of "total war" included virtually all, were to be severely restricted. The restriction of the latter was set to Germany's "approved peacetime needs", which were defined to be set on the average European standard. In order to achieve this, each type of industry was subsequently reviewed to see how many factories Germany required under these minimum level of industry requirements.
The first plan, from 29 March 1946, stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed [[manufacturing plant]]s.<ref>{{cite book|first=Henry C. |last=Wallich|title=Mainsprings of the German Revival|url=https://archive.org/details/mainspringsofger0000wall |url-access=registration |year=1955|page= [https://archive.org/details/mainspringsofger0000wall/page/348 348]}}</ref> In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production—the maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25% of the prewar production level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,934360,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101094055/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,934360,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 November 2007|title= ECONOMICS: Cornerstone of Steel|work= [[Time Magazine]]|date= 21 January 1946|access-date=27 May 2014}}</ref> The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the U.S., France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the [[Great Depression]] (1932).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852764,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930092335/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852764,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 September 2007|title=GERMANY: Cost of Defeat|work= [[Time Magazine]]| date=8 April 1946|access-date=27 May 2014}}</ref> Car production was set to 10% of pre-war levels, etc.<ref>{{dead link|date=May 2014}}{{cite web|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=10&documentid=22&documentdate=1947-03-24&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK|title= The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report 3|first=Herbert|last=Hoover|author-link= Herbert Hoover|date=March 1947 |page= 8}}</ref>
By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered-down plans, equipment had been removed from 706 factories in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons.<ref name="Frederick H 1961 pp. 517"/>
Timber exports from the U.S. occupation zone were particularly heavy. Sources in the U.S. government stated that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests."<ref name="Balabkins_Forests">{{cite book|first=Nicholas |last=Balabkins|title=Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948|url=https://archive.org/details/germanyunderdire0000bala |url-access=registration |publisher= Rutgers University Press|year= 1964|page= [https://archive.org/details/germanyunderdire0000bala/page/119 119]}} The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to respectively: {{cite book|publisher= U.S. Office of Military Government|title=A Year of Potsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender|year= 1946|page=70}} and {{cite book|publisher=U.S. Office of Military Government|title=The German Forest Resources Survey|year=1948|page= 2}}</ref>
With the beginning of the Cold War, the Western policies changed as it became evident that a return to operation of the West German industry was needed not only for the restoration of the whole European economy but also for the rearmament of West Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union. On 6 September 1946 [[United States Secretary of State]], [[James F. Byrnes]] made the famous speech [[Restatement of Policy on Germany]], also known as the Stuttgart speech, where he amongst other things repudiated the Morgenthau plan-influenced policies and gave the West Germans hope for the future. Reports such as [[The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria]] helped to show the U.S. public how bad the situation in Germany really was.
The next improvement came in July 1947, when after lobbying by the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], and Generals [[Lucius D. Clay|Clay]] and [[George Marshall|Marshall]], the Truman administration decided that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent.<ref name="Ray Salvatore">{{dead link|date=May 2012}}{{cite web|url=http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks49.pdf |first=Ray Salvatore |last=Jennings |title=The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq |date=May 2003 |publisher=Peaceworks |number=49 |page=15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514021020/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks49.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2008 }}</ref> In July 1947, President [[Harry S. Truman]] rescinded on "national security grounds"<ref name="Ray Salvatore"/> the punitive occupation directive [[JCS 1067]], which had directed the U.S. forces in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014043427/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 October 2007|title=CONFERENCES: Pas de Pagaille!|work= [[Time Magazine]]|date=28 July 1947|access-date=28 May 2014}}</ref>
The dismantling did however continue, and in 1949 West German Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] wrote to the Allies requesting that it end, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories and also the unpopularity of the policy.<ref name="Shadow">{{cite book|first=Dennis L. |last=Bark|first2= David R. |last2=Gress|title=A History of West Germany: From Shadow to Substance|volume= 1 |publisher=Oxford Press|year=1989}}</ref>{{rp|259}} Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the [[Petersberg Agreement]] of November 1949 reduced the levels vastly, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The final limitations on German industrial levels were lifted after the establishment of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] in 1951, though arms manufacture remained prohibited.<ref name="Shadow"/>{{rp|260, 270–71}}
===Relations with France===
Germany's second largest center of mining and industry, Upper [[Silesia]], had been handed over by the Allies to Poland at the [[Potsdam conference]] and the German population was being forcibly expelled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=6584|title= French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions|date=8 September 1945|publisher=Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe|access-date=28 May 2014}}</ref> The [[International Authority for the Ruhr]] (IAR) was created as part of the agreement negotiated at the [[London Six-Power Conference|London Six-Power conference]] in June 1948 to establish the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=Amos |last=Yoder|title=The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem|journal= The Review of Politics| volume= 17|number= 3 |date=July 1955|pages= 345–358|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/s0034670500014261}}</ref> French support to internationalize the Ruhr through the IAR was abandoned in 1951 with the West German agreement to pool its coal and steel markets within [[European Coal and Steel Community]].
In the speech [[Restatement of Policy on Germany]], held in Stuttgart on 6 September 1946, the United States [[Secretary of State]] [[James F. Byrnes]] stated the U.S. motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory". The Saar came under French administration in 1947 as the [[Saar Protectorate]], but did return to Germany in January 1957 (following a referendum), with economic reintegration with Germany occurring a few years later.
In August 1954 the French parliament voted down the treaty that would have established the [[European Defense Community]], a treaty they themselves had proposed. Germany was eventually allowed to rearm under the auspices of the [[Western European Union]], and later [[NATO]].
===Dismantling in East Germany===
The Soviet Union engaged in a massive industrial dismantling campaign in its occupation zone, much more intensive than that carried out by the Western powers. While the Soviet powers soon realized that their actions alienated the German workforce from the Communist cause, they decided that the desperate economic situation within the Soviet Union took priority over alliance building. The allied leaders had agreed on paper to economic and political cooperation but the issue of reparations dealt an early blow to the prospect of a united Germany in 1945. The figure of $20 Billion had been floated by Stalin as an adequate recompense but as the United States refused to consider this a basis for negotiation The Soviet Union was left only with the opportunity of extracting its own reparations, at a heavy cost to the East Germans. This was the beginning of the formal split of Germany.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
===Marshall plan and currency reform===
{{Main|Marshall Plan|Deutsche Mark}}
With the Western Allies eventually becoming concerned about the deteriorating economic situation in their "[[Trizone]]", the American [[Marshall Plan]] of economic aid was extended to Western Germany in 1948 and a currency reform, which had been prohibited under the previous occupation directive JCS 1067, introduced the [[Deutsche Mark]] and halted rampant inflation. Though the Marshall Plan is regarded as playing a key psychological role in the West German recovery, other factors were also significant.<ref>{{dead link|date=May 2012}}{{cite web
|url=http://www.germany.info/relaunch/culture/history/marshall.html
|title=Marshall Plan 1947–1997 A German View
|access-date=3 May 2007
|last=Stern
|first=Susan
|year=2001, 2007
|work=Germany Info
|publisher=German Embassy's Department for Press, Information and Public Affairs, Washington D.C
|quote=There is another reason for the Plan's continued vitality. It has transcended reality and become a myth. To this day, a truly astonishing number of Germans (and almost all advanced high school students) have an idea what the Marshall Plan was, although their idea is very often very inaccurate. [. . .] Many Germans believe that the Marshall Plan was alone responsible for the economic miracle of the Fifties. And when scholars come along and explain that reality was far more complex, they are skeptical and disappointed. They should not be. For the Marshall Plan certainly did play a key role in Germany's recovery, albeit perhaps more of a psychological than a purely economic one.
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709055340/http://www.germany.info/relaunch/culture/history/marshall.html
|archive-date=9 July 2006
}}</ref>
The Soviets had not agreed to the [[currency]] reform; in March 1948 they withdrew from the four-power governing bodies, and in June 1948 they initiated the [[Berlin blockade]], blocking all ground transport routes between [[West Germany|Western Germany]] and [[West Berlin]]. The Western Allies replied with a continuous [[Berlin Airlift|airlift]] of supplies to the western half of the city. The Soviets ended the blockade after 11 months.
===Reparations to the U.S.===
{{Further|German reparations for World War II}}
The Allies confiscated [[intellectual property]] of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies.<ref>{{cite web|first=C. Lester |last=Walker |url=http://www.scientistsandfriends.com/files/secrets.doc|title=Secrets by the Thousands|work= [[Harper's Magazine]]|date=October 1946|access-date=28 May 2014}}</ref> Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "''Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany''", that the "intellectual reparations" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Norman M. |last=Naimark |title=The Russians in Germany| page= 206}}</ref><ref>Note: The $10 billion compares to the U.S. annual GDP of $258 billion in 1948. It also compares to the total Marshall plan expenditure (1948–1952) of $13 billion, of which Germany received $1,4 billion (partly as loans).</ref> During the more than two years that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Germany could take place, as any results would have been automatically available to overseas competitors who were encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all records and facilities. Meanwhile, thousands of the best German scientists were being put to work in the U.S. (see also [[Operation Paperclip]])
===Nutritional levels===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H28811, Tagesration eines Normalverbrauchers.jpg|thumb|The average daily food ration in the UK occupation zone (1948)]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R94419, Hungerwinter, zusammengebrochener Mann.jpg|thumb|Collapsed employee of the labor office during the hunger-winter, December 1948.]]
During the war, Germans seized food supplies from occupied countries and forced millions of foreigners to work on German farms, in addition to food shipped from farms in eastern Germany. When this ended in 1945, the German rationing system (which stayed in place) had much lower supplies of food.<ref name="Bessel">{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Bessel| author-link = Richard Bessel |title=Germany 1945: From War to Peace|url=https://archive.org/details/germany194500rich |url-access=registration |year=2009}}</ref>{{rp|342–54}} The U.S. Army sent in large shipments of food to feed some 7.7 million prisoners of war—far more than they had expected<ref name="Bessel"/>{{rp|200}}—as well as the general population.<ref>{{cite book|first=William I. |last=Hitchcock |title=The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe|year= 2008| pages= 205–7}}</ref> For several years following the surrender, German nutritional levels were low. The Germans were not high on the priority list for international aid, which went to the victims of the Nazis.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers">{{cite book|editor-first=Steven Bela |editor-last=Vardy|editor2-first= T. Hunt |editor2-last=Tooley|title=Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe| isbn= 0-88033-995-0|section= The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War II|first=Richard Dominic |last=Wiggers |year=2003}}</ref>{{rp|281}} It was directed that all relief went to non-German [[displaced person]]s, liberated Allied [[POW]]s, and [[concentration camp]] inmates.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|281–82}} During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and UK occupation zones received 1200 kilocalories a day in official rations, not counting food they grew themselves or purchased on the large-scale [[black market]].<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|280}} In early October 1945 the UK government privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|280}} The German [[Red Cross]] was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|281–82}} The few agencies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous Caritasverband, were not allowed to use imported supplies. When the [[Holy See|Vatican]] attempted to transmit food supplies from Chile to German infants, the U.S. [[State Department]] forbade it.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|281}} The German food situation became worse during the very cold winter of 1946–1947 when German calorie intake ranged from 1,000–1,500 kilocalories per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for heating.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|244}}
===Forced labour reparations===
{{See also|Forced labor of Germans after World War II}}
As agreed by the Allies at the [[Yalta conference]] Germans were used as [[forced labor]] as part of the reparations to be extracted. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents.<ref>{{cite journal|first=S. P.|last=MacKenzie|title=The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II|journal= The Journal of Modern History|volume= 66|number= 3|date=September 1994|pages= 487–520|doi=10.1086/244883}}</ref> In Norway the last available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.vg.no/pub/vgart.hbs?artid=166207| title=Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere |language=no|trans-title=German soldiers used for mine-clearing
| access-date = 2 June 2007 | last = Tjersland | first = Jonas
| date = 8 April 2006 | publisher = VG Nett}}</ref>
=== Mass rape ===
{{Main article|Rape during the occupation of Germany}}[[Norman Naimark]] writes in ''The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949'' that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the [[Red Army]] in the months preceding and years following the capitulation will never be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 victims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in "Befreier und Befreite". Many of these victims were raped repeatedly. Naimark states that not only had each victim to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted a massive [[collective trauma]] on the East German nation (the [[German Democratic Republic]]). Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until—one could argue—the present."<ref>{{cite book|first=Norman M. |last=Naimark|title=The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1995|isbn= 0-674-78405-7 |pages= 132, 133}}</ref> Some of the victims had been raped as many as 60 to 70 times{{Dubious|date=January 2020}}.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780385497992&view=excerpt|first= William I. |last=Hitchcock |title=The Struggle for Europe The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945 to the Present|isbn= 978-0-385-49799-2 |year= 2004 }}</ref> According to German historian [[Miriam Gebhardt]], as many as 190,000 women were raped by [[Allied-occupied Germany|U.S. soldiers in Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Were Americans As Bad as the Soviets? |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/book-claims-us-soldiers-raped-190-000-german-women-post-wwii-a-1021298.html |work=Der Spiegel |date=2 March 2015}}</ref>
===German states===
{{Main|West Germany|East Germany|Saar Protectorate|l1 = Federal Republic of Germany|l2 = German Democratic Republic}}
On 16 February 1946, the [[Saar Protectorate]] had been established under French control, in the area corresponding to the current German state of [[Saarland]]. It was not allowed to join its fellow German neighbors until a plebiscite in 1955 rejected the proposed autonomy. This paved the way for the accession of the Saarland to the Federal Republic of Germany as its 12th state, which went into effect on 1 January 1957.
On 23 May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, ''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'') was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with [[Bonn]] as its "provisional" capital. It comprised the area of 11 newly formed states (replacing the pre-war states), with present-day [[Baden-Württemberg]] being split into three states until 1952). The Federal Republic was declared to have "the full authority of a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] state" on 5 May 1955.
On 7 October 1949 the German Democratic Republic (GDR, ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR)''), with East Berlin as its capital, was established in the Soviet Zone.
The 1952 [[Stalin Note]] proposed [[German reunification]] and [[superpower]] [[Disengagement (Cold War)|disengagement]] from [[Central Europe]] but Britain, France, and the United States rejected the offer as insincere. Also, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer preferred "Westintegration", rejecting "experiments".
In English, the two larger states were known informally as "West Germany" and "East Germany" respectively. In both cases, the former occupying troops remained permanently stationed there. The former German capital, Berlin, was a special case, being divided into East Berlin and [[West Berlin]], with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory. Though the German inhabitants of West Berlin were citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, West Berlin was not legally incorporated into West Germany; it remained under the formal occupation of the western allies until 1990, although most day-to-day administration was conducted by an elected West Berlin government.
West Germany was allied with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. A western democratic country with a "[[social market economy]]", the country would from the 1950s onwards come to enjoy prolonged economic growth ([[Wirtschaftswunder]]) following the [[Marshall Plan]] help from the Allies, the currency reform of June 1948 and helped by the fact that the [[Korean War]] (1950–53) led to a worldwide increased demand for goods, where the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products.
East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the [[Soviet Union]].
==Country comparison==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!width="400"|'''[[East Germany]]'''<br>German Democratic Republic ({{smaller|''Deutsche Demokratische Republik''}})
!width="400"|'''[[West Germany]]'''<br>Federal Republic of Germany ({{smaller|''Bundesrepublik Deutschland''}})
|-
| '''Flag & Coat of arms'''
| style="text-align:center" | {{Flagicon|German Democratic Republic|size=135px}} [[File:State arms of German Democratic Republic.svg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center" | {{Flagicon|West Germany|size=135px}} [[File:Coat of arms of Germany.svg|90px]]
|-
| '''Population in 1990'''
| 16,111,000
| 63,254,000
|-
| '''[[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]'''
| 108,333 km<sup>2</sup> (41,828 sq mi)
| 248,577 km<sup>2</sup> (95,976 sq mi)
|-
| '''Government'''
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[one-party state|one-party]] totalitarian socialist republic
| [[Federalism|Federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] constitutional republic
|-
| '''Capital'''
|rowspan="2"| [[File:Flag of East Berlin (1956–1990).svg|25px]] [[East Berlin]] – 1,279,212
|rowspan="2"| {{flag|Bonn}} – 276,653
{{flag|Hamburg}} - 1,652,363
|-
| '''Largest City'''
|-
| '''Official language'''
| [[German language|German]]
| [[German language|German]]
|-
|'''First Leader'''
| [[Walter Ulbricht]]<br>''[[Leadership of East Germany|First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany]]''<br>(1950-1971)
| [[Konrad Adenauer]]<br>''[[Chancellor of Germany]]''<br>(1949–1963)
|-
| '''Last Leader'''
| [[Leadership of East Germany|Prime Minister]] [[Lothar de Maizière]] (1990)
| [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Helmut Kohl]] (1982–1990)
|-
| '''Main religions'''
| 70.0% [[Irreligion in Germany|Irreligion]]<br> 25.0% [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]<br> 10.6% [[Catholic Church in Germany|Roman Catholic]]
| 42.9% [[Catholic Church in Germany|Roman Catholic]]<br> 41.6% [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]<br>14.1% [[Irreligion in Germany|Irreligion]], [[Islam]], other [[Christians|Christian]], and other religions
|-
| '''GDP'''
| $82 billion<br> $5,100 per capita
| $1.182 trillion<br> $18,690 per capita
|-
| '''Currency'''
| [[East German Mark]] (M) – DDM
| [[Deutsche Mark]] (DM) – DEM
|}
==West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany)==
{{See also|West Germany}}
[[File:Adenauer 1956.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Konrad Adenauer]]]]
The Western Allies turned over increasing authority to West German officials and moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government by creating a central Economic Council for their zones. The program later provided for a West German [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]], an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and the political and economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. On 23 May 1949, the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|''Grundgesetz'']] (Basic Law), the [[constitution]] of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated. Following elections in August, the first federal government was formed on 20 September 1949, by [[Konrad Adenauer]] ([[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]). Adenauer's government was a coalition of the CDU, the CSU and the Free Democrats. The next day, the [[occupation statute]] came into force, granting powers of self-government with certain exceptions.
In 1949 the new ''provisional'' capital of the Federal Republic of Germany was established in Bonn, after Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] intervened emphatically for Bonn (which was only fifteen kilometers away from his hometown). Most of the members of the German [[constitutional assembly]] (as well as the U.S. Supreme Command) had favored [[Frankfurt am Main]] where the Hessian administration had already started the construction of an assembly hall. The [[Parlamentarischer Rat]] (interim parliament) proposed a new location for the capital, as Berlin was then a special administrative region controlled directly by the allies and surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation. The former [[Reichstag building]] in Berlin was occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the [[Bundesversammlung (Germany)|Bundesversammlung]], the body which elects the German Federal President. However, the Soviets disrupted the use of the Reichstag building by flying very noisy supersonic jets near the building. A number of cities were proposed to host the federal government, and [[Kassel]] (among others) was eliminated in the first round. Other politicians opposed the choice of [[Frankfurt]] out of concern that, as one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], it would be accepted as a "permanent" capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for [[German reunification|reunification]] and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2004-0092, Andernach, Adenauer besucht Bundeswehr.jpg|thumb|Konrad Adenauer, [[Adolf Heusinger]] and [[Hans Speidel]] inspect formations of the newly created Bundeswehr on 20 January 1955]]
After the [[Petersberg agreement]] West Germany quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The [[London and Paris Conferences|London and Paris agreements]] of 1954 restored most of the state's sovereignty (with some exceptions) in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO). In April 1951, West Germany joined with France, Italy and the [[Benelux]] countries in the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (forerunner of the European Union).<ref>Gerhard Bebr, "The European Coal and Steel Community: A political and legal innovation." ''Yale Law Journal'' 63 (1953): 1+. [https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8236&context=ylj online]</ref>
The outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950) led to Washington calling for the rearmament of West Germany in order to defend western Europe from the Soviet threat. But the memory of German aggression led other European states to seek tight control over the West German military. Germany's partners in the Coal and Steel Community decided to establish a [[European Defence Community]] (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.
Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French had killed their own proposal. Other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, the [[Brussels Treaty]] was modified to include West Germany, and to form the [[Western European Union]] (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm, and have full sovereign control of its military; the WEU would, however, regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Fears of a return to Nazism, however, soon receded, and as a consequence, these provisions of the WEU treaty have little effect today.
[[File:1000000th Beetle.jpg|thumb|The [[Volkswagen Beetle]] was an icon of West German reconstruction.]]
Between 1949 and 1960, the West German economy grew at an unparalleled rate.<ref>David R. Henderson, "German economic miracle." in ''The concise encyclopedia of economics'' (2008) [https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/GermanEconomicMiracle.html online]. </ref> Low rates of inflation, modest wage increases and a quickly rising export quota made it possible to restore the economy and brought a modest prosperity. According to the official statistics the German gross national product grew in average by about 7% annually between 1950 and 1960.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ GNP growth 1950–1960
|-
| 1951 || 1952 || 1953 || 1954 || 1955 || 1956 || 1957 || 1958 || 1959 || 1960
|-
| + 10.5 || + 8.3 || + 7.5 || + 7.4 || +11.5 || + 6.9 || + 5.4 || +3.3 || + 6.7 || +8.8
|}
<ref name="Informationen">{{cite journal|journal=Informationen für Politische Bildung|language=de| issue= 256 |year=1997}}</ref>{{rp|36}}
The initial demand for housing, the growing demand for machine tools, chemicals, and automobiles and a rapidly increasing agricultural production were the initial triggers to this 'Wirtschaftswunder' (economic miracle) as it was known, although there was nothing miraculous about it. The era became closely linked with the name of [[Ludwig Erhard]], who led the Ministry of Economics during the decade. Unemployment at the start of the decade stood at 10.3%, but by 1960 it had dropped to 1.2%, practically speaking full employment. In fact, there was a growing demand for labor in many industries as the workforce grew by 3% per annum, the reserves of labor were virtually used up.<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|36}}
The millions of displaced persons and the refugees from the eastern provinces had all been integrated into the workforce. At the end of the decade, thousands of younger East Germans were packing their bags and migrating westwards, posing an ever-growing problem for the GDR nomenclature. With the construction of the [[Berlin wall]] in August 1961 they hoped to end the loss of labor and in doing so they posed the West German government with a new problem—how to satisfy the apparently insatiable demand for labor. The answer was to recruit unskilled workers from Southern European countries; the era of the ''Gastarbeiter'' (foreign laborers) began.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-45653-0001, Rom, Verträge über Zollpakt und Eurotom unterzeichnet.jpg|thumb|Konrad Adenauer and [[Walter Hallstein]] signing the [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957]]
In October 1961 an initial agreement was signed with the Turkish government and the first Gastarbeiter began to arrive. By 1966, some 1,300,000 foreign workers had been recruited mainly from Italy, Turkey, Spain, and Greece. By 1971, the number had reached 2.6 million workers. The initial plan was that single workers would come to Germany, would work for a limited number of years and then return home. The significant differences between wages in their home countries and in Germany led many workers to bring their families and to settle—at least until retirement—in Germany. That the German authorities took little notice of the radical changes that these shifts of population structure meant was the cause of considerable debate in later years.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}
In the 1950s Federal Republic, [[German Restitution Laws|restitution laws]] for compensation for those who had suffered under the Nazis was limited to only those who had suffered from "racial, religious or political reasons", which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation.<ref name="Illusions">{{cite journal|last=Ludtke|first= Alf |title='Coming to Terms with the Past': Illusions of Remembering, Ways of Forgetting Nazism in West Germany |journal=The Journal of Modern History|volume= 65|issue= 3 |pages= 542–572 |year= 1993 |doi=10.1086/244674}}</ref>{{rp|564}} According to the 1953 law on compensation for suffering during the National Socialist era, only those with a territorial connection with Germany could receive compensation for their suffering, which had the effect of excluding the millions of people, mostly from Central and Eastern Europe, who had been taken to Germany to work as slave labor during World War II.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565}} In the same vein, to be eligible for compensation they would have to prove that they were part of the "realm of German language and culture", a requirement that excluded most of the surviving slave laborers who did not know German or at least enough German to be considered part of the "realm of German language and culture".<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|567}} Likewise, the law excluded homosexuals, Gypsies, Communists, ''Asoziale'' ("Asocials" - people considered by the National Socialist state to be anti-social, a broad category comprising anyone from petty criminals to people who were merely eccentric and non-conformist), and homeless people for their suffering in the concentration camps under the grounds that all these people were "criminals" whom the state was protecting German society from by sending them to concentration camps, and in essence these victims of the National Socialist state got what they deserved, making them unworthy of compensation.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|564, 565}} In this regard it is significant{{According to whom|date=August 2015}} that the 1935 version of [[Paragraph 175]] was not repealed until 1969.<ref name="Burleigh, Michael page 183">{{cite book|last=Burleigh |first=Michael |last2=Wippermann|first2=Wolfgang |title=The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945|url=https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich |url-access=registration |location= Cambridge|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 1991 |page= [https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/183 183]}}</ref> As a result, German homosexuals - in many cases survivors of the concentration camps - between 1949 and 1969 continued to be convicted under the same law that had been used to convict them between 1935 and 1945, though in the period 1949–69 they were sent to prison rather than to a concentration camp.<ref name="Burleigh, Michael page 183"/>
A study done in 1953 showed that of the 42,000 people who had survived the [[Buchenwald concentration camp]], only 700 were entitled to compensation under the 1953 law.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|564}} The German historian [[Alf Lüdtke]] wrote that the decision to deny that the Roma and the Sinti had been victims of National Socialist racism and to exclude the Roma and Sinti from compensation under the grounds that they were all "criminals" reflected the same anti-Gypsy racism that made them the target of persecution and genocide during the National Socialist era.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565, 568–69}} The cause of the Roma and Sinti excited so little public interest that it was not until 1979 that a group was founded to lobby for compensation for the Roma and the Sinti survivors.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|568–569}} Communist concentration camp survivors were excluded from compensation under the grounds that in 1933 the [[Communist Party of Germany|KPD]] had been seeking "violent domination" by working for a Communist revolution, and thus the banning of the KPD and the subsequent repression of the Communists were justified.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|564}} In 1956, the law was amended to allow Communist concentration camp survivors to collect compensation provided that they had not been associated with Communist causes after 1945, but as almost all the surviving Communists belonged to the [[Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime]], which had been banned in 1951 by the Hamburg government as a Communist front organisation, the new law did not help many of the KPD survivors.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565–566}} Compensation started to be paid to most Communist survivors regardless if they had belonged to the VVN or not following a 1967 court ruling, through the same court ruling had excluded those Communists who had "actively" fought the constitutional order after the banning of the KPD again in 1956.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565–566}} Only in the 1980s were demands made mostly from members of the SPD, FDP and above all the Green parties that the Federal Republic pay compensation to the Roma, Sinti, gay, homeless and ''Asoziale'' survivors of the concentration camps.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|568}}
[[File:KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg|190px|thumb|Anti-communist propaganda posters of the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]], 1951]]
In regards to the memory of the Nazi period in the 1950s Federal Republic, there was a marked tendency to argue that everyone regardless of what side they had been on in World War II were all equally victims of the war.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|561}} In the same way, the Nazi regime tended to be portrayed in the 1950s as a small clique of criminals entirely unrepresentative of German society who were sharply demarcated from the rest of German society or as the German historian [[Alf Ludtke]] argued in popular memory that it was a case of "us" (i.e ordinary people) ruled over by "them" (i.e. the Nazis).<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|561–62}} Though the Nazi regime itself was rarely glorified in popular memory, in the 1950s World War II and the [[Wehrmacht]] were intensely gloried and celebrated by the public.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram">{{citation |last=Wette|first= Wolfram |author-link = Wolfram Wette|title=The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality|location= Cambridge|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=2006 |page= 235|title-link= The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality }}</ref>{{rp|235}} In countless memoirs, novels, histories, newspaper articles, films, magazines, and ''Landserheft'' (a type of comic book in Germany glorifying war), the Wehrmacht was celebrated as an awesome, heroic fighting force that had fought a "clean war" unlike the SS and which would have won the war as the Wehrmacht was always portrayed as superior to the Allied forces had not been for mistakes on the part of Hitler or workings of "fate".<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|235}} The Second World War was usually portrayed in heavily romantic aura in various works that celebrated the comradeship and heroism of ordinary soldiers under danger with the war itself being shown as "...a great adventure for idealists and daredevils..." who for the most part had a thoroughly fun time.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|235}} The tendency in the 1950s to glorify war by depicting World War II as a fun-filled, grand adventure for the men who served in Hitler's war machine meant the horrors and hardship of the war were often downplayed. In his 2004 essay "Celluloid Soldiers" about post-war German films, the Israeli historian [[Omer Bartov]] wrote that German films of the 1950s always showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable and patriotic, while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bartov|first= Omer |title=Celluloid Soldiers: Cinematic Images of the Wehrmacht|pages =134–135|encyclopedia= Russia War, Peace, and Diplomacy| editor-first= Ljubica |editor-last=Erickson|editor-first2= Mark |editor-last2=Erickson|location= London|publisher= Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year= 2004}}</ref> Commendations of the victims of the Nazis tended to center around honoring those involved in the [[20 July plot|July 20 ''putsch'']] attempt of 1944, which meant annual ceremonies attended by all the leading politicians at the [[Bendlerblock]] and [[Plötzensee Prison]] to honor those executed for their involvement in the 20 July ''putsch''.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|554–555}} By contrast, almost no ceremonies were held in the 1950s at the ruins of the concentration camps like [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]] or [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]], which were ignored and neglected by the ''Länder'' governments in charge of their care.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|555}} Not until 1966 did the ''Land'' of Lower Saxony opened Bergen-Belsen to the public by founding a small "house of documentation", and even then it was in response to criticism that the Lower Saxon government was intentionally neglecting the ruins of Bergen-Belsen.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|555}} Though it was usually claimed at the time that everybody in the Second World War was a victim, Ludtke commented that the disparity between the millions of Deutsche Marks spent in the 1950s in turning the Benderblock and Plötzensee prison into sites of remembrance honoring those conservatives executed after the 20 July ''putsch'' versus the neglect of the former concentration camps suggested that in both official and popular memory that some victims of the Nazis were considered more worthy of remembrance than others.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|554–555}} It was against this context where popular memory was focused on glorifying the heroic deeds of the Wehrmacht while treating the genocide by the National Socialist regime as almost a footnote that in the autumn of 1959 that the philosopher [[Theodor W. Adorno]] gave a much-publicized speech on TV that called for ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' ("coming to terms with the past").<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|550}} Adorno stated that most people were engaged in a process of "willful forgetting" about the Nazi period and used euphemistic language to avoid confronting the period such as the use of the term ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' (Crystal Night) for the pogrom of November 1938.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|550}} Adorno called for promoting a critical "consciousness" that would allow people to "come to terms with the past".<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|551}}
West German authorities made great efforts to end the [[denazification]] process that had been started by the occupying powers and to liberate [[war criminals]] from prison, including those that had been convicted at the [[Nuremberg trials]], while demarcating the sphere of legitimate political activity against blatant attempts at a political rehabilitation of the Nazi regime.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frei |first=Norbert |date=1996 |title=Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Vergangenheit |publisher=C.H.Beck |isbn=978-3-406-63661-5 }}</ref>
Until the end of occupation in 1990, the three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 45,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)
Political life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under [[Ludwig Erhard]] (1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by [[Kurt Georg Kiesinger]] (1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by coalitions of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|Christian Social Union]] (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party]] (FDP).
===The Sixties: a time for reform===
The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would place Erhard in this office. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. His aim was apparently to remain in control of German politics for another ten years despite the growing mood for change, but when his advisers informed him just how limited the powers of the president were he quickly lost interest.<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|3}} An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, [[Heinrich Lübke]] took on the task and was duly elected.
In October 1962, the weekly news magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' published an analysis of the West German military defense. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of ''Der Spiegel'' in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized under the orders of the CSU Defense Minister [[Franz Josef Strauss]]. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the ''Bundestag'' that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine, [[Rudolf Augstein]] spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of [[Franz Josef Strauss]], Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis by his heavy-handed attempt to silence ''Der Spiegel'' for essentially running a story that was unflattering to him (which incidentally was true).<ref name="Taylor, Frederick page 371">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first= Frederick |title=Exorcising Hitler|url=https://archive.org/details/exorcisinghitler0000tayl|url-access=registration|location= London|publisher= Bloomsbury Press|year= 2011 |page= [https://archive.org/details/exorcisinghitler0000tayl/page/371 371]}}</ref> The British historian [[Frederick Taylor (historian)|Frederick Taylor]] argued that the Federal Republic under Adenauer retained many of the characteristics of the authoritarian "deep state" that existed under the Weimar Republic, and that the ''Der Spiegel'' affair marked an important turning point in German values as ordinary people rejected the old authoritarian values in favor of the more democratic values that are today seen as the bedrock of the Federal Republic.<ref name="Taylor, Frederick page 371"/> Adenauer's own reputation was impaired by [[Spiegel scandal|Spiegel affair]] and he announced that he would step down in the autumn of 1963. His successor was to be the Economics Minister [[Ludwig Erhard]], who was the man widely credited as the father of the "economic miracle" of the 1950s and of whom great things were expected.<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|5}}
The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but, a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. In 1963, a German court ruled that a KGB assassin named [[Bohdan Stashynsky]] who had committed several murders in the Federal Republic in the late 1950s was not legally guilty of murder, but was only an accomplice to murder as the responsibility for Stashynsky's murders rested only with his superiors in Moscow who had given him his orders.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|245}} The legal implications of the Stashynsky case, namely that in a totalitarian system only executive decision-makers can be held legally responsible for any murders committed and that anyone else who follows orders and commits murders were just accomplices to murder was to greatly hinder the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the coming decades, and ensured that even when convicted, that Nazi criminals received the far lighter sentences reserved for accomplices to murders than the harsher sentences given to murderers.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|245}} The term executive decision-maker who could be found guilty of murder was reserved by the courts only for those at the highest levels of the ''Reich'' leadership during the Nazi period.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|245}} The only way that a Nazi criminal could be convicted of murder was to show that they were not following orders at the time and had acted on their initiative when killing someone.<ref name="Fulford">{{cite web| last = Fulford| first = Robert| author-link = Robert Fulford (journalist) | title = How the Auschwitz Trial failed | publisher = National Post
|date= 4 June 2005| url = http://www.robertfulford.com/2005-06-04-auschwitz.html| access-date = 16 June 2013}}</ref> One courageous attorney, [[Fritz Bauer]] patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz death camp and about twenty were put trial in Frankfurt between 1963-1965 in what came to be known as the [[Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials]]. The men on trial in Frankfurt were tried only for murders and other crimes that they committed on their own initiative at Auschwitz and were not tried for anything that they did at Auschwitz when following orders, which was considered by the courts to be the lesser crime of accomplice to murder.<ref name="Fulford"/> Because of this, Bauer could only indict for murder those who killed when not following orders, and those who had killed when following orders were indicted as accomplices to murder. Moreover because of the legal distinction between murderers and accomplices to murder, an SS man who killed thousands while operating the gas chambers at Auschwitz could only be found guilty of being accomplice to murder because he had been following orders, while an SS man who had beaten one inmate to death on his initiative could be convicted of murder because he had not been following orders.<ref name="Fulford"/> Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the ''Shoah'' was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term 'Holocaust' for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1943 in a New York Times piece that references "the hundreds and thousands of European Jews still surviving the Nazi holocaust". The term came into widespread use to describe the event following the TV film Holocaust in 1978) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.
In the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, the growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate petered into a recession, with no growth in 1967. The economic showdown forced Erhard's resignation in 1966 and he was replaced with [[Kurt Georg Kiesinger]] of the CDU. Kiesinger was to attract much controversy because in 1933 he had joined the National Socialist Legal Guild and [[Nazi Party|NSDAP]] (membership in the former was necessary in order to practice law, but membership in the latter was entirely voluntary).
In order to deal with the problem of the economic slowdown, a new coalition was formed. Kiesinger's 1966–69 [[grand coalition]] was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new [[German Emergency Acts|emergency acts]]—the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as [[freedom of movement]] to be limited in case of a state of emergency.
[[File:Rudi.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Rudi Dutschke]], student leader]]
During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]], the rising [[German student movement]], a group calling itself ''Notstand der Demokratie'' (Democracy in Crisis), the [[Außerparlamentarische Opposition]] and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. The late 1960s saw the rise of the [[German student movement|student movement]] and university campuses in a constant state of uproar. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967 when the Shah of Iran visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as 'Jubelperser'), armed with staves and bricks, attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the center was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named [[Benno Ohnesorg]] was shot in the head and killed by a plain-clothed policeman [[Karl-Heinz Kurras]]. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German [[Stasi]] security forces.){{citation needed|date=March 2019}} Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the [[Tabloid journalism|tabloid]] ''[[Bild-Zeitung]]'' newspaper, to be acts of terrorism. The conservative ''Bild-Zeitung'' waged a massive campaign against the protesters who were declared to be just hooligans and thugs in the pay of East Germany. The press baron [[Axel Springer]] emerged as one of the principal hate figures for the student protesters because of ''Bild-Zeitung'''s often violent attacks on them. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigor with which demonstrations were repressed, led to mounting militancy among the students at the universities of Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called [[Rudi Dutschke]] who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken.<ref name="Kraushaar">{{cite book|first=Wolfgang|last=Kraushaar|title= Frankfurter Schule und Studentenbewegung| volume= 2 |publisher=Rogner und Bernhard|language=de|trans-title=Frankfurt School and the Student Movement|year=1998 |number= 193| page= 356}}</ref> In the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of their parents' generation in the Nazi era.
[[File:Ludwig Binder Haus der Geschichte Studentenrevolte 1968 2001 03 0275.0011 (16910985309).jpg|thumb|200px|Protest against the [[Vietnam War]] in West Berlin in 1968]]
In 1968, the ''Bundestag'' passed a Misdemeanors Bill dealing with traffic misdemeanors, into which a high-ranking civil servant named Dr. Eduard Dreher who had been drafting the bill inserted a prefatory section to the bill under a very misleading heading that declared that henceforth there was a [[statute of limitations]] of 15 years from the time of the offense for the crime of being an accomplices to murder which was to apply retroactively, which made it impossible to prosecute war criminals even for being accomplices to murder since the statute of limitations as now defined for the last of the suspects had expired by 1960.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249}} The ''Bundestag'' passed the Misdemeanors Bill without bothering to read the bill in its entirety so its members missed Dreher's amendment.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249}} It was estimated in 1969 that thanks to Dreher's amendment to the Misdemeanors Bill that 90% of all Nazi war criminals now enjoyed total immunity from prosecution.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249–50}} The prosecutor Adalbert Rückerl who headed the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes told an interviewer in 1969 that this amendment had done immense harm to the ability of the Bureau to prosecute those suspected of war crimes and crimes against humanity.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249}}
The calling in question of the actions and policies of the government led to a new climate of debate by the late 1960s. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the [[Bremen (state)|Free Hanseatic City of Bremen]] provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1979, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic. In 1969, the ''Bundestag'' repealed the 1935 Nazi amendment to [[Paragraph 175]], which not only made homosexual acts a felony, but had also made any expressions of homosexuality illegal (before 1935 only gay sex had been illegal). However, Paragraph 175 which made homosexual acts illegal remained on the statute books and was not repealed until 1994, although it had been softened in 1973 by making gay sex illegal only with those under the age of 18.
[[File:RAF-Logo.svg|thumb|left|RAF symbol]]
Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims, led to growing militancy among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the 'struggle against imperialism'.<ref name="Kraushaar"/> The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalizing the industrial workers and, taking an example from activities in Italy of the Brigade Rosse, many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the 'Baader-Meinhof Group', later known as the [[Red Army Faction]], which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. The "Baader-Meinhof gang" was committed to the overthrow of the Federal Republic via terrorism in order to achieve the establishment of a Communist state. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name "RAF". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zeit.de/2011/32/Buback-Tragoedie|title= Gefangen in der Geschichte | work=ZEIT ONLINE | access-date=30 May 2014|language=de|date=8 August 2011|first= Christian|last= Denso}}</ref>
===Political developments 1969–1990===
In the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by [[Willy Brandt]]—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}} Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbors known as ''[[Ostpolitik]]'', a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries ([[Treaty of Moscow (1970)|Moscow Agreement]], August 1970, [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Warsaw Agreement]], December 1970, [[Four Power Agreement on Berlin|Four-Power Agreement]] over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an [[Basic Treaty, 1972|agreement on relations between West and East Germany]], signed in December 1972).<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|32}} These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long term, to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over East-Central Europe. During a visit to Warsaw on 7 December 1970, Brandt made the [[Warschauer Kniefall]] by kneeling before a monument to those killed in the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]], a gesture of humility and penance that no German Chancellor had made until that time. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after [[Günter Guillaume]], a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the [[Stasi]]. Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his winning the Nobel Peace Prize for 1971.
[[File:U.S. military vehicle, West Germany 1978.JPG|thumb|U.S. military convoys were still a regular sight in West Germany in the 1970s and 1980s.]]
[[File:U.S. Army tanks, West Germany 1978.JPG|thumb|U.S. Army tanks being transported by rail in 1978]]
Finance Minister [[Helmut Schmidt]] (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. [[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]], a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA".<ref>{{cite book|first=Max |last=Otte |first2=Jürgen |last2=Greve |year=2000 |title=A rising middle power?: German foreign policy in transformation, 1989–1999}}</ref> Throughout the 1970s, the Red Army Faction had continued its terrorist campaign, assassinating or kidnapping politicians, judges, businessmen, and policemen. The highpoint of the RAF violence came with the [[German Autumn]] in autumn 1977. The industrialist [[Hanns-Martin Schleyer]] was kidnapped on 5 September 1977 in order to force the government to free the imprisoned leaders of the Baader-Meinhof Gang. A group from the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] hijacked [[Lufthansa Flight 181]] to seize further hostages to free the RAF leaders. On 18 October 1977, the Lufthansa jet was stormed in [[Mogadishu]] by the [[GSG 9]] commando unit, who were able to free the hostages. The same day, the leaders of the Baader-Meinhof gang, who had been waging a hunger strike, were found dead in their prison cells with gunshot wounds, which led to Schleyer being executed by his captors. The deaths were controversially ruled suicides.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.de/20130420/49253|title=No new investigation into RAF prison deaths|date=20 April 2013|website=www.thelocal.de}}</ref> The Red Army Faction was to continue its terrorist campaign into the 1990s, but the German Autumn of 1977 was the highpoint of its campaign. That the Federal Republic had faced a crisis caused by a terrorist campaign from the radical left without succumbing to dictatorship as many feared that it would, was seen as vindication of the strength of German democracy.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
In January 1979, the American mini-series ''[[Holocaust (TV miniseries)|Holocaust]]'' aired in West Germany.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|543}} The series, which was watched by 20 million people or 50% of West Germans, first brought the matter of the genocide in World War II to widespread public attention in a way that it had never been before.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|545–6}} After each part of ''Holocaust'' was aired, there was a companion show where a panel of historians could answer questions from people phoning in.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|544–6}} The historians' panels were literally overwhelmed with thousands of phone calls from shocked and outraged Germans, a great many of whom stated that they were born after 1945 and that was the first time that they learned that their country had practiced genocide in World War II.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|545–6}} By the late 1970s, an initially small number of young people had started to demand that the ''Länder'' governments stop neglecting the sites of the concentration camps, and start turning them into proper museums and sites of remembrance, turning them into "locations of learning" meant to jar visitors into thinking critically about the Nazi period.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|556–7}}
In 1980, the CDU/CSU ran Strauss as their joint candidate in the elections, and he was crushingly{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=April 2014}} defeated by Schmidt. In October 1982, the SPD-FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU chairman [[Helmut Kohl]] as Chancellor in a [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]]. Genscher continued as Foreign Minister in the new Kohl government. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the ''Bundestag'' of the [[German Green Party|Greens]], who received 5.6% of the vote. In 1983, despite major protests from peace groups, the Kohl government allowed [[Pershing II]] missiles to be stationed in the Federal Republic to counter the deployment of the [[RSD-10 Pioneer|SS-20]] cruise missiles by the Soviet Union in East Germany. In 1985, Kohl, who had something of a tin ear when it came to dealing with the Nazi past,{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=April 2014}} caused much controversy when he invited President [[Ronald Reagan]] of the United States to visit the war cemetery at [[Bitburg]] to mark the 40th anniversary of the end of World War II. The Bitburg cemetery was soon revealed to contain the graves of SS men, which Kohl stated that he did not see as a problem and that to refuse to honor all of the dead of Bitburg including the SS men buried there was an insult to all Germans. Kohl stated that Reagan could come to the Federal Republic to hold a ceremony to honor the dead of Bitburg or not come at all, and that to change the venue of the service to another war cemetery that did not have SS men buried in it was not acceptable to him. Even more controversy was caused by Reagan's statement that all of the SS men killed fighting for Hitler in World War II were "just kids" who were just as much the victims of Hitler as those who been murdered by the SS in the Holocaust.<ref name="buchanan.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.buchanan.org/pma-99-1105-wallstjl.html |title=Pat Buchanan'S Response To Norman Podhoretz'S Op-Ed |access-date=30 May 2014 |date=5 November 1999 |work=The Wall Street Journal |publisher=Internet Archive |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008152726/http://www.buchanan.org/pma-99-1105-wallstjl.html |archive-date=8 October 2008 }}</ref> Despite the huge controversy caused by honoring the SS men buried at Bitburg, the visit to Bitburg went ahead, and Kohl and Reagan honored the dead of Bitburg. What was intended to promote German-American reconciliation turned out to be a public relations disaster that had the opposite effect. Public opinion polls showed that 72% of West Germans supported the service at Bitburg while American public opinion overwhelming disapproved of Reagan honoring the memory of the SS men who gave their lives for Hitler.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
Despite or perhaps because of the Bitburg controversy, in 1985 a campaign had been started to build a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust in Berlin.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}} It was felt by at least some Germans that there was something wrong about the Chancellor and the President of the United States honoring the memory of the SS men buried at Bitburg while there was no memorial to any of the people killed in the Holocaust. The campaign to build a Holocaust memorial, which Germany until then lacked, was given a major boost in November 1989 by the call by television journalist [[Lea Rosh]] to build the memorial at the site for the former Gestapo headquarters.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}} In April 1992, the City of Berlin finally decided that a Holocaust memorial could be built.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}} Along the same lines, in August 1987, protests put a stop to plans by the City of Frankfurt to raze the last remains of the Frankfurt Jewish Ghetto in order to redevelop the land, arguing that the remnants of the Frankfurt ghetto needed to be preserved.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}}
In January 1987, the Kohl-Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by [[Hans-Jochen Vogel]]. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%. Later in 1987, Kohl had a summit with the East German leader [[Erich Honecker]]. Unknown to Kohl, the meeting room had been bugged by the Stasi, and the Stasi tapes of the summit had Kohl saying to Honecker that he did not see any realistic chance of reunification in the foreseeable future.
==East Germany (German Democratic Republic)==
{{Main article|East Germany}}
In the Soviet occupation zone, the Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communist Party in April 1946 to form a new party, the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|Socialist Unity Party]] (''Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands'' or SED). The October 1946 elections resulted in coalition governments in the five ''Land'' (state) parliaments with the SED as the undisputed leader.
A series of people's congresses were called in 1948 and early 1949 by the SED. Under Soviet direction, a constitution was drafted on 30 May 1949, and adopted on 7 October, the day when East Germany was formally proclaimed. The People's Chamber ''([[Volkskammer]])''—the lower house of the East German parliament—and an upper house—the States Chamber ''(Länderkammer)''—were created. (The ''Länderkammer'' was abolished again in 1958.) On 11 October 1949, the two houses elected [[Wilhelm Pieck]] as President, and an SED government was set up. The Soviet Union and its East European allies immediately recognized East Germany, although it remained largely unrecognized by noncommunist countries until 1972–73. East Germany established the structures of a single-party, centralized, totalitarian communist state. On 23 July 1952, the traditional ''Länder'' were abolished and, in their place, 14 ''Bezirke'' (districts) were established. Even though other parties formally existed, effectively, all government control was in the hands of the SED, and almost all important government positions were held by SED members.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-48550-0036, Besuch Ho Chi Minhs bei Pionieren, bei Berlin.jpg|thumb|North Vietnamese leader [[Ho Chi Minh]] with East German [[Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation|Young Pioneers]], 1957]]
The [[National Front (East Germany)|National Front]] was an [[umbrella organization]] nominally consisting of the SED, four other political parties controlled and directed by the SED, and the four principal mass organizations—youth, trade unions, women, and culture. However, control was clearly and solely in the hands of the SED. Balloting in East German elections was not secret. As in other Soviet bloc countries, electoral participation was consistently high, as the following results indicate. In October 1950, a year after the formation of the GDR, 98.53% of the electorate voted. 99.72% of the votes were valid and 99.72% were cast in favor of the 'National Front'—the title of the 'coalition' of the Unity Party plus their associates in other conformist groups. In election after election, the votes cast for the Socialist Unity Party were always over 99%, and in 1963, two years after the Berlin Wall was constructed, the support for the S.E.D. was 99.95%. Only 0.05% of the electorate opposed the party according to these results, the veracity of which is disputable.<ref>{{cite book|title=Zahlenspiegel ein Vergleich Bundesrepublik Deutschland Deutsche Demokratische Republik Ministerium für Innerdeutsche Beziehungen|year= 1973|page= 7|language=de}}</ref>
===Industry and agriculture in East Germany===
With the formation of a separate East German communist state in October 1949, the Socialist Unity Party faced a huge range of problems. Not only were the cities in ruins, much of the productive machinery and equipment had been seized by the Soviet occupation force and transported to The Soviet Union in order to make some kind of reconstruction possible. While West Germany received loans and other financial assistance from the United States, the GDR was in the role of an exporter of goods to the USSR—a role that its people could ill afford but which they could not avoid.
The S.E.D.'s intention was to transform the GDR into a socialist and later into a communist state. These processes would occur step by step according to the laws of scientific 'Marxism-Leninism' and economic planning was the key to this process. In July 1952, at a conference of the S.E.D., Walter Ulbricht announced that "the democratic (sic) and economic development, and the consciousness (Bewusstsein) of the working class and the majority of the employed classes must be developed so that the construction of Socialism becomes their most important objective."<ref name="Steininger">{{cite book|author=Steininger|title= Deutsch Geschichte 1945–1961| volume= 2}}</ref>{{rp|453}} This meant that the administration, the armed forces, the planning of industry and agriculture would be under the sole authority of the S.E.D. and its planning committee. Industries would be nationalized and collectivization introduced in the farm industry. When the first Five-Year Plan was announced, the flow of refugees out of East Germany began to grow. As a consequence, production fell, food became short and protests occurred in a number of factories. On 14 May 1952, the S.E.D. ordered that the production quotas (the output per man per shift) were to be increased by 10%, but wages to be kept at the former level. This decision was not popular with the new leaders in the Kremlin. Stalin had died in March 1953 and the new leadership was still evolving. The imposition of new production quotas contradicted the new direction of Soviet policies for their satellites.<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|454}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U1109-022, Berlin, Sandmännchen.jpg|thumbnail|Gerhard Behrendt with Sandmännchen]]
On 5 June 1953, the S.E.D. announced a 'new course' in which farmers, craftsmen, and factory owners would benefit from a relaxation of controls. The new production quotas remained; the East German workers protested and up to sixty strikes occurred the following day. One of the window-dressing projects in the ruins of East Berlin was the construction of Stalin Allee, on which the most 'class-conscious' workers (in S.E.D. propaganda terms) were involved. At a meeting, strikers declared "You give the capitalists (the factory owners) presents, and we are exploited!"<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|455}} A delegation of building workers marched to the headquarters of the S.E.D. demanding that the production quotas be rescinded. The crowd grew, demands were made for the removal of Ulbricht from office and a general strike called for the following day.
On 17 June 1953 strikes and demonstrations occurred in 250 towns and cities in the GDR. Between 300,000 and 400,000 workers took part in the strikes, which were specifically directed towards the rescinding of the production quotas and were not an attempt to overthrow the government. The strikers were for the most part convinced that the transformation of the GDR into a socialist state was the proper course to take but that the S.E.D. had taken a wrong turn.<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|457}}
The S.E.D. responded with all of the force at its command and also with the help of the Soviet Occupation force. Thousands were arrested, sentenced to jail and many hundreds were forced to leave for West Germany. The S.E.D. later moderated its course but the damage had been done. The real face of the East German regime was revealed. The S.E.D. claimed that the strikes had been instigated by West German agents, but there is no evidence for this. Over 250 strikers were killed, around 100 policemen and some 18 Soviet soldiers died in the uprising;<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|459}} 17 June was declared a national day of remembrance in West Germany.
==Berlin==
Shortly after [[World War II]], Berlin became the seat of the Allied Control Council, which was to have governed Germany as a whole until the conclusion of a peace settlement. In 1948, however, the [[Soviet Union]] refused to participate any longer in the quadripartite administration of Germany. They also refused to continue the joint administration of Berlin and drove the government elected by the people of Berlin out of its seat in the Soviet sector and installed a communist regime in East Berlin. From then until unification, the Western Allies continued to exercise supreme authority—effective only in their sectors—through the [[Allied Kommandatura]]. To the degree compatible with the city's special status, however, they turned over control and management of city affairs to the [[Senate of Berlin|West Berlin Senate]] and the [[Abgeordnetenhaus von Berlin|House of Representatives]], governing bodies established by constitutional process and chosen by free elections. The Allies and German authorities in West Germany and West Berlin never recognized the communist city regime in East Berlin or East German authority there.
During the years of West Berlin's isolation—176 kilometers (110 mi.) inside East Germany—the Western Allies encouraged a close relationship between the Government of [[West Berlin]] and that of West Germany. Representatives of the city participated as non-voting members in the West German Parliament; appropriate West German agencies, such as the supreme administrative court, had their permanent seats in the city; and the governing mayor of West Berlin took his turn as President of the [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]]. In addition, the Allies carefully consulted with the West German and West Berlin Governments on foreign policy questions involving unification and the status of Berlin.
Between 1948 and 1990, major events such as fairs and festivals were sponsored in West Berlin, and investment in commerce and industry was encouraged by special concessionary tax legislation. The results of such efforts, combined with effective city administration and the West Berliners' energy and spirit, were encouraging. West Berlin's morale was sustained, and its industrial production considerably surpassed the pre-war level.
The [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|Final Settlement Treaty]] ended Berlin's special status as a separate area under Four Power control. Under the terms of the treaty between West and East Germany, Berlin became the capital of a unified Germany. The Bundestag voted in June 1991 to make Berlin the seat of government. The Government of Germany asked the Allies to maintain a military presence in Berlin until the complete withdrawal of the Western Group of Forces (ex-Soviet) from the territory of the former East Germany. The Russian withdrawal was completed 31 August 1994. Ceremonies were held on 8 September 1994, to mark the final departure of Western Allied troops from Berlin.
Government offices have been moving progressively to Berlin, and it became the formal seat of the federal government in 1999. Berlin also is one of the Federal Republic's 16 ''[[States of Germany|Länder]]''.
==Relations between East Germany and West Germany==
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2017}}
Under [[Konrad Adenauer|Chancellor Adenauer]], [[West Germany]] declared its right to speak for the entire German nation with an [[exclusive mandate]]. The [[Hallstein Doctrine]] involved non-recognition of East Germany and restricted (or often ceased) diplomatic relations with countries that gave East Germany the status of a sovereign state.
The constant stream of East Germans fleeing across the [[Inner German border]] to West Germany placed great strains on East German-West German relations in the 1950s. East Germany sealed the borders to West Germany in 1952, but people continued to flee from East Berlin to [[West Berlin]]. On 13 August 1961, East Germany began building the [[Berlin Wall]] around West Berlin to slow the flood of refugees to a trickle, effectively cutting the city in half and making West Berlin an enclave of the Western world in communist territory. The Wall became the symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe. Shortly afterward, the main border between the two German states was fortified.
The [[Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops]] of 1965 was controversial at the time, but is now seen as an important step toward improving relations between the German states and [[Poland]].
In 1969, Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]] announced that West Germany would remain firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance but would intensify efforts to improve relations with the Eastern Bloc, especially East Germany. West Germany commenced this ''[[Ostpolitik]],'' initially under fierce opposition from the conservatives, by negotiating nonaggression treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
West Germany's relations with East Germany posed particularly difficult questions. Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's ''Ostpolitik'' was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations gradually improved. In the early 1970s, the ''Ostpolitik'' led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The [[Treaty of Moscow (1970)|Treaty of Moscow]] (August 1970), the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Treaty of Warsaw]] (December 1970), the [[Four Power Agreement on Berlin]] (September 1971), the [[Transit Agreement (1972)|Transit Agreement]] (May 1972), and the [[Basic Treaty (1972)|Basic Treaty]] (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both states joining the [[United Nations]] in September 1973. The two German states exchanged [[Permanent Representative|permanent representatives]] in 1974, and, in 1987, East German head of state [[Erich Honecker]] paid an [[Erich Honecker's 1987 visit to West Germany|official visit]] to West Germany.
==The reunification of East Germany and West Germany==
{{Main article|German reunification}}
===Background===
International plans for the unification of Germany were made during the early years following the establishment of the two states, but to no avail. In March 1952, the Soviet government proposed the [[Stalin note|Stalin Note]] to hold elections for a united German assembly while making the proposed united Germany a neutral state, i.e. a neutral state approved by the people, similar to the Austrians' approval of a neutral Austria. The Western Allied governments refused this initiative, while continuing West Germany's integration into the Western alliance system. The issue was raised again during the Foreign Ministers' Conference in Berlin in January–February 1954, but the western powers refused to make Germany neutral. Following Bonn's adherence to NATO on 9 May 1955, such initiatives were abandoned by both sides.
During the summer of 1989, [[Die Wende|rapid changes]] took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to [[German reunification]]. Widespread discontent boiled over, following accusations of large scale vote-rigging during the local elections of May 1989. The beginning of the end of Eastern Germany was the [[Pan-European Picnic]] in August 1989. The event, which goes back to an idea by [[Otto von Habsburg]], caused the mass exodus of GDR citizens, the media-informed East German population felt the loss of power of their rulers, and the [[Iron Curtain]] started to break down completely. Erich Honecker explained to the Daily Mirror regarding the Paneuropean picnic and thus showed his people his own inaction: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West."<ref>Miklós Németh in Interview with Peter Bognar, Grenzöffnung 1989: „Es gab keinen Protest aus Moskau“ (German - Border opening in 1989: There was no protest from Moscow), in: Die Presse 18 August 2014.</ref><ref>„Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows“ (German - August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.</ref><ref> Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic - With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.</ref> Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via Hungary after the Hungarians decided not to use force to stop them. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations ([[Monday demonstrations in East Germany|Monday demonstrations]]) with eventually hundreds of thousands of people in several cities—particularly in [[Leipzig]]—continued to grow. On 7 October, the Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] visited Berlin to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of East Germany and urged the East German leadership to pursue reform, without success. The movement of [[civil resistance]] against the East German regime—both the emigration and the demonstrations—continued unabated.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Charles S. |last=Maier|title=Civil Resistance and Civil Society: Lessons from the Collapse of the German Democratic Republic in 1989|editor-first=Adam|editor-last=Roberts|editor-link=Adam Roberts (scholar)|editor-first2=Timothy Garton |editor-last2=Ash|editor-link2= Timothy Garton Ash|encyclopedia=Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2009|pages= 260–76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC|isbn=9780199552016}}</ref>
On 18 October, Erich Honecker was forced to resign as head of the SED and as head of state and was replaced by [[Egon Krenz]]. But the exodus continued unabated, and pressure for political reform mounted. On 4 November, a demonstration in East Berlin drew as many as 1 million East Germans. Finally, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened, and East Germans were allowed to travel freely. Thousands poured through the wall into the western sectors of Berlin, and on 12 November, East Germany began dismantling it.
On 28 November, West German Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] outlined the 10-Point Plan for the peaceful unification of the two German states, based on free elections in East Germany and a unification of their two economies. In December, the East German ''Volkskammer'' eliminated the SED monopoly on power, and the entire Politbüro and Central Committee—including Krenz—resigned. The SED changed its name to the [[Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)|Party of Democratic Socialism]] (PDS) and the formation and growth of numerous political groups and parties marked the end of the communist system. Prime Minister [[Hans Modrow]] headed a [[caretaker government]] which shared power with the new, democratically oriented parties. On 7 December 1989, an agreement was reached to hold free elections in May 1990 and rewrite the East German constitution. On 28 January, all the parties agreed to advance the elections to 18 March, primarily because of an erosion of state authority and because the East German exodus was continuing apace; more than 117,000 left in January and February 1990.
In early February 1990, the Modrow government's proposal for a unified, neutral German state was rejected by Chancellor Kohl, who affirmed that a unified Germany must be a member of NATO. Finally, on 18 March, the [[East German general election, 1990|first free elections]] were held in East Germany, and a government led by [[Lothar de Maizière]] (CDU) was formed under a policy of expeditious unification with West Germany. The freely elected representatives of the ''Volkskammer'' held their first session on 5 April, and East Germany peacefully evolved from a communist to a democratically elected government. Free and secret communal (local) elections were held in the GDR on 6 May, and the CDU again won most of the available seats. On 1 July, the two German states entered into an economic and monetary union.
===Treaty negotiations===
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2017}}
During 1990, in parallel with internal German developments, the Four Powers—the Allies of World War II, being the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union—together with the two German states negotiated to end Four Power reserved rights for Berlin and Germany as a whole. These "Two-plus-Four" negotiations were mandated at the [[Ottawa]] [[Treaty on Open Skies#History|Open Skies]] conference on 13 February 1990. The six foreign ministers met four times in the ensuing months in Bonn (5 May), Berlin (22 June), Paris (17 July), and Moscow (12 September). The Polish Foreign Minister participated in the part of the Paris meeting that dealt with the Polish-German borders.
Overcoming Soviet objections to a united Germany's membership in NATO was of key importance. This was accomplished in July when the alliance, led by President [[George H.W. Bush]], issued the London Declaration on a transformed NATO. On 16 July, President Gorbachev and Chancellor Kohl announced the agreement in principle on a united Germany in NATO. This cleared the way for the signing in Moscow, on 12 September, of the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]]—in effect the peace treaty that was anticipated at the end of World War II. In addition to terminating Four Power rights, the treaty mandated the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Germany by the end of 1994, made clear that the current borders (especially the [[Oder-Neisse line]]) were viewed as final and definitive, and specified the right of a united Germany to belong to NATO. It also provided for the continued presence of British, French, and American troops in Berlin during the interim period of the Soviet withdrawal. In the treaty, the Germans renounced nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and stated their intention to reduce the (combined) German armed forces to 370,000 within 3 to 4 years after the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]], signed in Paris on 19 November 1990, entered into force.
The conclusion of the final settlement cleared the way for the unification of East and West Germany. Formal political union occurred on 3 October 1990, preceded by the GDR declaring its accession to the Federal Republic through Article 23 of West Germany's Basic Law (meaning that constitutionally, East Germany was subsumed into West Germany); but affected in strict legality through the subsequent Unification Treaty of 30 August 1990, which was voted into their constitutions by both the West German Bundestag and the East German Volkskammer on 20 September 1990.<ref>{{citation|first=Donald P |last=Kommers|title=The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany |date=2012 |publisher=Duke University Press|pages= 309}}</ref> These votes simultaneously extinguished the GDR and affected fundamental amendments to the West German Basic Law (including the repeal of the very Article 23 under which the GDR had recently declared its post-dated accession). On 2 December 1990, [[1990 German federal election|all-German elections]] were held for the first time since 1933. The "new" country stayed the same as the West German legal system and institutions were extended to the east. The unified nation kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]] (though the simple 'Deutschland' would become increasingly common) and retained the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency as well. Berlin would formally become the capital of the united Germany, but the political institutions remained at Bonn for the time being. Only after a heated 1991 debate did the ''[[Bundestag]]'' conclude on moving itself and most of the government to Berlin as well, a process that took until 1999 to complete, when the ''Bundestag'' held its first session at the reconstructed [[Reichstag (building)|''Reichstag'' building]]. Many government departments still maintain sizable presences in Bonn as of 2008.
===Aftermath===
{{Further|New states of Germany}}
To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and [[West Germany]] (for example, in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east.
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
'''Works cited'''
* Fulbrook, Mary. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071101070814/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/German/staff/fulbrook.htm]"The Two Germanies, 1945–90" (ch. 7) and "The Federal Republic of Germany Since 1990" (ch. 8) in ''A Concise History of Germany'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004): 203–249; 249–257.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Germany Beyond The Wall: People, Politics, and Prosperity'', Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Lucius D. Clay: An American Life'', New York: Henry, Holt, & Company, 1990.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Defense of Berlin'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Papers of Lucius D. Clay'', 2 Vols., Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974.
* [[David H Childs]], Germany in the Twentieth Century, (From pre-1918 to the restoration of German unity), Batsford, Third edition, 1991. {{ISBN|0-7134-6795-9}}
* David H Childs and Jeffrey Johnson, West Germany: Politics And Society, Croom Helm, 1982. {{ISBN|0-7099-0702-8}}
* David H Childs, The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy & Soviet Communism Since 1945, Routledge, 2000.
==Further reading==
* Ahonen, Pertti. "Germany and the Aftermath of the Second World War." ''Journal of Modern History'' 89#2 (2017): 355-387.
* Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. ''A History of West Germany Vol 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963'' (1992); {{ISBN|978-0-631-16787-7}}; vol 2: ''Democracy and Its Discontents 1963–1988'' (1992) {{ISBN|978-0-631-16788-4}}
* Berghahn, Volker Rolf. ''Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century'' (1987) [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01673 ACLS E-book online]
* Bernhard, Michael. "Democratization in Germany: A Reappraisal." ''Comparative Politics'' 33#4 (2001): 379-400. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/422440 in JSTOR]
* [[Bessel, Richard]]. ''Germany 1945: From War to Peace'' (Harper Collins Publishers, 2009) {{ISBN|978-0-06-054036-4}}
* Davis, Franklin M., Jr. ''Come as Conqueror: The United States Army’s Occupation of Germany, 1945-49'' (Macmillan, 1967).
* Hanrieder, Wolfram F. ''Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy'' (1989) {{ISBN|0-300-04022-9}}
* Jarausch, Konrad H.''After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–1995'' (2008)
* Junker, Detlef, ed. ''The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War'' (2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990 [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521168643/ excerpt and text search vol 1]; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521168651/ excerpt and text search vol 2]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Lovelace | first1 = Alexander G | year = 2013 | title = Trends in the Western Historiography of the United States' Occupation of Germany | journal = International Bibliography of Military History | volume = 33 | issue = 2| pages = 148–163 | doi=10.1163/22115757-03302004}}
* Merritt, Anna J., and Richard L. Merritt. ''Public opinion in occupied Germany: the OMGUS surveys, 1945-1949'' (University of Illinois Press, 1970), OMGUS polls.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = Paul D | year = 2013 | title = A bibliographic essay on the Allied occupation and reconstruction of West Germany, 1945–1955 | journal = Small Wars & Insurgencies | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 751–759 | doi=10.1080/09592318.2013.857935}}
* Schwarz, Hans-Peter. ''Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction'' (2 vol 1995) [https://books.google.com/books?id=T4vQw1RNkQ8C excerpt and text search vol 2]; also [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11134689 full text vol 1]; and [https://www.questia.com/read/98804131 full text vol 2]
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''Lucius D. Clay: An American Life'' (1990), a major scholarly biography
* Smith, Gordon, ed, '' Developments in German Politics'' (1992) {{ISBN|0-8223-1266-2}}, broad survey of reunified nation
* Weber, Jurgen. ''Germany, 1945–1990'' (Central European University Press, 2004)
* {{cite book|author=Ziemke, Earl Frederick |title=The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany: 1944-1946|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILY6y4XOwPoC&pg=PR1|year=1975|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=9780160899188}}, the official Army history
===GDR===
* Fulbrook, Mary. ''Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949–1989'' (1998)
* Jarausch, Konrad H. and Eve Duffy. ''Dictatorship As Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR'' (1999)
* Jarausch, Konrad H., and Volker Gransow, eds. ''Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944–1993'' (1994), primary sources on reunification
* Pritchard, Gareth. ''The Making of the GDR, 1945–53'' (2004)
* Ross, Corey. ''The East German Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of the GDR'' (2002)
* Steiner, André. ''The Plans That Failed: An Economic History of East Germany, 1945–1989'' (2010)
* Windsor, Philip. "The Berlin Crises" ''History Today'' (June 1962) Vol. 6, p375-384, summarizes the series of crises 1946 to 1961; online.
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Portal|East Germany|Germany}}
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=309 Germany at the onset of the cold war]
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=4023 James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly] (The division of Germany)
* [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentid=24&documentdate=1947-02-28&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report No. 1 (1947)]
* [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentid=22&documentdate=1947-03-24&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report 3 (1947)]
* [http://www.ghi-dc.org/fileadmin/user_upload/GHI_Washington/PDFs/Occasional_Papers/The_Struggle_for_Germany.pdf The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War] by Melvyn P. Leffler
* [http://www.zeitgeschichte-online.de/ Contemporary History] maintained by the ''Institute for Contemporary Historical Research in Potsdam'' {{in lang|de}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060901074949/http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box32/t298x01.html Special German series 2. The Committee on Dismemberment of Germany] Allied discussions on the dismemberment of Germany into separate states, 29 March 1945.
* [http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/send-pdf.cgi/Stark%20John%20Robert.pdf?acc_num=osu1045174197 The overlooked majority: German women in the four zones of occupied Germany, 1945–1949, a comparative study]{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928004721/http://www.ostberlin.de/en/ East Berlin, Past and Present]
* [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/History.GerRecon Germany Under Reconstruction] is a digital collection that provides a varied selection of publications in both English and German from the period immediately following World War II. Many are publications of the U.S. occupying forces, including reports and descriptions of efforts to introduce U.S.-style democracy to Germany. Some of the other books and documents describe conditions in a country devastated by years of war, efforts at political, economic and cultural development, and the differing perspectives coming from the U.S. and British zones and the Russian zone of occupation.
* For representation of the German Partition in literature, one can consult the [[Raiganj University]] - [[Professor]] [[Pinaki Roy]]'s "''Das Bewusstsein für die Wand'': A Very Brief Review of German Partition Literature", in ''[[The Atlantic Critical Review Quarterly]]'' (ISSN 0972-6373; {{ISBN|978-81-269-1747-1}}) 11 (2), April–June 2012: 157–68. In his "''Patriots in Fremden Landern'': 1939-45 German Émigré Literature", collected in ''Writing Difference: Nationalism, Identity, and Literature'', edited by G.N. Ray, J. Sarkar, and A. Bhattacharyya, and published by the [[New Delhi]]-based [[Atlantic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.]] in 2014 ({{ISBN|978-81-269-1938-3}}; pages-367-90), Roy examines the attitudes and ideologies of those anti-[[Nazi]] [[Germany|German]] litterateurs who were forced to relocate due to their opposition to [[National Socialism]] and hence suffered from a sort of identity-crisis.
* [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/eadrbc.rb013001 Post-World War II Posters from Germany, 1945-1947] From the Collections at the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://en.geschichte-abitur.de/east-west-german-division/chronology Chronology of the East-West-German division]
{{Germany topics}}
{{Foreign relations of East Germany}}
{{Cold War}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Germany (1945-1990)}}
[[Category:Cold War history of Germany| ]]
[[Category:Contemporary German history| ]]
[[Category:20th century in Germany by period]]
[[Category:Aftermath of World War II in Germany| ]]
[[Category:Partition (politics)]]
[[Category:East Germany| ]]
[[Category:West Germany| ]]
[[Category:1940s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1950s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1960s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1970s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1980s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1990s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:History of Germany by period|1945]]
[[Category:East Germany–West Germany relations| ]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '⊈{{short description|Aspect of history of the division of Germany}}
÷÷÷{{redirect|History of Germany since 1945|events after reunification|History of Germany since 1991}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox bilateral relations|Inter–German|East Germany|West Germany|filetype=svg|map=Inter–German Locator.svg}}
{{History of Germany}}
[[File: Buchenwald Slave Waberors Liberation.jpg|thumb|[[Buchenwald concentration camp]] after its liberation in 1945]]
The '''history of Germany from 1945–1990''' spans the period following [[World War II]] during the Division of Germany. The [[Potsdam Agreement]] was made between the major winners of World War II ([[United States|US]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], and [[Soviet Union|USSR]]) on 1 August 1945, in which Germany was separated into spheres of influence during the Cold War between the [[Western Bloc]] and [[Eastern Bloc]].
Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, [[Saarland]] was under French control until 1957. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany;<ref name="auto">{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 549|title-link=The German War}}</ref> mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wachsmann|first=Nikolaus|title=KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps|year=2015|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=544}}</ref> survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1851)|German-speaking refugees and expel lees]] arrived in western and central Germany from the eastern provinces and other countries in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there.<ref name="auto" /><ref>''Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 2001 a space odyseey/50.'' Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt - Wiesbaden. - Stuttgart: [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], 1958, pp. 35-36</ref><ref>Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims. ''Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees'', Bonn: 1967</ref> Some 9 million Germans were POWs,<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 551|title-link=The German War}}</ref> many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
Germany was notdivided during the Great War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the [(Soviet Union)] in the East, with the two regions not being reunited until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:
*{{flag|FRG|name=Federal Republic of Germany}} (FRG), established on 23 May 1949, commonly known as '''West Germany''', was a parliamentary democracy with a [[social democracy|social democratic]] [[Economy of West Germany|economic system]] and free churches and labor unions.
*{{flag|GDR|name=German Democratic Republic}} (GDR), established on 7 October 1949, commonly known as '''East Germany''', was the smaller [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[socialist republic]] with its [[totalitarian]] [[Leadership of East Germany|leadership]] dominated by the Soviet-aligned [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] (SED) in order to retain it within the [[Soviet sphere of influence]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/germany-1945-1949-a-case-study-in-post-conflict-reconstruction|title=Germany 1945-1949: a case study in post-conflict reconstruction|last=Knowles|first=Chris|date=29 January 2014|website=History & Policy|publisher=History & Policy|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref>
After experiencing its [[Wirtschaftswunder]] or "economic miracle" in 1955, West Germany became the most prosperous economy in [[Europe]]{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}. Under Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]], West Germany built strong relationships with [[France]], the United Kingdom, the United States, and [[Israel]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Editors|first=History com|title=Allies end occupation of West Germany|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/allies-end-occupation-of-west-germany|access-date=2020-07-18|website=HISTORY|language=en}}</ref> West Germany also joined the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) and the [[European Economic Community]] (later to become the [[European Union]]). East Germany stagnated as its economy was largely organized to meet the needs of the Soviet Union; the secret police ([[Stasi]]) tightly controlled daily life, and the [[Berlin Wall]] (1961) ended the steady flow of refugees to the West. The country was [[German reunification|peacefully reunited on 3 October 1990]] and [[Germany]] also has become a [[great power]] again in the world since that, following the decline and [[Peaceful Revolution|fall]] of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] (SED) as the ruling party of East Germany and the fall of communist East Germany (the GDR).
==Division of Germany==
{{Main|Allied occupation of Germany}}
[[File:Map-Germany-1945.svg|thumb|right|upright|Occupation zone borders in Germany, early 1946. The territories east of the [[Oder-Neisse line]], ceded to Poland and the Soviet Union, are shown as white as is the likewise detached [[Saar Protectorate]] (France). Berlin is the multinational area within the Soviet zone.]]
===Four military occupied zones===
{{further|Office of Military Government, United States|Soviet occupation zone|Allied-occupied_Germany#British_Zone_of_Occupation|French occupation zone in Germany|label1=US occupation zone in Germany|label2=Soviet occupation zone in Germany|label3=British occupation zone in Germany}}
At the [[Potsdam Conference]] (17 July to 2 August 1945), after Germany's [[unconditional surrender]] on 8 May 1945,<ref>{{cite book | last = Beevor | first = Antony | author-link = Antony Beevor | title = Berlin: The Downfall 1945 | orig-year = 2002 | year = 2003 | publisher = Penguin Books | isbn =0-14-028696-9 | pages = 402 ff }}</ref> the Allies officially divided Germany into the [[Partitions of Germany|four]] military [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|occupation zones]] — France in the Southwest, the United Kingdom in the Northwest, the United States in the South, and the Soviet Union in the East, bounded Eastwards by the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. At [[Potsdam]], these four zones in total were denoted as 'Germany as a whole', and the four Allied Powers exercised the sovereign authority they now claimed within Germany in agreeing 'in principle' the future transfer of lands of the former [[German Reich]] east of 'Germany as a whole' to Poland and the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Uniting Germany : documents and debates, 1944-1993|date=1994|publisher=Berghahn Books|others=Jarausch, Konrad Hugo., Gransow, Volker.|isbn=9781571810113|location=Providence|pages=1|oclc=30624400}}</ref> These eastern areas were notionally placed under Polish and Soviet administration pending a [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|final peace treaty]] (which was not formalized until 1990, 45 years later); but in actuality were promptly reorganized as organic parts of their respective sovereign states.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
In addition, under the Allies' [[Berlin Declaration (1945)]], the territory of the extinguished [[German Reich]] was to be treated as the land area within its borders as of 31 December 1937. All land expansion from 1938 to 1945 was hence treated as automatically invalid. Such expansion included the League of Nations administered City-State of [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (occupied by Germany immediately following Germany's 1 September 1939 invasion of Poland), [[Austria]], [[Sudetenland|the occupied territory of Czechoslovakia]], Suwalki, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxembourg, post 27 September 1939 "West Prussia", post 27 September 1939 "Posen Province", northern Slovenia, Eupen, Malmedy, the part of Southern Silesia ultimately detached from 1918 Germany by action of the Versailles Treaty, likewise, the Hultschiner Laendchen.
=== Flight and expulsion of ethnic Germans ===
{{further|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)}}
The northern half of East Prussia in the region of [[Königsberg]] was administratively assigned by the Potsdam Agreement to the Soviet Union, pending a final Peace Conference (with the commitment of Britain and the United States to support its incorporation into Russia); and was then annexed by the Soviet Union. The [[Free City of Danzig]] and the southern half of East Prussia were incorporated into and annexed by Poland; the Allies having assured the Polish government-in-exile of their support for this after the [[Tehran Conference]] in 1943. It was also agreed at Potsdam that Poland would receive all German lands East of the [[Oder-Neisse line]], although the exact delimitation of the boundary was left to be resolved at an eventual Peace Conference. Under the wartime alliances of the United Kingdom with the Czechoslovak and Polish governments-in-exile, the British had agreed in July 1942 to support "...the General Principle of the transfer to Germany of German minorities in Central and South Eastern Europe after the war in cases where this seems necessary and desirable". In 1944 roughly 12.4 million ethnic Germans were living in territory that became part of post-war Poland and Soviet Union. Approximately 6 million fled or were evacuated before the [[Red Army]] occupied the area. Of the remainder, around 2 million died during the war or in its aftermath (1.4 million as military casualties; 600,000 as civilian deaths),<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 557|title-link=The German War}}</ref> 3.6 million were expelled by the Poles, one million declared themselves to be Poles, and 300,000 remained in Poland as Germans. The [[Sudetenland]] territories, surrendered to Germany by the [[Munich Agreement]], were returned to Czechoslovakia; these territories containing a further 3 million ethnic Germans. [[Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia|'Wild' expulsions from Czechoslovakia]] began immediately after the German surrender.
The [[Potsdam Conference]] subsequently sanctioned the "orderly and humane" transfer to Germany of individuals regarded as "ethnic Germans" by authorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. The Potsdam Agreement recognized that these expulsions were already underway and were putting a burden on authorities in the German Occupation Zones, including the re-defined Soviet Occupation Zone. Most of the Germans who were being expelled were from Czechoslovakia and Poland, which included most of the territory to the east of the Oder-Neisse Line. The Potsdam Declaration stated:
{{quote|Since the influx of a large number of Germans into Germany would increase the burden already resting on the occupying authorities, they consider that the Allied Control Council in Germany should in the first instance examine the problem with special regard to the question of the equitable distribution of these Germans among the several zones of occupation. They are accordingly instructing their respective representatives on the control council to report to their Governments as soon as possible the extent to which such persons have already entered Germany from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, and to submit an estimate of the time and rate at which further transfers could be carried out, having regard to the present situation in Germany. The Czechoslovak Government, the Polish Provisional Government and the control council in Hungary are at the same time being informed of the above and are being requested meanwhile to suspend further expulsions pending the examination by the Governments concerned of the report from their representatives on the control council.}}
Many of the ethnic Germans, who were primarily women and children, and especially those under the control of Polish and Czechoslovakian authorities, were severely mistreated before they were ultimately deported to Germany. Thousands died in forced labor camps such as [[Lambinowice]], [[Zgoda labour camp]], [[Central Labour Camp Potulice]], [[Central Labour Camp Jaworzno]], Glaz, Milecin, Gronowo, and Sikawa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=198721097755610|title=An Exploration of the Inner Landscape of Experience|access-date=27 May 2014|publisher=H-Net Reviews|year=2004|first=Amy|last=Alrich|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611032512/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=198721097755610|archive-date=11 June 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Others starved, died of disease, or froze to death while being expelled in slow and ill-equipped trains; or in transit camps.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-2003-0703-500, Rückführung deutscher Kinder aus Polen.jpg|thumb|upright|August 1948, German children deported from the eastern areas of Germany taken over by Poland arrive in West Germany.]]
Altogether, around 8 million ethnic German refugees and expellees from across Europe eventually settled in West Germany, with a further 3 million in East Germany. In West Germany these represented a major [[All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights|voting block]]; maintaining a strong culture of grievance and victimhood against Soviet Power, pressing for a continued commitment to full German reunification, claiming compensation, pursuing the right of return to lost property in the East, and opposing any recognition of the postwar extension of Poland and the Soviet Union into former German lands.<ref>{{cite book|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|last=Stragart|first=Nicholas|publisher=Bodley Head|year=2015|page=556|title-link=The German War}}</ref> Owing to the Cold War rhetoric and successful political machinations of [[Konrad Adenauer]], this block eventually became [[Federation of Expellees|substantially aligned]] with the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]]; although in practice 'westward-looking' CDU policies favouring the [[NATO|Atlantic Alliance]] and the [[European Union]] worked against the possibility of achieving the objectives of the expellee population from the east through negotiation with the Soviet Union. But for Adenauer, fostering and encouraging unrealistic demands and uncompromising expectations amongst the expellees would serve his "Policy of Strength" by which West Germany contrived to inhibit consideration of unification or a final Peace Treaty until the West was strong enough to face the Soviets on equal terms. Consequently, the Federal Republic in the 1950s adopted much of the symbolism of expellee groups; especially in appropriating and subverting the terminology and imagery of the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]]; applying this to post-war German experience instead.<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 558|title-link=The German War}}</ref> Eventually in 1990, following the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]], the unified Germany indeed confirmed in treaties with Poland and the Soviet Union that the transfer of sovereignty over the former German eastern territories in 1945 had been permanent and irreversible; Germany now undertaking never again to make territorial claims in respect of these lands.
The intended governing body of Germany was called the [[Allied Control Council]], consisting of the commanders-in-chief in Germany of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union; who exercised supreme authority in their respective zones, while supposedly acting in concert on questions affecting the whole country. In actuality however, the French consistently blocked any progress towards re-establishing all-German governing institutions; substantially in pursuit of French aspirations for a dismembered Germany, but also as a response to the exclusion of France from the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. [[Berlin]], which lay in the Soviet (eastern) sector, was also divided into four sectors with the Western sectors later becoming [[West Berlin]] and the Soviet sector becoming [[East Berlin]], capital of East Germany.
[[File:Flag of Germany (1946-1949).svg|left|thumb|Provisional Civil Ensign]]
== Elimination of war potential and reparations==
=== Denazification ===
{{Main|Denazification}}
A key item in the occupiers' agenda was [[denazification]]. The [[swastika]] and other outward symbols of the [[Nazism|Nazi]] regime were banned, and a [[Flag of Germany|Provisional Civil Ensign]] was established as a temporary German flag. It remained the official flag of the country (necessary for reasons of [[international law]]) until East Germany and West Germany (see below) were independently established in 1949.
The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union had agreed at [[Potsdam]] to a broad program of decentralization, treating Germany as a single economic unit with some central administrative departments. These plans never materialised, initially because France blocked any establishment of central administrative or political structures for Germany; and also as both the Soviet Union and France were intent on extracting as much material benefit as possible from their occupation zones in order to make good in part the enormous destruction caused by the German Wehrmacht; and the policy broke down completely in 1948 when the Russians blockaded West Berlin and the period known as the [[Cold War]] began.
It was agreed at Potsdam that the leading members of the Nazi regime who had been captured should be put on trial accused of crimes against humanity, and this was one of the few points on which the four powers were able to agree.
In order to secure the presence of the western allies in Berlin, the United States agreed to withdraw from Thuringia and Saxony in exchange for the division of Berlin into four sectors.
Future President and General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and the US War Department initially implemented a strict non-fraternization policy between the US troops and German citizens. The State Department and individual US congressmen pressured to have this policy lifted. In June 1945 the prohibition against speaking with German children was loosened. In July troops were permitted to speak to German adults in certain circumstances. In September 1945 the entire policy was dropped. Only the ban on marriage between Americans and German or Austrian civilians remained in place until 11 December 1946 and 2 January 1946 respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Perry |last=Biddiscombe |title=Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the US Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948|journal= Journal of Social History|volume= 34|number=3|year= 2001 |page= 619|doi=10.1353/jsh.2001.0002 }}</ref>
=== Industrial disarmament in western Germany ===
{{Main|Morgenthau Plan}}
The initial proposal for the post-surrender policy of the Western powers, the so-called [[Morgenthau Plan]] proposed by [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]], was one of "pastoralization".<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box31/a297a01.html| title =Suggested Post-Surrender Program for Germany| access-date =27 January 2007| first = Henry Jr|last=Morgenthau| author-link = Henry Morgenthau, Jr.| date = September 1944| work = President's Secretary's Files (PSF), German Diplomatic Files, Jan.–Sept. 1944 (i297)| publisher = Franklin D. Roosevelt Digital Archives| quote = It should be the aim of the Allied Forces to accomplish the complete demilitarization of Germany in the shortest possible period of time after its surrender. This means completely disarming the German Army and people (including the removal or destruction of all war material), the total destruction of the whole German armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries which are basic to military strength. <nowiki>[. . .]</nowiki> Within a short period, if possible not longer than 6 months after the cessation of hostilities, all industrial plants and equipment not destroyed by military action shall either be completely dismantled and removed from the <nowiki>[Ruhr]</nowiki> area or completely destroyed. All equipment shall be removed from the mines and the mines shall be thoroughly wrecked.}}</ref> The Morgenthau Plan, though subsequently ostensibly shelved due to public opposition, influenced occupation policy; most notably through the U.S. punitive occupation directive [[JCS 1067]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael R. |last=Beschloss|title=The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945|page= 233}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Vladimir|last= Petrov|title=Money and conquest; allied occupation currencies in World War II|url=https://archive.org/details/moneyconquestall0000petr|url-access=registration|location= Baltimore|publisher= Johns Hopkins Press |year=1967|pages= [https://archive.org/details/moneyconquestall0000petr/page/228 228–229]}}</ref> and [[The industrial plans for Germany]]<ref name="Frederick H 1961 pp. 517">{{cite journal|first=Frederick H. |last=Gareau |title=Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany|journal= The Western Political Quarterly|volume= 14|number= 2 |date=June 1961| pages= 517–534 |doi=10.2307/443604|jstor=443604 }}</ref>
The "Level of Industry plans for Germany" were the plans to lower German industrial potential after [[World War II]]. At the [[Potsdam conference]], with the U.S. operating under influence of the Morgenthau plan,<ref name="Frederick H 1961 pp. 517"/> the victorious Allies decided to abolish the German armed forces as well as all munitions factories and civilian industries that could support them. This included the destruction of all ship and aircraft manufacturing capability. Further, it was decided that civilian industries which might have a military potential, which in the modern era of "total war" included virtually all, were to be severely restricted. The restriction of the latter was set to Germany's "approved peacetime needs", which were defined to be set on the average European standard. In order to achieve this, each type of industry was subsequently reviewed to see how many factories Germany required under these minimum level of industry requirements.
The first plan, from 29 March 1946, stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed [[manufacturing plant]]s.<ref>{{cite book|first=Henry C. |last=Wallich|title=Mainsprings of the German Revival|url=https://archive.org/details/mainspringsofger0000wall |url-access=registration |year=1955|page= [https://archive.org/details/mainspringsofger0000wall/page/348 348]}}</ref> In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production—the maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25% of the prewar production level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,934360,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101094055/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,934360,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 November 2007|title= ECONOMICS: Cornerstone of Steel|work= [[Time Magazine]]|date= 21 January 1946|access-date=27 May 2014}}</ref> The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the U.S., France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the [[Great Depression]] (1932).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852764,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930092335/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852764,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 September 2007|title=GERMANY: Cost of Defeat|work= [[Time Magazine]]| date=8 April 1946|access-date=27 May 2014}}</ref> Car production was set to 10% of pre-war levels, etc.<ref>{{dead link|date=May 2014}}{{cite web|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=10&documentid=22&documentdate=1947-03-24&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK|title= The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report 3|first=Herbert|last=Hoover|author-link= Herbert Hoover|date=March 1947 |page= 8}}</ref>
By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered-down plans, equipment had been removed from 706 factories in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons.<ref name="Frederick H 1961 pp. 517"/>
Timber exports from the U.S. occupation zone were particularly heavy. Sources in the U.S. government stated that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests."<ref name="Balabkins_Forests">{{cite book|first=Nicholas |last=Balabkins|title=Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948|url=https://archive.org/details/germanyunderdire0000bala |url-access=registration |publisher= Rutgers University Press|year= 1964|page= [https://archive.org/details/germanyunderdire0000bala/page/119 119]}} The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to respectively: {{cite book|publisher= U.S. Office of Military Government|title=A Year of Potsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender|year= 1946|page=70}} and {{cite book|publisher=U.S. Office of Military Government|title=The German Forest Resources Survey|year=1948|page= 2}}</ref>
With the beginning of the Cold War, the Western policies changed as it became evident that a return to operation of the West German industry was needed not only for the restoration of the whole European economy but also for the rearmament of West Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union. On 6 September 1946 [[United States Secretary of State]], [[James F. Byrnes]] made the famous speech [[Restatement of Policy on Germany]], also known as the Stuttgart speech, where he amongst other things repudiated the Morgenthau plan-influenced policies and gave the West Germans hope for the future. Reports such as [[The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria]] helped to show the U.S. public how bad the situation in Germany really was.
The next improvement came in July 1947, when after lobbying by the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], and Generals [[Lucius D. Clay|Clay]] and [[George Marshall|Marshall]], the Truman administration decided that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent.<ref name="Ray Salvatore">{{dead link|date=May 2012}}{{cite web|url=http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks49.pdf |first=Ray Salvatore |last=Jennings |title=The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq |date=May 2003 |publisher=Peaceworks |number=49 |page=15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514021020/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks49.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2008 }}</ref> In July 1947, President [[Harry S. Truman]] rescinded on "national security grounds"<ref name="Ray Salvatore"/> the punitive occupation directive [[JCS 1067]], which had directed the U.S. forces in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014043427/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 October 2007|title=CONFERENCES: Pas de Pagaille!|work= [[Time Magazine]]|date=28 July 1947|access-date=28 May 2014}}</ref>
The dismantling did however continue, and in 1949 West German Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] wrote to the Allies requesting that it end, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories and also the unpopularity of the policy.<ref name="Shadow">{{cite book|first=Dennis L. |last=Bark|first2= David R. |last2=Gress|title=A History of West Germany: From Shadow to Substance|volume= 1 |publisher=Oxford Press|year=1989}}</ref>{{rp|259}} Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the [[Petersberg Agreement]] of November 1949 reduced the levels vastly, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The final limitations on German industrial levels were lifted after the establishment of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] in 1951, though arms manufacture remained prohibited.<ref name="Shadow"/>{{rp|260, 270–71}}
===Relations with France===
Germany's second largest center of mining and industry, Upper [[Silesia]], had been handed over by the Allies to Poland at the [[Potsdam conference]] and the German population was being forcibly expelled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=6584|title= French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions|date=8 September 1945|publisher=Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe|access-date=28 May 2014}}</ref> The [[International Authority for the Ruhr]] (IAR) was created as part of the agreement negotiated at the [[London Six-Power Conference|London Six-Power conference]] in June 1948 to establish the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=Amos |last=Yoder|title=The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem|journal= The Review of Politics| volume= 17|number= 3 |date=July 1955|pages= 345–358|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/s0034670500014261}}</ref> French support to internationalize the Ruhr through the IAR was abandoned in 1951 with the West German agreement to pool its coal and steel markets within [[European Coal and Steel Community]].
In the speech [[Restatement of Policy on Germany]], held in Stuttgart on 6 September 1946, the United States [[Secretary of State]] [[James F. Byrnes]] stated the U.S. motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory". The Saar came under French administration in 1947 as the [[Saar Protectorate]], but did return to Germany in January 1957 (following a referendum), with economic reintegration with Germany occurring a few years later.
In August 1954 the French parliament voted down the treaty that would have established the [[European Defense Community]], a treaty they themselves had proposed. Germany was eventually allowed to rearm under the auspices of the [[Western European Union]], and later [[NATO]].
===Dismantling in East Germany===
The Soviet Union engaged in a massive industrial dismantling campaign in its occupation zone, much more intensive than that carried out by the Western powers. While the Soviet powers soon realized that their actions alienated the German workforce from the Communist cause, they decided that the desperate economic situation within the Soviet Union took priority over alliance building. The allied leaders had agreed on paper to economic and political cooperation but the issue of reparations dealt an early blow to the prospect of a united Germany in 1945. The figure of $20 Billion had been floated by Stalin as an adequate recompense but as the United States refused to consider this a basis for negotiation The Soviet Union was left only with the opportunity of extracting its own reparations, at a heavy cost to the East Germans. This was the beginning of the formal split of Germany.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
===Marshall plan and currency reform===
{{Main|Marshall Plan|Deutsche Mark}}
With the Western Allies eventually becoming concerned about the deteriorating economic situation in their "[[Trizone]]", the American [[Marshall Plan]] of economic aid was extended to Western Germany in 1948 and a currency reform, which had been prohibited under the previous occupation directive JCS 1067, introduced the [[Deutsche Mark]] and halted rampant inflation. Though the Marshall Plan is regarded as playing a key psychological role in the West German recovery, other factors were also significant.<ref>{{dead link|date=May 2012}}{{cite web
|url=http://www.germany.info/relaunch/culture/history/marshall.html
|title=Marshall Plan 1947–1997 A German View
|access-date=3 May 2007
|last=Stern
|first=Susan
|year=2001, 2007
|work=Germany Info
|publisher=German Embassy's Department for Press, Information and Public Affairs, Washington D.C
|quote=There is another reason for the Plan's continued vitality. It has transcended reality and become a myth. To this day, a truly astonishing number of Germans (and almost all advanced high school students) have an idea what the Marshall Plan was, although their idea is very often very inaccurate. [. . .] Many Germans believe that the Marshall Plan was alone responsible for the economic miracle of the Fifties. And when scholars come along and explain that reality was far more complex, they are skeptical and disappointed. They should not be. For the Marshall Plan certainly did play a key role in Germany's recovery, albeit perhaps more of a psychological than a purely economic one.
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709055340/http://www.germany.info/relaunch/culture/history/marshall.html
|archive-date=9 July 2006
}}</ref>
The Soviets had not agreed to the [[currency]] reform; in March 1948 they withdrew from the four-power governing bodies, and in June 1948 they initiated the [[Berlin blockade]], blocking all ground transport routes between [[West Germany|Western Germany]] and [[West Berlin]]. The Western Allies replied with a continuous [[Berlin Airlift|airlift]] of supplies to the western half of the city. The Soviets ended the blockade after 11 months.
===Reparations to the U.S.===
{{Further|German reparations for World War II}}
The Allies confiscated [[intellectual property]] of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies.<ref>{{cite web|first=C. Lester |last=Walker |url=http://www.scientistsandfriends.com/files/secrets.doc|title=Secrets by the Thousands|work= [[Harper's Magazine]]|date=October 1946|access-date=28 May 2014}}</ref> Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "''Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany''", that the "intellectual reparations" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Norman M. |last=Naimark |title=The Russians in Germany| page= 206}}</ref><ref>Note: The $10 billion compares to the U.S. annual GDP of $258 billion in 1948. It also compares to the total Marshall plan expenditure (1948–1952) of $13 billion, of which Germany received $1,4 billion (partly as loans).</ref> During the more than two years that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Germany could take place, as any results would have been automatically available to overseas competitors who were encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all records and facilities. Meanwhile, thousands of the best German scientists were being put to work in the U.S. (see also [[Operation Paperclip]])
===Nutritional levels===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H28811, Tagesration eines Normalverbrauchers.jpg|thumb|The average daily food ration in the UK occupation zone (1948)]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R94419, Hungerwinter, zusammengebrochener Mann.jpg|thumb|Collapsed employee of the labor office during the hunger-winter, December 1948.]]
During the war, Germans seized food supplies from occupied countries and forced millions of foreigners to work on German farms, in addition to food shipped from farms in eastern Germany. When this ended in 1945, the German rationing system (which stayed in place) had much lower supplies of food.<ref name="Bessel">{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Bessel| author-link = Richard Bessel |title=Germany 1945: From War to Peace|url=https://archive.org/details/germany194500rich |url-access=registration |year=2009}}</ref>{{rp|342–54}} The U.S. Army sent in large shipments of food to feed some 7.7 million prisoners of war—far more than they had expected<ref name="Bessel"/>{{rp|200}}—as well as the general population.<ref>{{cite book|first=William I. |last=Hitchcock |title=The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe|year= 2008| pages= 205–7}}</ref> For several years following the surrender, German nutritional levels were low. The Germans were not high on the priority list for international aid, which went to the victims of the Nazis.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers">{{cite book|editor-first=Steven Bela |editor-last=Vardy|editor2-first= T. Hunt |editor2-last=Tooley|title=Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe| isbn= 0-88033-995-0|section= The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War II|first=Richard Dominic |last=Wiggers |year=2003}}</ref>{{rp|281}} It was directed that all relief went to non-German [[displaced person]]s, liberated Allied [[POW]]s, and [[concentration camp]] inmates.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|281–82}} During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and UK occupation zones received 1200 kilocalories a day in official rations, not counting food they grew themselves or purchased on the large-scale [[black market]].<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|280}} In early October 1945 the UK government privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|280}} The German [[Red Cross]] was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|281–82}} The few agencies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous Caritasverband, were not allowed to use imported supplies. When the [[Holy See|Vatican]] attempted to transmit food supplies from Chile to German infants, the U.S. [[State Department]] forbade it.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|281}} The German food situation became worse during the very cold winter of 1946–1947 when German calorie intake ranged from 1,000–1,500 kilocalories per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for heating.<ref name="Richard Dominic Wiggers"/>{{rp|244}}
===Forced labour reparations===
{{See also|Forced labor of Germans after World War II}}
As agreed by the Allies at the [[Yalta conference]] Germans were used as [[forced labor]] as part of the reparations to be extracted. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents.<ref>{{cite journal|first=S. P.|last=MacKenzie|title=The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II|journal= The Journal of Modern History|volume= 66|number= 3|date=September 1994|pages= 487–520|doi=10.1086/244883}}</ref> In Norway the last available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.vg.no/pub/vgart.hbs?artid=166207| title=Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere |language=no|trans-title=German soldiers used for mine-clearing
| access-date = 2 June 2007 | last = Tjersland | first = Jonas
| date = 8 April 2006 | publisher = VG Nett}}</ref>
=== Mass rape ===
{{Main article|Rape during the occupation of Germany}}[[Norman Naimark]] writes in ''The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949'' that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the [[Red Army]] in the months preceding and years following the capitulation will never be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 victims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in "Befreier und Befreite". Many of these victims were raped repeatedly. Naimark states that not only had each victim to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted a massive [[collective trauma]] on the East German nation (the [[German Democratic Republic]]). Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until—one could argue—the present."<ref>{{cite book|first=Norman M. |last=Naimark|title=The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=1995|isbn= 0-674-78405-7 |pages= 132, 133}}</ref> Some of the victims had been raped as many as 60 to 70 times{{Dubious|date=January 2020}}.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780385497992&view=excerpt|first= William I. |last=Hitchcock |title=The Struggle for Europe The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945 to the Present|isbn= 978-0-385-49799-2 |year= 2004 }}</ref> According to German historian [[Miriam Gebhardt]], as many as 190,000 women were raped by [[Allied-occupied Germany|U.S. soldiers in Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Were Americans As Bad as the Soviets? |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/book-claims-us-soldiers-raped-190-000-german-women-post-wwii-a-1021298.html |work=Der Spiegel |date=2 March 2015}}</ref>
===German states===
{{Main|West Germany|East Germany|Saar Protectorate|l1 = Federal Republic of Germany|l2 = German Democratic Republic}}
On 16 February 1946, the [[Saar Protectorate]] had been established under French control, in the area corresponding to the current German state of [[Saarland]]. It was not allowed to join its fellow German neighbors until a plebiscite in 1955 rejected the proposed autonomy. This paved the way for the accession of the Saarland to the Federal Republic of Germany as its 12th state, which went into effect on 1 January 1957.
On 23 May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, ''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'') was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with [[Bonn]] as its "provisional" capital. It comprised the area of 11 newly formed states (replacing the pre-war states), with present-day [[Baden-Württemberg]] being split into three states until 1952). The Federal Republic was declared to have "the full authority of a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] state" on 5 May 1955.
On 7 October 1949 the German Democratic Republic (GDR, ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR)''), with East Berlin as its capital, was established in the Soviet Zone.
The 1952 [[Stalin Note]] proposed [[German reunification]] and [[superpower]] [[Disengagement (Cold War)|disengagement]] from [[Central Europe]] but Britain, France, and the United States rejected the offer as insincere. Also, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer preferred "Westintegration", rejecting "experiments".
In English, the two larger states were known informally as "West Germany" and "East Germany" respectively. In both cases, the former occupying troops remained permanently stationed there. The former German capital, Berlin, was a special case, being divided into East Berlin and [[West Berlin]], with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory. Though the German inhabitants of West Berlin were citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, West Berlin was not legally incorporated into West Germany; it remained under the formal occupation of the western allies until 1990, although most day-to-day administration was conducted by an elected West Berlin government.
West Germany was allied with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. A western democratic country with a "[[social market economy]]", the country would from the 1950s onwards come to enjoy prolonged economic growth ([[Wirtschaftswunder]]) following the [[Marshall Plan]] help from the Allies, the currency reform of June 1948 and helped by the fact that the [[Korean War]] (1950–53) led to a worldwide increased demand for goods, where the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products.
East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the [[Soviet Union]].
==Country comparison==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!width="400"|'''[[East Germany]]'''<br>German Democratic Republic ({{smaller|''Deutsche Demokratische Republik''}})
!width="400"|'''[[West Germany]]'''<br>Federal Republic of Germany ({{smaller|''Bundesrepublik Deutschland''}})
|-
| '''Flag & Coat of arms'''
| style="text-align:center" | {{Flagicon|German Democratic Republic|size=135px}} [[File:State arms of German Democratic Republic.svg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center" | {{Flagicon|West Germany|size=135px}} [[File:Coat of arms of Germany.svg|90px]]
|-
| '''Population in 1990'''
| 16,111,000
| 63,254,000
|-
| '''[[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]'''
| 108,333 km<sup>2</sup> (41,828 sq mi)
| 248,577 km<sup>2</sup> (95,976 sq mi)
|-
| '''Government'''
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[one-party state|one-party]] totalitarian socialist republic
| [[Federalism|Federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] constitutional republic
|-
| '''Capital'''
|rowspan="2"| [[File:Flag of East Berlin (1956–1990).svg|25px]] [[East Berlin]] – 1,279,212
|rowspan="2"| {{flag|Bonn}} – 276,653
{{flag|Hamburg}} - 1,652,363
|-
| '''Largest City'''
|-
| '''Official language'''
| [[German language|German]]
| [[German language|German]]
|-
|'''First Leader'''
| [[Walter Ulbricht]]<br>''[[Leadership of East Germany|First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany]]''<br>(1950-1971)
| [[Konrad Adenauer]]<br>''[[Chancellor of Germany]]''<br>(1949–1963)
|-
| '''Last Leader'''
| [[Leadership of East Germany|Prime Minister]] [[Lothar de Maizière]] (1990)
| [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Helmut Kohl]] (1982–1990)
|-
| '''Main religions'''
| 70.0% [[Irreligion in Germany|Irreligion]]<br> 25.0% [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]<br> 10.6% [[Catholic Church in Germany|Roman Catholic]]
| 42.9% [[Catholic Church in Germany|Roman Catholic]]<br> 41.6% [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]<br>14.1% [[Irreligion in Germany|Irreligion]], [[Islam]], other [[Christians|Christian]], and other religions
|-
| '''GDP'''
| $82 billion<br> $5,100 per capita
| $1.182 trillion<br> $18,690 per capita
|-
| '''Currency'''
| [[East German Mark]] (M) – DDM
| [[Deutsche Mark]] (DM) – DEM
|}
==West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany)==
{{See also|West Germany}}
[[File:Adenauer 1956.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Konrad Adenauer]]]]
The Western Allies turned over increasing authority to West German officials and moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government by creating a central Economic Council for their zones. The program later provided for a West German [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]], an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and the political and economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. On 23 May 1949, the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|''Grundgesetz'']] (Basic Law), the [[constitution]] of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated. Following elections in August, the first federal government was formed on 20 September 1949, by [[Konrad Adenauer]] ([[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]). Adenauer's government was a coalition of the CDU, the CSU and the Free Democrats. The next day, the [[occupation statute]] came into force, granting powers of self-government with certain exceptions.
In 1949 the new ''provisional'' capital of the Federal Republic of Germany was established in Bonn, after Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] intervened emphatically for Bonn (which was only fifteen kilometers away from his hometown). Most of the members of the German [[constitutional assembly]] (as well as the U.S. Supreme Command) had favored [[Frankfurt am Main]] where the Hessian administration had already started the construction of an assembly hall. The [[Parlamentarischer Rat]] (interim parliament) proposed a new location for the capital, as Berlin was then a special administrative region controlled directly by the allies and surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation. The former [[Reichstag building]] in Berlin was occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the [[Bundesversammlung (Germany)|Bundesversammlung]], the body which elects the German Federal President. However, the Soviets disrupted the use of the Reichstag building by flying very noisy supersonic jets near the building. A number of cities were proposed to host the federal government, and [[Kassel]] (among others) was eliminated in the first round. Other politicians opposed the choice of [[Frankfurt]] out of concern that, as one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], it would be accepted as a "permanent" capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for [[German reunification|reunification]] and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2004-0092, Andernach, Adenauer besucht Bundeswehr.jpg|thumb|Konrad Adenauer, [[Adolf Heusinger]] and [[Hans Speidel]] inspect formations of the newly created Bundeswehr on 20 January 1955]]
After the [[Petersberg agreement]] West Germany quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The [[London and Paris Conferences|London and Paris agreements]] of 1954 restored most of the state's sovereignty (with some exceptions) in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO). In April 1951, West Germany joined with France, Italy and the [[Benelux]] countries in the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (forerunner of the European Union).<ref>Gerhard Bebr, "The European Coal and Steel Community: A political and legal innovation." ''Yale Law Journal'' 63 (1953): 1+. [https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8236&context=ylj online]</ref>
The outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950) led to Washington calling for the rearmament of West Germany in order to defend western Europe from the Soviet threat. But the memory of German aggression led other European states to seek tight control over the West German military. Germany's partners in the Coal and Steel Community decided to establish a [[European Defence Community]] (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.
Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French had killed their own proposal. Other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, the [[Brussels Treaty]] was modified to include West Germany, and to form the [[Western European Union]] (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm, and have full sovereign control of its military; the WEU would, however, regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Fears of a return to Nazism, however, soon receded, and as a consequence, these provisions of the WEU treaty have little effect today.
[[File:1000000th Beetle.jpg|thumb|The [[Volkswagen Beetle]] was an icon of West German reconstruction.]]
Between 1949 and 1960, the West German economy grew at an unparalleled rate.<ref>David R. Henderson, "German economic miracle." in ''The concise encyclopedia of economics'' (2008) [https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/GermanEconomicMiracle.html online]. </ref> Low rates of inflation, modest wage increases and a quickly rising export quota made it possible to restore the economy and brought a modest prosperity. According to the official statistics the German gross national product grew in average by about 7% annually between 1950 and 1960.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ GNP growth 1950–1960
|-
| 1951 || 1952 || 1953 || 1954 || 1955 || 1956 || 1957 || 1958 || 1959 || 1960
|-
| + 10.5 || + 8.3 || + 7.5 || + 7.4 || +11.5 || + 6.9 || + 5.4 || +3.3 || + 6.7 || +8.8
|}
<ref name="Informationen">{{cite journal|journal=Informationen für Politische Bildung|language=de| issue= 256 |year=1997}}</ref>{{rp|36}}
The initial demand for housing, the growing demand for machine tools, chemicals, and automobiles and a rapidly increasing agricultural production were the initial triggers to this 'Wirtschaftswunder' (economic miracle) as it was known, although there was nothing miraculous about it. The era became closely linked with the name of [[Ludwig Erhard]], who led the Ministry of Economics during the decade. Unemployment at the start of the decade stood at 10.3%, but by 1960 it had dropped to 1.2%, practically speaking full employment. In fact, there was a growing demand for labor in many industries as the workforce grew by 3% per annum, the reserves of labor were virtually used up.<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|36}}
The millions of displaced persons and the refugees from the eastern provinces had all been integrated into the workforce. At the end of the decade, thousands of younger East Germans were packing their bags and migrating westwards, posing an ever-growing problem for the GDR nomenclature. With the construction of the [[Berlin wall]] in August 1961 they hoped to end the loss of labor and in doing so they posed the West German government with a new problem—how to satisfy the apparently insatiable demand for labor. The answer was to recruit unskilled workers from Southern European countries; the era of the ''Gastarbeiter'' (foreign laborers) began.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-45653-0001, Rom, Verträge über Zollpakt und Eurotom unterzeichnet.jpg|thumb|Konrad Adenauer and [[Walter Hallstein]] signing the [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957]]
In October 1961 an initial agreement was signed with the Turkish government and the first Gastarbeiter began to arrive. By 1966, some 1,300,000 foreign workers had been recruited mainly from Italy, Turkey, Spain, and Greece. By 1971, the number had reached 2.6 million workers. The initial plan was that single workers would come to Germany, would work for a limited number of years and then return home. The significant differences between wages in their home countries and in Germany led many workers to bring their families and to settle—at least until retirement—in Germany. That the German authorities took little notice of the radical changes that these shifts of population structure meant was the cause of considerable debate in later years.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}
In the 1950s Federal Republic, [[German Restitution Laws|restitution laws]] for compensation for those who had suffered under the Nazis was limited to only those who had suffered from "racial, religious or political reasons", which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation.<ref name="Illusions">{{cite journal|last=Ludtke|first= Alf |title='Coming to Terms with the Past': Illusions of Remembering, Ways of Forgetting Nazism in West Germany |journal=The Journal of Modern History|volume= 65|issue= 3 |pages= 542–572 |year= 1993 |doi=10.1086/244674}}</ref>{{rp|564}} According to the 1953 law on compensation for suffering during the National Socialist era, only those with a territorial connection with Germany could receive compensation for their suffering, which had the effect of excluding the millions of people, mostly from Central and Eastern Europe, who had been taken to Germany to work as slave labor during World War II.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565}} In the same vein, to be eligible for compensation they would have to prove that they were part of the "realm of German language and culture", a requirement that excluded most of the surviving slave laborers who did not know German or at least enough German to be considered part of the "realm of German language and culture".<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|567}} Likewise, the law excluded homosexuals, Gypsies, Communists, ''Asoziale'' ("Asocials" - people considered by the National Socialist state to be anti-social, a broad category comprising anyone from petty criminals to people who were merely eccentric and non-conformist), and homeless people for their suffering in the concentration camps under the grounds that all these people were "criminals" whom the state was protecting German society from by sending them to concentration camps, and in essence these victims of the National Socialist state got what they deserved, making them unworthy of compensation.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|564, 565}} In this regard it is significant{{According to whom|date=August 2015}} that the 1935 version of [[Paragraph 175]] was not repealed until 1969.<ref name="Burleigh, Michael page 183">{{cite book|last=Burleigh |first=Michael |last2=Wippermann|first2=Wolfgang |title=The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945|url=https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich |url-access=registration |location= Cambridge|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 1991 |page= [https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/183 183]}}</ref> As a result, German homosexuals - in many cases survivors of the concentration camps - between 1949 and 1969 continued to be convicted under the same law that had been used to convict them between 1935 and 1945, though in the period 1949–69 they were sent to prison rather than to a concentration camp.<ref name="Burleigh, Michael page 183"/>
A study done in 1953 showed that of the 42,000 people who had survived the [[Buchenwald concentration camp]], only 700 were entitled to compensation under the 1953 law.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|564}} The German historian [[Alf Lüdtke]] wrote that the decision to deny that the Roma and the Sinti had been victims of National Socialist racism and to exclude the Roma and Sinti from compensation under the grounds that they were all "criminals" reflected the same anti-Gypsy racism that made them the target of persecution and genocide during the National Socialist era.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565, 568–69}} The cause of the Roma and Sinti excited so little public interest that it was not until 1979 that a group was founded to lobby for compensation for the Roma and the Sinti survivors.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|568–569}} Communist concentration camp survivors were excluded from compensation under the grounds that in 1933 the [[Communist Party of Germany|KPD]] had been seeking "violent domination" by working for a Communist revolution, and thus the banning of the KPD and the subsequent repression of the Communists were justified.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|564}} In 1956, the law was amended to allow Communist concentration camp survivors to collect compensation provided that they had not been associated with Communist causes after 1945, but as almost all the surviving Communists belonged to the [[Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime]], which had been banned in 1951 by the Hamburg government as a Communist front organisation, the new law did not help many of the KPD survivors.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565–566}} Compensation started to be paid to most Communist survivors regardless if they had belonged to the VVN or not following a 1967 court ruling, through the same court ruling had excluded those Communists who had "actively" fought the constitutional order after the banning of the KPD again in 1956.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|565–566}} Only in the 1980s were demands made mostly from members of the SPD, FDP and above all the Green parties that the Federal Republic pay compensation to the Roma, Sinti, gay, homeless and ''Asoziale'' survivors of the concentration camps.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|568}}
[[File:KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg|190px|thumb|Anti-communist propaganda posters of the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]], 1951]]
In regards to the memory of the Nazi period in the 1950s Federal Republic, there was a marked tendency to argue that everyone regardless of what side they had been on in World War II were all equally victims of the war.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|561}} In the same way, the Nazi regime tended to be portrayed in the 1950s as a small clique of criminals entirely unrepresentative of German society who were sharply demarcated from the rest of German society or as the German historian [[Alf Ludtke]] argued in popular memory that it was a case of "us" (i.e ordinary people) ruled over by "them" (i.e. the Nazis).<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|561–62}} Though the Nazi regime itself was rarely glorified in popular memory, in the 1950s World War II and the [[Wehrmacht]] were intensely gloried and celebrated by the public.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram">{{citation |last=Wette|first= Wolfram |author-link = Wolfram Wette|title=The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality|location= Cambridge|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=2006 |page= 235|title-link= The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality }}</ref>{{rp|235}} In countless memoirs, novels, histories, newspaper articles, films, magazines, and ''Landserheft'' (a type of comic book in Germany glorifying war), the Wehrmacht was celebrated as an awesome, heroic fighting force that had fought a "clean war" unlike the SS and which would have won the war as the Wehrmacht was always portrayed as superior to the Allied forces had not been for mistakes on the part of Hitler or workings of "fate".<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|235}} The Second World War was usually portrayed in heavily romantic aura in various works that celebrated the comradeship and heroism of ordinary soldiers under danger with the war itself being shown as "...a great adventure for idealists and daredevils..." who for the most part had a thoroughly fun time.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|235}} The tendency in the 1950s to glorify war by depicting World War II as a fun-filled, grand adventure for the men who served in Hitler's war machine meant the horrors and hardship of the war were often downplayed. In his 2004 essay "Celluloid Soldiers" about post-war German films, the Israeli historian [[Omer Bartov]] wrote that German films of the 1950s always showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable and patriotic, while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bartov|first= Omer |title=Celluloid Soldiers: Cinematic Images of the Wehrmacht|pages =134–135|encyclopedia= Russia War, Peace, and Diplomacy| editor-first= Ljubica |editor-last=Erickson|editor-first2= Mark |editor-last2=Erickson|location= London|publisher= Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year= 2004}}</ref> Commendations of the victims of the Nazis tended to center around honoring those involved in the [[20 July plot|July 20 ''putsch'']] attempt of 1944, which meant annual ceremonies attended by all the leading politicians at the [[Bendlerblock]] and [[Plötzensee Prison]] to honor those executed for their involvement in the 20 July ''putsch''.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|554–555}} By contrast, almost no ceremonies were held in the 1950s at the ruins of the concentration camps like [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]] or [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]], which were ignored and neglected by the ''Länder'' governments in charge of their care.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|555}} Not until 1966 did the ''Land'' of Lower Saxony opened Bergen-Belsen to the public by founding a small "house of documentation", and even then it was in response to criticism that the Lower Saxon government was intentionally neglecting the ruins of Bergen-Belsen.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|555}} Though it was usually claimed at the time that everybody in the Second World War was a victim, Ludtke commented that the disparity between the millions of Deutsche Marks spent in the 1950s in turning the Benderblock and Plötzensee prison into sites of remembrance honoring those conservatives executed after the 20 July ''putsch'' versus the neglect of the former concentration camps suggested that in both official and popular memory that some victims of the Nazis were considered more worthy of remembrance than others.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|554–555}} It was against this context where popular memory was focused on glorifying the heroic deeds of the Wehrmacht while treating the genocide by the National Socialist regime as almost a footnote that in the autumn of 1959 that the philosopher [[Theodor W. Adorno]] gave a much-publicized speech on TV that called for ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' ("coming to terms with the past").<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|550}} Adorno stated that most people were engaged in a process of "willful forgetting" about the Nazi period and used euphemistic language to avoid confronting the period such as the use of the term ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' (Crystal Night) for the pogrom of November 1938.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|550}} Adorno called for promoting a critical "consciousness" that would allow people to "come to terms with the past".<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|551}}
West German authorities made great efforts to end the [[denazification]] process that had been started by the occupying powers and to liberate [[war criminals]] from prison, including those that had been convicted at the [[Nuremberg trials]], while demarcating the sphere of legitimate political activity against blatant attempts at a political rehabilitation of the Nazi regime.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frei |first=Norbert |date=1996 |title=Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Vergangenheit |publisher=C.H.Beck |isbn=978-3-406-63661-5 }}</ref>
Until the end of occupation in 1990, the three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 45,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)
Political life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under [[Ludwig Erhard]] (1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by [[Kurt Georg Kiesinger]] (1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by coalitions of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|Christian Social Union]] (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party]] (FDP).
===The Sixties: a time for reform===
The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would place Erhard in this office. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. His aim was apparently to remain in control of German politics for another ten years despite the growing mood for change, but when his advisers informed him just how limited the powers of the president were he quickly lost interest.<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|3}} An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, [[Heinrich Lübke]] took on the task and was duly elected.
In October 1962, the weekly news magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' published an analysis of the West German military defense. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of ''Der Spiegel'' in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized under the orders of the CSU Defense Minister [[Franz Josef Strauss]]. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the ''Bundestag'' that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine, [[Rudolf Augstein]] spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of [[Franz Josef Strauss]], Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis by his heavy-handed attempt to silence ''Der Spiegel'' for essentially running a story that was unflattering to him (which incidentally was true).<ref name="Taylor, Frederick page 371">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first= Frederick |title=Exorcising Hitler|url=https://archive.org/details/exorcisinghitler0000tayl|url-access=registration|location= London|publisher= Bloomsbury Press|year= 2011 |page= [https://archive.org/details/exorcisinghitler0000tayl/page/371 371]}}</ref> The British historian [[Frederick Taylor (historian)|Frederick Taylor]] argued that the Federal Republic under Adenauer retained many of the characteristics of the authoritarian "deep state" that existed under the Weimar Republic, and that the ''Der Spiegel'' affair marked an important turning point in German values as ordinary people rejected the old authoritarian values in favor of the more democratic values that are today seen as the bedrock of the Federal Republic.<ref name="Taylor, Frederick page 371"/> Adenauer's own reputation was impaired by [[Spiegel scandal|Spiegel affair]] and he announced that he would step down in the autumn of 1963. His successor was to be the Economics Minister [[Ludwig Erhard]], who was the man widely credited as the father of the "economic miracle" of the 1950s and of whom great things were expected.<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|5}}
The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but, a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. In 1963, a German court ruled that a KGB assassin named [[Bohdan Stashynsky]] who had committed several murders in the Federal Republic in the late 1950s was not legally guilty of murder, but was only an accomplice to murder as the responsibility for Stashynsky's murders rested only with his superiors in Moscow who had given him his orders.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|245}} The legal implications of the Stashynsky case, namely that in a totalitarian system only executive decision-makers can be held legally responsible for any murders committed and that anyone else who follows orders and commits murders were just accomplices to murder was to greatly hinder the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the coming decades, and ensured that even when convicted, that Nazi criminals received the far lighter sentences reserved for accomplices to murders than the harsher sentences given to murderers.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|245}} The term executive decision-maker who could be found guilty of murder was reserved by the courts only for those at the highest levels of the ''Reich'' leadership during the Nazi period.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|245}} The only way that a Nazi criminal could be convicted of murder was to show that they were not following orders at the time and had acted on their initiative when killing someone.<ref name="Fulford">{{cite web| last = Fulford| first = Robert| author-link = Robert Fulford (journalist) | title = How the Auschwitz Trial failed | publisher = National Post
|date= 4 June 2005| url = http://www.robertfulford.com/2005-06-04-auschwitz.html| access-date = 16 June 2013}}</ref> One courageous attorney, [[Fritz Bauer]] patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz death camp and about twenty were put trial in Frankfurt between 1963-1965 in what came to be known as the [[Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials]]. The men on trial in Frankfurt were tried only for murders and other crimes that they committed on their own initiative at Auschwitz and were not tried for anything that they did at Auschwitz when following orders, which was considered by the courts to be the lesser crime of accomplice to murder.<ref name="Fulford"/> Because of this, Bauer could only indict for murder those who killed when not following orders, and those who had killed when following orders were indicted as accomplices to murder. Moreover because of the legal distinction between murderers and accomplices to murder, an SS man who killed thousands while operating the gas chambers at Auschwitz could only be found guilty of being accomplice to murder because he had been following orders, while an SS man who had beaten one inmate to death on his initiative could be convicted of murder because he had not been following orders.<ref name="Fulford"/> Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the ''Shoah'' was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term 'Holocaust' for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1943 in a New York Times piece that references "the hundreds and thousands of European Jews still surviving the Nazi holocaust". The term came into widespread use to describe the event following the TV film Holocaust in 1978) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.
In the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, the growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate petered into a recession, with no growth in 1967. The economic showdown forced Erhard's resignation in 1966 and he was replaced with [[Kurt Georg Kiesinger]] of the CDU. Kiesinger was to attract much controversy because in 1933 he had joined the National Socialist Legal Guild and [[Nazi Party|NSDAP]] (membership in the former was necessary in order to practice law, but membership in the latter was entirely voluntary).
In order to deal with the problem of the economic slowdown, a new coalition was formed. Kiesinger's 1966–69 [[grand coalition]] was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new [[German Emergency Acts|emergency acts]]—the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as [[freedom of movement]] to be limited in case of a state of emergency.
[[File:Rudi.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Rudi Dutschke]], student leader]]
During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]], the rising [[German student movement]], a group calling itself ''Notstand der Demokratie'' (Democracy in Crisis), the [[Außerparlamentarische Opposition]] and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. The late 1960s saw the rise of the [[German student movement|student movement]] and university campuses in a constant state of uproar. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967 when the Shah of Iran visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as 'Jubelperser'), armed with staves and bricks, attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the center was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named [[Benno Ohnesorg]] was shot in the head and killed by a plain-clothed policeman [[Karl-Heinz Kurras]]. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German [[Stasi]] security forces.){{citation needed|date=March 2019}} Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the [[Tabloid journalism|tabloid]] ''[[Bild-Zeitung]]'' newspaper, to be acts of terrorism. The conservative ''Bild-Zeitung'' waged a massive campaign against the protesters who were declared to be just hooligans and thugs in the pay of East Germany. The press baron [[Axel Springer]] emerged as one of the principal hate figures for the student protesters because of ''Bild-Zeitung'''s often violent attacks on them. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigor with which demonstrations were repressed, led to mounting militancy among the students at the universities of Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called [[Rudi Dutschke]] who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken.<ref name="Kraushaar">{{cite book|first=Wolfgang|last=Kraushaar|title= Frankfurter Schule und Studentenbewegung| volume= 2 |publisher=Rogner und Bernhard|language=de|trans-title=Frankfurt School and the Student Movement|year=1998 |number= 193| page= 356}}</ref> In the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of their parents' generation in the Nazi era.
[[File:Ludwig Binder Haus der Geschichte Studentenrevolte 1968 2001 03 0275.0011 (16910985309).jpg|thumb|200px|Protest against the [[Vietnam War]] in West Berlin in 1968]]
In 1968, the ''Bundestag'' passed a Misdemeanors Bill dealing with traffic misdemeanors, into which a high-ranking civil servant named Dr. Eduard Dreher who had been drafting the bill inserted a prefatory section to the bill under a very misleading heading that declared that henceforth there was a [[statute of limitations]] of 15 years from the time of the offense for the crime of being an accomplices to murder which was to apply retroactively, which made it impossible to prosecute war criminals even for being accomplices to murder since the statute of limitations as now defined for the last of the suspects had expired by 1960.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249}} The ''Bundestag'' passed the Misdemeanors Bill without bothering to read the bill in its entirety so its members missed Dreher's amendment.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249}} It was estimated in 1969 that thanks to Dreher's amendment to the Misdemeanors Bill that 90% of all Nazi war criminals now enjoyed total immunity from prosecution.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249–50}} The prosecutor Adalbert Rückerl who headed the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes told an interviewer in 1969 that this amendment had done immense harm to the ability of the Bureau to prosecute those suspected of war crimes and crimes against humanity.<ref name="Wette, Wolfram"/>{{rp|249}}
The calling in question of the actions and policies of the government led to a new climate of debate by the late 1960s. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the [[Bremen (state)|Free Hanseatic City of Bremen]] provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1979, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic. In 1969, the ''Bundestag'' repealed the 1935 Nazi amendment to [[Paragraph 175]], which not only made homosexual acts a felony, but had also made any expressions of homosexuality illegal (before 1935 only gay sex had been illegal). However, Paragraph 175 which made homosexual acts illegal remained on the statute books and was not repealed until 1994, although it had been softened in 1973 by making gay sex illegal only with those under the age of 18.
[[File:RAF-Logo.svg|thumb|left|RAF symbol]]
Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims, led to growing militancy among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the 'struggle against imperialism'.<ref name="Kraushaar"/> The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalizing the industrial workers and, taking an example from activities in Italy of the Brigade Rosse, many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the 'Baader-Meinhof Group', later known as the [[Red Army Faction]], which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. The "Baader-Meinhof gang" was committed to the overthrow of the Federal Republic via terrorism in order to achieve the establishment of a Communist state. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name "RAF". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zeit.de/2011/32/Buback-Tragoedie|title= Gefangen in der Geschichte | work=ZEIT ONLINE | access-date=30 May 2014|language=de|date=8 August 2011|first= Christian|last= Denso}}</ref>
===Political developments 1969–1990===
In the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by [[Willy Brandt]]—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}} Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbors known as ''[[Ostpolitik]]'', a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries ([[Treaty of Moscow (1970)|Moscow Agreement]], August 1970, [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Warsaw Agreement]], December 1970, [[Four Power Agreement on Berlin|Four-Power Agreement]] over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an [[Basic Treaty, 1972|agreement on relations between West and East Germany]], signed in December 1972).<ref name="Informationen"/>{{rp|32}} These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long term, to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over East-Central Europe. During a visit to Warsaw on 7 December 1970, Brandt made the [[Warschauer Kniefall]] by kneeling before a monument to those killed in the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]], a gesture of humility and penance that no German Chancellor had made until that time. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after [[Günter Guillaume]], a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the [[Stasi]]. Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his winning the Nobel Peace Prize for 1971.
[[File:U.S. military vehicle, West Germany 1978.JPG|thumb|U.S. military convoys were still a regular sight in West Germany in the 1970s and 1980s.]]
[[File:U.S. Army tanks, West Germany 1978.JPG|thumb|U.S. Army tanks being transported by rail in 1978]]
Finance Minister [[Helmut Schmidt]] (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. [[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]], a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA".<ref>{{cite book|first=Max |last=Otte |first2=Jürgen |last2=Greve |year=2000 |title=A rising middle power?: German foreign policy in transformation, 1989–1999}}</ref> Throughout the 1970s, the Red Army Faction had continued its terrorist campaign, assassinating or kidnapping politicians, judges, businessmen, and policemen. The highpoint of the RAF violence came with the [[German Autumn]] in autumn 1977. The industrialist [[Hanns-Martin Schleyer]] was kidnapped on 5 September 1977 in order to force the government to free the imprisoned leaders of the Baader-Meinhof Gang. A group from the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] hijacked [[Lufthansa Flight 181]] to seize further hostages to free the RAF leaders. On 18 October 1977, the Lufthansa jet was stormed in [[Mogadishu]] by the [[GSG 9]] commando unit, who were able to free the hostages. The same day, the leaders of the Baader-Meinhof gang, who had been waging a hunger strike, were found dead in their prison cells with gunshot wounds, which led to Schleyer being executed by his captors. The deaths were controversially ruled suicides.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.de/20130420/49253|title=No new investigation into RAF prison deaths|date=20 April 2013|website=www.thelocal.de}}</ref> The Red Army Faction was to continue its terrorist campaign into the 1990s, but the German Autumn of 1977 was the highpoint of its campaign. That the Federal Republic had faced a crisis caused by a terrorist campaign from the radical left without succumbing to dictatorship as many feared that it would, was seen as vindication of the strength of German democracy.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
In January 1979, the American mini-series ''[[Holocaust (TV miniseries)|Holocaust]]'' aired in West Germany.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|543}} The series, which was watched by 20 million people or 50% of West Germans, first brought the matter of the genocide in World War II to widespread public attention in a way that it had never been before.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|545–6}} After each part of ''Holocaust'' was aired, there was a companion show where a panel of historians could answer questions from people phoning in.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|544–6}} The historians' panels were literally overwhelmed with thousands of phone calls from shocked and outraged Germans, a great many of whom stated that they were born after 1945 and that was the first time that they learned that their country had practiced genocide in World War II.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|545–6}} By the late 1970s, an initially small number of young people had started to demand that the ''Länder'' governments stop neglecting the sites of the concentration camps, and start turning them into proper museums and sites of remembrance, turning them into "locations of learning" meant to jar visitors into thinking critically about the Nazi period.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|556–7}}
In 1980, the CDU/CSU ran Strauss as their joint candidate in the elections, and he was crushingly{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=April 2014}} defeated by Schmidt. In October 1982, the SPD-FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU chairman [[Helmut Kohl]] as Chancellor in a [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]]. Genscher continued as Foreign Minister in the new Kohl government. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the ''Bundestag'' of the [[German Green Party|Greens]], who received 5.6% of the vote. In 1983, despite major protests from peace groups, the Kohl government allowed [[Pershing II]] missiles to be stationed in the Federal Republic to counter the deployment of the [[RSD-10 Pioneer|SS-20]] cruise missiles by the Soviet Union in East Germany. In 1985, Kohl, who had something of a tin ear when it came to dealing with the Nazi past,{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=April 2014}} caused much controversy when he invited President [[Ronald Reagan]] of the United States to visit the war cemetery at [[Bitburg]] to mark the 40th anniversary of the end of World War II. The Bitburg cemetery was soon revealed to contain the graves of SS men, which Kohl stated that he did not see as a problem and that to refuse to honor all of the dead of Bitburg including the SS men buried there was an insult to all Germans. Kohl stated that Reagan could come to the Federal Republic to hold a ceremony to honor the dead of Bitburg or not come at all, and that to change the venue of the service to another war cemetery that did not have SS men buried in it was not acceptable to him. Even more controversy was caused by Reagan's statement that all of the SS men killed fighting for Hitler in World War II were "just kids" who were just as much the victims of Hitler as those who been murdered by the SS in the Holocaust.<ref name="buchanan.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.buchanan.org/pma-99-1105-wallstjl.html |title=Pat Buchanan'S Response To Norman Podhoretz'S Op-Ed |access-date=30 May 2014 |date=5 November 1999 |work=The Wall Street Journal |publisher=Internet Archive |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008152726/http://www.buchanan.org/pma-99-1105-wallstjl.html |archive-date=8 October 2008 }}</ref> Despite the huge controversy caused by honoring the SS men buried at Bitburg, the visit to Bitburg went ahead, and Kohl and Reagan honored the dead of Bitburg. What was intended to promote German-American reconciliation turned out to be a public relations disaster that had the opposite effect. Public opinion polls showed that 72% of West Germans supported the service at Bitburg while American public opinion overwhelming disapproved of Reagan honoring the memory of the SS men who gave their lives for Hitler.{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
Despite or perhaps because of the Bitburg controversy, in 1985 a campaign had been started to build a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust in Berlin.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}} It was felt by at least some Germans that there was something wrong about the Chancellor and the President of the United States honoring the memory of the SS men buried at Bitburg while there was no memorial to any of the people killed in the Holocaust. The campaign to build a Holocaust memorial, which Germany until then lacked, was given a major boost in November 1989 by the call by television journalist [[Lea Rosh]] to build the memorial at the site for the former Gestapo headquarters.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}} In April 1992, the City of Berlin finally decided that a Holocaust memorial could be built.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}} Along the same lines, in August 1987, protests put a stop to plans by the City of Frankfurt to raze the last remains of the Frankfurt Jewish Ghetto in order to redevelop the land, arguing that the remnants of the Frankfurt ghetto needed to be preserved.<ref name="Illusions"/>{{rp|557}}
In January 1987, the Kohl-Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by [[Hans-Jochen Vogel]]. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%. Later in 1987, Kohl had a summit with the East German leader [[Erich Honecker]]. Unknown to Kohl, the meeting room had been bugged by the Stasi, and the Stasi tapes of the summit had Kohl saying to Honecker that he did not see any realistic chance of reunification in the foreseeable future.
==East Germany (German Democratic Republic)==
{{Main article|East Germany}}
In the Soviet occupation zone, the Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communist Party in April 1946 to form a new party, the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|Socialist Unity Party]] (''Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands'' or SED). The October 1946 elections resulted in coalition governments in the five ''Land'' (state) parliaments with the SED as the undisputed leader.
A series of people's congresses were called in 1948 and early 1949 by the SED. Under Soviet direction, a constitution was drafted on 30 May 1949, and adopted on 7 October, the day when East Germany was formally proclaimed. The People's Chamber ''([[Volkskammer]])''—the lower house of the East German parliament—and an upper house—the States Chamber ''(Länderkammer)''—were created. (The ''Länderkammer'' was abolished again in 1958.) On 11 October 1949, the two houses elected [[Wilhelm Pieck]] as President, and an SED government was set up. The Soviet Union and its East European allies immediately recognized East Germany, although it remained largely unrecognized by noncommunist countries until 1972–73. East Germany established the structures of a single-party, centralized, totalitarian communist state. On 23 July 1952, the traditional ''Länder'' were abolished and, in their place, 14 ''Bezirke'' (districts) were established. Even though other parties formally existed, effectively, all government control was in the hands of the SED, and almost all important government positions were held by SED members.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-48550-0036, Besuch Ho Chi Minhs bei Pionieren, bei Berlin.jpg|thumb|North Vietnamese leader [[Ho Chi Minh]] with East German [[Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation|Young Pioneers]], 1957]]
The [[National Front (East Germany)|National Front]] was an [[umbrella organization]] nominally consisting of the SED, four other political parties controlled and directed by the SED, and the four principal mass organizations—youth, trade unions, women, and culture. However, control was clearly and solely in the hands of the SED. Balloting in East German elections was not secret. As in other Soviet bloc countries, electoral participation was consistently high, as the following results indicate. In October 1950, a year after the formation of the GDR, 98.53% of the electorate voted. 99.72% of the votes were valid and 99.72% were cast in favor of the 'National Front'—the title of the 'coalition' of the Unity Party plus their associates in other conformist groups. In election after election, the votes cast for the Socialist Unity Party were always over 99%, and in 1963, two years after the Berlin Wall was constructed, the support for the S.E.D. was 99.95%. Only 0.05% of the electorate opposed the party according to these results, the veracity of which is disputable.<ref>{{cite book|title=Zahlenspiegel ein Vergleich Bundesrepublik Deutschland Deutsche Demokratische Republik Ministerium für Innerdeutsche Beziehungen|year= 1973|page= 7|language=de}}</ref>
===Industry and agriculture in East Germany===
With the formation of a separate East German communist state in October 1949, the Socialist Unity Party faced a huge range of problems. Not only were the cities in ruins, much of the productive machinery and equipment had been seized by the Soviet occupation force and transported to The Soviet Union in order to make some kind of reconstruction possible. While West Germany received loans and other financial assistance from the United States, the GDR was in the role of an exporter of goods to the USSR—a role that its people could ill afford but which they could not avoid.
The S.E.D.'s intention was to transform the GDR into a socialist and later into a communist state. These processes would occur step by step according to the laws of scientific 'Marxism-Leninism' and economic planning was the key to this process. In July 1952, at a conference of the S.E.D., Walter Ulbricht announced that "the democratic (sic) and economic development, and the consciousness (Bewusstsein) of the working class and the majority of the employed classes must be developed so that the construction of Socialism becomes their most important objective."<ref name="Steininger">{{cite book|author=Steininger|title= Deutsch Geschichte 1945–1961| volume= 2}}</ref>{{rp|453}} This meant that the administration, the armed forces, the planning of industry and agriculture would be under the sole authority of the S.E.D. and its planning committee. Industries would be nationalized and collectivization introduced in the farm industry. When the first Five-Year Plan was announced, the flow of refugees out of East Germany began to grow. As a consequence, production fell, food became short and protests occurred in a number of factories. On 14 May 1952, the S.E.D. ordered that the production quotas (the output per man per shift) were to be increased by 10%, but wages to be kept at the former level. This decision was not popular with the new leaders in the Kremlin. Stalin had died in March 1953 and the new leadership was still evolving. The imposition of new production quotas contradicted the new direction of Soviet policies for their satellites.<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|454}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U1109-022, Berlin, Sandmännchen.jpg|thumbnail|Gerhard Behrendt with Sandmännchen]]
On 5 June 1953, the S.E.D. announced a 'new course' in which farmers, craftsmen, and factory owners would benefit from a relaxation of controls. The new production quotas remained; the East German workers protested and up to sixty strikes occurred the following day. One of the window-dressing projects in the ruins of East Berlin was the construction of Stalin Allee, on which the most 'class-conscious' workers (in S.E.D. propaganda terms) were involved. At a meeting, strikers declared "You give the capitalists (the factory owners) presents, and we are exploited!"<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|455}} A delegation of building workers marched to the headquarters of the S.E.D. demanding that the production quotas be rescinded. The crowd grew, demands were made for the removal of Ulbricht from office and a general strike called for the following day.
On 17 June 1953 strikes and demonstrations occurred in 250 towns and cities in the GDR. Between 300,000 and 400,000 workers took part in the strikes, which were specifically directed towards the rescinding of the production quotas and were not an attempt to overthrow the government. The strikers were for the most part convinced that the transformation of the GDR into a socialist state was the proper course to take but that the S.E.D. had taken a wrong turn.<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|457}}
The S.E.D. responded with all of the force at its command and also with the help of the Soviet Occupation force. Thousands were arrested, sentenced to jail and many hundreds were forced to leave for West Germany. The S.E.D. later moderated its course but the damage had been done. The real face of the East German regime was revealed. The S.E.D. claimed that the strikes had been instigated by West German agents, but there is no evidence for this. Over 250 strikers were killed, around 100 policemen and some 18 Soviet soldiers died in the uprising;<ref name="Steininger"/>{{rp|459}} 17 June was declared a national day of remembrance in West Germany.
==Berlin==
Shortly after [[World War II]], Berlin became the seat of the Allied Control Council, which was to have governed Germany as a whole until the conclusion of a peace settlement. In 1948, however, the [[Soviet Union]] refused to participate any longer in the quadripartite administration of Germany. They also refused to continue the joint administration of Berlin and drove the government elected by the people of Berlin out of its seat in the Soviet sector and installed a communist regime in East Berlin. From then until unification, the Western Allies continued to exercise supreme authority—effective only in their sectors—through the [[Allied Kommandatura]]. To the degree compatible with the city's special status, however, they turned over control and management of city affairs to the [[Senate of Berlin|West Berlin Senate]] and the [[Abgeordnetenhaus von Berlin|House of Representatives]], governing bodies established by constitutional process and chosen by free elections. The Allies and German authorities in West Germany and West Berlin never recognized the communist city regime in East Berlin or East German authority there.
During the years of West Berlin's isolation—176 kilometers (110 mi.) inside East Germany—the Western Allies encouraged a close relationship between the Government of [[West Berlin]] and that of West Germany. Representatives of the city participated as non-voting members in the West German Parliament; appropriate West German agencies, such as the supreme administrative court, had their permanent seats in the city; and the governing mayor of West Berlin took his turn as President of the [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]]. In addition, the Allies carefully consulted with the West German and West Berlin Governments on foreign policy questions involving unification and the status of Berlin.
Between 1948 and 1990, major events such as fairs and festivals were sponsored in West Berlin, and investment in commerce and industry was encouraged by special concessionary tax legislation. The results of such efforts, combined with effective city administration and the West Berliners' energy and spirit, were encouraging. West Berlin's morale was sustained, and its industrial production considerably surpassed the pre-war level.
The [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|Final Settlement Treaty]] ended Berlin's special status as a separate area under Four Power control. Under the terms of the treaty between West and East Germany, Berlin became the capital of a unified Germany. The Bundestag voted in June 1991 to make Berlin the seat of government. The Government of Germany asked the Allies to maintain a military presence in Berlin until the complete withdrawal of the Western Group of Forces (ex-Soviet) from the territory of the former East Germany. The Russian withdrawal was completed 31 August 1994. Ceremonies were held on 8 September 1994, to mark the final departure of Western Allied troops from Berlin.
Government offices have been moving progressively to Berlin, and it became the formal seat of the federal government in 1999. Berlin also is one of the Federal Republic's 16 ''[[States of Germany|Länder]]''.
==Relations between East Germany and West Germany==
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2017}}
Under [[Konrad Adenauer|Chancellor Adenauer]], [[West Germany]] declared its right to speak for the entire German nation with an [[exclusive mandate]]. The [[Hallstein Doctrine]] involved non-recognition of East Germany and restricted (or often ceased) diplomatic relations with countries that gave East Germany the status of a sovereign state.
The constant stream of East Germans fleeing across the [[Inner German border]] to West Germany placed great strains on East German-West German relations in the 1950s. East Germany sealed the borders to West Germany in 1952, but people continued to flee from East Berlin to [[West Berlin]]. On 13 August 1961, East Germany began building the [[Berlin Wall]] around West Berlin to slow the flood of refugees to a trickle, effectively cutting the city in half and making West Berlin an enclave of the Western world in communist territory. The Wall became the symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe. Shortly afterward, the main border between the two German states was fortified.
The [[Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops]] of 1965 was controversial at the time, but is now seen as an important step toward improving relations between the German states and [[Poland]].
In 1969, Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]] announced that West Germany would remain firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance but would intensify efforts to improve relations with the Eastern Bloc, especially East Germany. West Germany commenced this ''[[Ostpolitik]],'' initially under fierce opposition from the conservatives, by negotiating nonaggression treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
West Germany's relations with East Germany posed particularly difficult questions. Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's ''Ostpolitik'' was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations gradually improved. In the early 1970s, the ''Ostpolitik'' led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The [[Treaty of Moscow (1970)|Treaty of Moscow]] (August 1970), the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Treaty of Warsaw]] (December 1970), the [[Four Power Agreement on Berlin]] (September 1971), the [[Transit Agreement (1972)|Transit Agreement]] (May 1972), and the [[Basic Treaty (1972)|Basic Treaty]] (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both states joining the [[United Nations]] in September 1973. The two German states exchanged [[Permanent Representative|permanent representatives]] in 1974, and, in 1987, East German head of state [[Erich Honecker]] paid an [[Erich Honecker's 1987 visit to West Germany|official visit]] to West Germany.
==The reunification of East Germany and West Germany==
{{Main article|German reunification}}
===Background===
International plans for the unification of Germany were made during the early years following the establishment of the two states, but to no avail. In March 1952, the Soviet government proposed the [[Stalin note|Stalin Note]] to hold elections for a united German assembly while making the proposed united Germany a neutral state, i.e. a neutral state approved by the people, similar to the Austrians' approval of a neutral Austria. The Western Allied governments refused this initiative, while continuing West Germany's integration into the Western alliance system. The issue was raised again during the Foreign Ministers' Conference in Berlin in January–February 1954, but the western powers refused to make Germany neutral. Following Bonn's adherence to NATO on 9 May 1955, such initiatives were abandoned by both sides.
During the summer of 1989, [[Die Wende|rapid changes]] took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to [[German reunification]]. Widespread discontent boiled over, following accusations of large scale vote-rigging during the local elections of May 1989. The beginning of the end of Eastern Germany was the [[Pan-European Picnic]] in August 1989. The event, which goes back to an idea by [[Otto von Habsburg]], caused the mass exodus of GDR citizens, the media-informed East German population felt the loss of power of their rulers, and the [[Iron Curtain]] started to break down completely. Erich Honecker explained to the Daily Mirror regarding the Paneuropean picnic and thus showed his people his own inaction: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West."<ref>Miklós Németh in Interview with Peter Bognar, Grenzöffnung 1989: „Es gab keinen Protest aus Moskau“ (German - Border opening in 1989: There was no protest from Moscow), in: Die Presse 18 August 2014.</ref><ref>„Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows“ (German - August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.</ref><ref> Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic - With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.</ref> Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via Hungary after the Hungarians decided not to use force to stop them. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations ([[Monday demonstrations in East Germany|Monday demonstrations]]) with eventually hundreds of thousands of people in several cities—particularly in [[Leipzig]]—continued to grow. On 7 October, the Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] visited Berlin to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of East Germany and urged the East German leadership to pursue reform, without success. The movement of [[civil resistance]] against the East German regime—both the emigration and the demonstrations—continued unabated.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Charles S. |last=Maier|title=Civil Resistance and Civil Society: Lessons from the Collapse of the German Democratic Republic in 1989|editor-first=Adam|editor-last=Roberts|editor-link=Adam Roberts (scholar)|editor-first2=Timothy Garton |editor-last2=Ash|editor-link2= Timothy Garton Ash|encyclopedia=Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2009|pages= 260–76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC|isbn=9780199552016}}</ref>
On 18 October, Erich Honecker was forced to resign as head of the SED and as head of state and was replaced by [[Egon Krenz]]. But the exodus continued unabated, and pressure for political reform mounted. On 4 November, a demonstration in East Berlin drew as many as 1 million East Germans. Finally, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened, and East Germans were allowed to travel freely. Thousands poured through the wall into the western sectors of Berlin, and on 12 November, East Germany began dismantling it.
On 28 November, West German Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] outlined the 10-Point Plan for the peaceful unification of the two German states, based on free elections in East Germany and a unification of their two economies. In December, the East German ''Volkskammer'' eliminated the SED monopoly on power, and the entire Politbüro and Central Committee—including Krenz—resigned. The SED changed its name to the [[Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)|Party of Democratic Socialism]] (PDS) and the formation and growth of numerous political groups and parties marked the end of the communist system. Prime Minister [[Hans Modrow]] headed a [[caretaker government]] which shared power with the new, democratically oriented parties. On 7 December 1989, an agreement was reached to hold free elections in May 1990 and rewrite the East German constitution. On 28 January, all the parties agreed to advance the elections to 18 March, primarily because of an erosion of state authority and because the East German exodus was continuing apace; more than 117,000 left in January and February 1990.
In early February 1990, the Modrow government's proposal for a unified, neutral German state was rejected by Chancellor Kohl, who affirmed that a unified Germany must be a member of NATO. Finally, on 18 March, the [[East German general election, 1990|first free elections]] were held in East Germany, and a government led by [[Lothar de Maizière]] (CDU) was formed under a policy of expeditious unification with West Germany. The freely elected representatives of the ''Volkskammer'' held their first session on 5 April, and East Germany peacefully evolved from a communist to a democratically elected government. Free and secret communal (local) elections were held in the GDR on 6 May, and the CDU again won most of the available seats. On 1 July, the two German states entered into an economic and monetary union.
===Treaty negotiations===
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2017}}
During 1990, in parallel with internal German developments, the Four Powers—the Allies of World War II, being the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union—together with the two German states negotiated to end Four Power reserved rights for Berlin and Germany as a whole. These "Two-plus-Four" negotiations were mandated at the [[Ottawa]] [[Treaty on Open Skies#History|Open Skies]] conference on 13 February 1990. The six foreign ministers met four times in the ensuing months in Bonn (5 May), Berlin (22 June), Paris (17 July), and Moscow (12 September). The Polish Foreign Minister participated in the part of the Paris meeting that dealt with the Polish-German borders.
Overcoming Soviet objections to a united Germany's membership in NATO was of key importance. This was accomplished in July when the alliance, led by President [[George H.W. Bush]], issued the London Declaration on a transformed NATO. On 16 July, President Gorbachev and Chancellor Kohl announced the agreement in principle on a united Germany in NATO. This cleared the way for the signing in Moscow, on 12 September, of the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]]—in effect the peace treaty that was anticipated at the end of World War II. In addition to terminating Four Power rights, the treaty mandated the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Germany by the end of 1994, made clear that the current borders (especially the [[Oder-Neisse line]]) were viewed as final and definitive, and specified the right of a united Germany to belong to NATO. It also provided for the continued presence of British, French, and American troops in Berlin during the interim period of the Soviet withdrawal. In the treaty, the Germans renounced nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and stated their intention to reduce the (combined) German armed forces to 370,000 within 3 to 4 years after the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]], signed in Paris on 19 November 1990, entered into force.
The conclusion of the final settlement cleared the way for the unification of East and West Germany. Formal political union occurred on 3 October 1990, preceded by the GDR declaring its accession to the Federal Republic through Article 23 of West Germany's Basic Law (meaning that constitutionally, East Germany was subsumed into West Germany); but affected in strict legality through the subsequent Unification Treaty of 30 August 1990, which was voted into their constitutions by both the West German Bundestag and the East German Volkskammer on 20 September 1990.<ref>{{citation|first=Donald P |last=Kommers|title=The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany |date=2012 |publisher=Duke University Press|pages= 309}}</ref> These votes simultaneously extinguished the GDR and affected fundamental amendments to the West German Basic Law (including the repeal of the very Article 23 under which the GDR had recently declared its post-dated accession). On 2 December 1990, [[1990 German federal election|all-German elections]] were held for the first time since 1933. The "new" country stayed the same as the West German legal system and institutions were extended to the east. The unified nation kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]] (though the simple 'Deutschland' would become increasingly common) and retained the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency as well. Berlin would formally become the capital of the united Germany, but the political institutions remained at Bonn for the time being. Only after a heated 1991 debate did the ''[[Bundestag]]'' conclude on moving itself and most of the government to Berlin as well, a process that took until 1999 to complete, when the ''Bundestag'' held its first session at the reconstructed [[Reichstag (building)|''Reichstag'' building]]. Many government departments still maintain sizable presences in Bonn as of 2008.
===Aftermath===
{{Further|New states of Germany}}
To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and [[West Germany]] (for example, in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east.
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
'''Works cited'''
* Fulbrook, Mary. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071101070814/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/German/staff/fulbrook.htm]"The Two Germanies, 1945–90" (ch. 7) and "The Federal Republic of Germany Since 1990" (ch. 8) in ''A Concise History of Germany'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004): 203–249; 249–257.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Germany Beyond The Wall: People, Politics, and Prosperity'', Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Lucius D. Clay: An American Life'', New York: Henry, Holt, & Company, 1990.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Defense of Berlin'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Papers of Lucius D. Clay'', 2 Vols., Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974.
* [[David H Childs]], Germany in the Twentieth Century, (From pre-1918 to the restoration of German unity), Batsford, Third edition, 1991. {{ISBN|0-7134-6795-9}}
* David H Childs and Jeffrey Johnson, West Germany: Politics And Society, Croom Helm, 1982. {{ISBN|0-7099-0702-8}}
* David H Childs, The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy & Soviet Communism Since 1945, Routledge, 2000.
==Further reading==
* Ahonen, Pertti. "Germany and the Aftermath of the Second World War." ''Journal of Modern History'' 89#2 (2017): 355-387.
* Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. ''A History of West Germany Vol 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963'' (1992); {{ISBN|978-0-631-16787-7}}; vol 2: ''Democracy and Its Discontents 1963–1988'' (1992) {{ISBN|978-0-631-16788-4}}
* Berghahn, Volker Rolf. ''Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century'' (1987) [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01673 ACLS E-book online]
* Bernhard, Michael. "Democratization in Germany: A Reappraisal." ''Comparative Politics'' 33#4 (2001): 379-400. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/422440 in JSTOR]
* [[Bessel, Richard]]. ''Germany 1945: From War to Peace'' (Harper Collins Publishers, 2009) {{ISBN|978-0-06-054036-4}}
* Davis, Franklin M., Jr. ''Come as Conqueror: The United States Army’s Occupation of Germany, 1945-49'' (Macmillan, 1967).
* Hanrieder, Wolfram F. ''Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy'' (1989) {{ISBN|0-300-04022-9}}
* Jarausch, Konrad H.''After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–1995'' (2008)
* Junker, Detlef, ed. ''The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War'' (2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990 [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521168643/ excerpt and text search vol 1]; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521168651/ excerpt and text search vol 2]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Lovelace | first1 = Alexander G | year = 2013 | title = Trends in the Western Historiography of the United States' Occupation of Germany | journal = International Bibliography of Military History | volume = 33 | issue = 2| pages = 148–163 | doi=10.1163/22115757-03302004}}
* Merritt, Anna J., and Richard L. Merritt. ''Public opinion in occupied Germany: the OMGUS surveys, 1945-1949'' (University of Illinois Press, 1970), OMGUS polls.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = Paul D | year = 2013 | title = A bibliographic essay on the Allied occupation and reconstruction of West Germany, 1945–1955 | journal = Small Wars & Insurgencies | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 751–759 | doi=10.1080/09592318.2013.857935}}
* Schwarz, Hans-Peter. ''Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction'' (2 vol 1995) [https://books.google.com/books?id=T4vQw1RNkQ8C excerpt and text search vol 2]; also [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11134689 full text vol 1]; and [https://www.questia.com/read/98804131 full text vol 2]
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''Lucius D. Clay: An American Life'' (1990), a major scholarly biography
* Smith, Gordon, ed, '' Developments in German Politics'' (1992) {{ISBN|0-8223-1266-2}}, broad survey of reunified nation
* Weber, Jurgen. ''Germany, 1945–1990'' (Central European University Press, 2004)
* {{cite book|author=Ziemke, Earl Frederick |title=The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany: 1944-1946|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILY6y4XOwPoC&pg=PR1|year=1975|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=9780160899188}}, the official Army history
===GDR===
* Fulbrook, Mary. ''Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949–1989'' (1998)
* Jarausch, Konrad H. and Eve Duffy. ''Dictatorship As Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR'' (1999)
* Jarausch, Konrad H., and Volker Gransow, eds. ''Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944–1993'' (1994), primary sources on reunification
* Pritchard, Gareth. ''The Making of the GDR, 1945–53'' (2004)
* Ross, Corey. ''The East German Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of the GDR'' (2002)
* Steiner, André. ''The Plans That Failed: An Economic History of East Germany, 1945–1989'' (2010)
* Windsor, Philip. "The Berlin Crises" ''History Today'' (June 1962) Vol. 6, p375-384, summarizes the series of crises 1946 to 1961; online.
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Portal|East Germany|Germany}}
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=309 Germany at the onset of the cold war]
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=4023 James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly] (The division of Germany)
* [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentid=24&documentdate=1947-02-28&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report No. 1 (1947)]
* [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentid=22&documentdate=1947-03-24&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report 3 (1947)]
* [http://www.ghi-dc.org/fileadmin/user_upload/GHI_Washington/PDFs/Occasional_Papers/The_Struggle_for_Germany.pdf The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War] by Melvyn P. Leffler
* [http://www.zeitgeschichte-online.de/ Contemporary History] maintained by the ''Institute for Contemporary Historical Research in Potsdam'' {{in lang|de}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060901074949/http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box32/t298x01.html Special German series 2. The Committee on Dismemberment of Germany] Allied discussions on the dismemberment of Germany into separate states, 29 March 1945.
* [http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/send-pdf.cgi/Stark%20John%20Robert.pdf?acc_num=osu1045174197 The overlooked majority: German women in the four zones of occupied Germany, 1945–1949, a comparative study]{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928004721/http://www.ostberlin.de/en/ East Berlin, Past and Present]
* [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/History.GerRecon Germany Under Reconstruction] is a digital collection that provides a varied selection of publications in both English and German from the period immediately following World War II. Many are publications of the U.S. occupying forces, including reports and descriptions of efforts to introduce U.S.-style democracy to Germany. Some of the other books and documents describe conditions in a country devastated by years of war, efforts at political, economic and cultural development, and the differing perspectives coming from the U.S. and British zones and the Russian zone of occupation.
* For representation of the German Partition in literature, one can consult the [[Raiganj University]] - [[Professor]] [[Pinaki Roy]]'s "''Das Bewusstsein für die Wand'': A Very Brief Review of German Partition Literature", in ''[[The Atlantic Critical Review Quarterly]]'' (ISSN 0972-6373; {{ISBN|978-81-269-1747-1}}) 11 (2), April–June 2012: 157–68. In his "''Patriots in Fremden Landern'': 1939-45 German Émigré Literature", collected in ''Writing Difference: Nationalism, Identity, and Literature'', edited by G.N. Ray, J. Sarkar, and A. Bhattacharyya, and published by the [[New Delhi]]-based [[Atlantic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.]] in 2014 ({{ISBN|978-81-269-1938-3}}; pages-367-90), Roy examines the attitudes and ideologies of those anti-[[Nazi]] [[Germany|German]] litterateurs who were forced to relocate due to their opposition to [[National Socialism]] and hence suffered from a sort of identity-crisis.
* [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/eadrbc.rb013001 Post-World War II Posters from Germany, 1945-1947] From the Collections at the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://en.geschichte-abitur.de/east-west-german-division/chronology Chronology of the East-West-German division]
{{Germany topics}}
{{Foreign relations of East Germany}}
{{Cold War}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Germany (1945-1990)}}
[[Category:Cold War history of Germany| ]]
[[Category:Contemporary German history| ]]
[[Category:20th century in Germany by period]]
[[Category:Aftermath of World War II in Germany| ]]
[[Category:Partition (politics)]]
[[Category:East Germany| ]]
[[Category:West Germany| ]]
[[Category:1940s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1950s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1960s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1970s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1980s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:1990s in Germany| ]]
[[Category:History of Germany by period|1945]]
[[Category:East Germany–West Germany relations| ]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
-{{short description|Aspect of history}}
-{{redirect|History of Germany since 1945|events after reunification|History of Germany since 1990}}
+⊈{{short description|Aspect of history of the division of Germany}}
+÷÷÷{{redirect|History of Germany since 1945|events after reunification|History of Germany since 1991}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox bilateral relations|Inter–German|East Germany|West Germany|filetype=svg|map=Inter–German Locator.svg}}
{{History of Germany}}
-[[File: Buchenwald Slave Laborers Liberation.jpg|thumb|[[Buchenwald concentration camp]] after its liberation in 1945]]
+[[File: Buchenwald Slave Waberors Liberation.jpg|thumb|[[Buchenwald concentration camp]] after its liberation in 1945]]
The '''history of Germany from 1945–1990''' spans the period following [[World War II]] during the Division of Germany. The [[Potsdam Agreement]] was made between the major winners of World War II ([[United States|US]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], and [[Soviet Union|USSR]]) on 1 August 1945, in which Germany was separated into spheres of influence during the Cold War between the [[Western Bloc]] and [[Eastern Bloc]].
-Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, [[Saarland]] was under French control until 1957. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany;<ref name="auto">{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 549|title-link=The German War}}</ref> mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wachsmann|first=Nikolaus|title=KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps|year=2015|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=544}}</ref> survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|German-speaking refugees and expellees]] arrived in western and central Germany from the eastern provinces and other countries in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there.<ref name="auto" /><ref>''Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 1939/50.'' Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt - Wiesbaden. - Stuttgart: [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], 1958, pp. 35-36</ref><ref>Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims. ''Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees'', Bonn: 1967</ref> Some 9 million Germans were POWs,<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 551|title-link=The German War}}</ref> many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
+Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, [[Saarland]] was under French control until 1957. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany;<ref name="auto">{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 549|title-link=The German War}}</ref> mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wachsmann|first=Nikolaus|title=KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps|year=2015|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=544}}</ref> survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1851)|German-speaking refugees and expel lees]] arrived in western and central Germany from the eastern provinces and other countries in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there.<ref name="auto" /><ref>''Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 2001 a space odyseey/50.'' Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt - Wiesbaden. - Stuttgart: [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], 1958, pp. 35-36</ref><ref>Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims. ''Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees'', Bonn: 1967</ref> Some 9 million Germans were POWs,<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 551|title-link=The German War}}</ref> many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}
-Germany was divided during the Cold War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] in the East, with the two regions not being reunited until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:
+Germany was notdivided during the Great War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the [(Soviet Union)] in the East, with the two regions not being reunited until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:
*{{flag|FRG|name=Federal Republic of Germany}} (FRG), established on 23 May 1949, commonly known as '''West Germany''', was a parliamentary democracy with a [[social democracy|social democratic]] [[Economy of West Germany|economic system]] and free churches and labor unions.
' |
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3 => 'Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, [[Saarland]] was under French control until 1957. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany;<ref name="auto">{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 549|title-link=The German War}}</ref> mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wachsmann|first=Nikolaus|title=KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps|year=2015|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=544}}</ref> survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1851)|German-speaking refugees and expel lees]] arrived in western and central Germany from the eastern provinces and other countries in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there.<ref name="auto" /><ref>''Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 2001 a space odyseey/50.'' Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt - Wiesbaden. - Stuttgart: [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], 1958, pp. 35-36</ref><ref>Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims. ''Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees'', Bonn: 1967</ref> Some 9 million Germans were POWs,<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 551|title-link=The German War}}</ref> many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}',
4 => 'Germany was notdivided during the Great War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the [(Soviet Union)] in the East, with the two regions not being reunited until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:'
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Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
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2 => '[[File: Buchenwald Slave Laborers Liberation.jpg|thumb|[[Buchenwald concentration camp]] after its liberation in 1945]]',
3 => 'Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, [[Saarland]] was under French control until 1957. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany;<ref name="auto">{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 549|title-link=The German War}}</ref> mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wachsmann|first=Nikolaus|title=KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps|year=2015|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=544}}</ref> survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|German-speaking refugees and expellees]] arrived in western and central Germany from the eastern provinces and other countries in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there.<ref name="auto" /><ref>''Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 1939/50.'' Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt - Wiesbaden. - Stuttgart: [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], 1958, pp. 35-36</ref><ref>Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims. ''Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees'', Bonn: 1967</ref> Some 9 million Germans were POWs,<ref>{{cite book|first= Nicholas |last=Stragart|title=The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45|year=2015|publisher = Bodley Head|page= 551|title-link=The German War}}</ref> many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}',
4 => 'Germany was divided during the Cold War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] in the East, with the two regions not being reunited until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><p>⊈</p><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Aspect of history of the division of Germany</div><p>
÷÷÷<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style></p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"History of Germany since 1945" redirects here. For events after reunification, see <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_since_1991&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of Germany since 1991 (page does not exist)">History of Germany since 1991</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
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<td style="background:#339933;"></td>
<td style="background:#E08020;"></td>
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<th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/50px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="30" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/75px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/100px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /><br /><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></th>
<th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center; border-left:thin solid lightgrey;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/50px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="30" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/75px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/100px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /><br /><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></th>
</tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2">
</th></tr></tbody></table>
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<th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: none;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of <span class="fn org label">Germany</span></a></th>
</tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B10_047-S._IMPERIUM_ROMANO-GERMANICUM_oder_DEUTSCHLAND_MIT_SEINEN_ANGR%C3%84NTZENDEN_K%C3%96NIGREICHEN_UND_PROVINCIEN_Neulich_entworffen_und_theils_gezeichnet_durch_IULIUM_REICHELT_Chur_Pfaltz.jpg" class="image" title="IMPERIUM ROMANO-GERMANICUM oder DEUTSCHLAND MIT SEINEN ANGRÄNTZENDEN KÖNIGREICHEN UND PROVINCIEN. Neulich entworffen und theils gezeichnet durch IULIUM REICHELT, Chur Pfaltz"><img alt="IMPERIUM ROMANO-GERMANICUM oder DEUTSCHLAND MIT SEINEN ANGRÄNTZENDEN KÖNIGREICHEN UND PROVINCIEN. Neulich entworffen und theils gezeichnet durch IULIUM REICHELT, Chur Pfaltz" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B10_047-S._IMPERIUM_ROMANO-GERMANICUM_oder_DEUTSCHLAND_MIT_SEINEN_ANGR%C3%84NTZENDEN_K%C3%96NIGREICHEN_UND_PROVINCIEN_Neulich_entworffen_und_theils_gezeichnet_durch_IULIUM_REICHELT_Chur_Pfaltz.jpg/150px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="126" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B10_047-S._IMPERIUM_ROMANO-GERMANICUM_oder_DEUTSCHLAND_MIT_SEINEN_ANGR%C3%84NTZENDEN_K%C3%96NIGREICHEN_UND_PROVINCIEN_Neulich_entworffen_und_theils_gezeichnet_durch_IULIUM_REICHELT_Chur_Pfaltz.jpg/225px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B10_047-S._IMPERIUM_ROMANO-GERMANICUM_oder_DEUTSCHLAND_MIT_SEINEN_ANGR%C3%84NTZENDEN_K%C3%96NIGREICHEN_UND_PROVINCIEN_Neulich_entworffen_und_theils_gezeichnet_durch_IULIUM_REICHELT_Chur_Pfaltz.jpg/300px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="4637" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Chronology</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military history</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">Women's history</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Germany" title="Territorial evolution of Germany">Territorial evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs" title="List of German monarchs">List of German monarchs</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee">Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Kingdom of Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Eastward settlement</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleinstaaterei" title="Kleinstaaterei">Sectionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th century</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li>
<li><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li><li><i lang="de" title="German-language text"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i></li></ul></div></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1871–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1918–1933</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1933–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Contemporary Germany</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation</a></li><li><i lang="de" title="German-language text"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">Ostgebiete</a></i></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1945–1949/1952</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1944–1950</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West</a>–<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">division</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1949–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">New states</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Germany_since_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germany since 1990">Modern history</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">since 1990</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below">
<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Germany.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of Germany.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:History_of_Germany" title="Template:History of Germany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Germany" title="Template talk:History of Germany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_Germany&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Buchenwald_Slave_Waberors_Liberation.jpg" class="new" title="File:Buchenwald Slave Waberors Liberation.jpg">File:Buchenwald Slave Waberors Liberation.jpg</a> <div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald concentration camp</a> after its liberation in 1945</div></div></div>
<p>The <b>history of Germany from 1945–1990</b> spans the period following <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> during the Division of Germany. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Potsdam Agreement</a> was made between the major winners of World War II (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>) on 1 August 1945, in which Germany was separated into spheres of influence during the Cold War between the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>.
</p><p>Following its defeat in World War II, Germany was stripped of its gains, and beyond that, more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory was annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union. Their German populations were expelled to the West. Also, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarland" title="Saarland">Saarland</a> was under French control until 1957. At the end of the war, there were some eight million foreign displaced persons in Germany;<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1">[1]</a></sup> mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. 12-14 million <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931851)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1851) (page does not exist)">German-speaking refugees and expel lees</a> arrived in western and central Germany from the eastern provinces and other countries in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> between 1944 and 1950; an estimated 2 million of them died on the way there.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> Some 9 million Germans were POWs,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Germany was notdivided during the Great War between the Western Allies led by the United States and the [(Soviet Union)] in the East, with the two regions not being reunited until 1990. In the Cold War two separate German countries emerged:
</p>
<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a> (FRG), established on 23 May 1949, commonly known as <b>West Germany</b>, was a parliamentary democracy with a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democratic</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_West_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of West Germany">economic system</a> and free churches and labor unions.</li>
<li><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a> (GDR), established on 7 October 1949, commonly known as <b>East Germany</b>, was the smaller <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxist–Leninist</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist republic">socialist republic</a> with its <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_of_East_Germany" title="Leadership of East Germany">leadership</a> dominated by the Soviet-aligned <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party of Germany</a> (SED) in order to retain it within the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_sphere_of_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet sphere of influence">Soviet sphere of influence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>After experiencing its <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftswunder" title="Wirtschaftswunder">Wirtschaftswunder</a> or "economic miracle" in 1955, West Germany became the most prosperous economy in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Under Chancellor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a>, West Germany built strong relationships with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the United Kingdom, the United States, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> West Germany also joined the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Treaty Organization">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> (NATO) and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> (later to become the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>). East Germany stagnated as its economy was largely organized to meet the needs of the Soviet Union; the secret police (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>) tightly controlled daily life, and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> (1961) ended the steady flow of refugees to the West. The country was <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">peacefully reunited on 3 October 1990</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> also has become a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> again in the world since that, following the decline and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">fall</a> of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party of Germany</a> (SED) as the ruling party of East Germany and the fall of communist East Germany (the GDR).
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Division_of_Germany"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Division of Germany</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Four_military_occupied_zones"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Four military occupied zones</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Flight_and_expulsion_of_ethnic_Germans"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Flight and expulsion of ethnic Germans</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Elimination_of_war_potential_and_reparations"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Elimination of war potential and reparations</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Denazification"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Denazification</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Industrial_disarmament_in_western_Germany"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Industrial disarmament in western Germany</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Relations_with_France"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Relations with France</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Dismantling_in_East_Germany"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Dismantling in East Germany</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Marshall_plan_and_currency_reform"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Marshall plan and currency reform</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Reparations_to_the_U.S."><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Reparations to the U.S.</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Nutritional_levels"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Nutritional levels</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Forced_labour_reparations"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Forced labour reparations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Mass_rape"><span class="tocnumber">2.9</span> <span class="toctext">Mass rape</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#German_states"><span class="tocnumber">2.10</span> <span class="toctext">German states</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Country_comparison"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Country comparison</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#West_Germany_(Federal_Republic_of_Germany)"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany)</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#The_Sixties:_a_time_for_reform"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">The Sixties: a time for reform</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Political_developments_1969–1990"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Political developments 1969–1990</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#East_Germany_(German_Democratic_Republic)"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">East Germany (German Democratic Republic)</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Industry_and_agriculture_in_East_Germany"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Industry and agriculture in East Germany</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Berlin"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Berlin</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Relations_between_East_Germany_and_West_Germany"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Relations between East Germany and West Germany</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#The_reunification_of_East_Germany_and_West_Germany"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">The reunification of East Germany and West Germany</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Treaty_negotiations"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Treaty negotiations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Aftermath"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Aftermath</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#GDR"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">GDR</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Division_of_Germany">Division of Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Division of Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_occupation_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied occupation of Germany">Allied occupation of Germany</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-Germany-1945.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map-Germany-1945.svg/170px-Map-Germany-1945.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="144" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map-Germany-1945.svg/255px-Map-Germany-1945.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map-Germany-1945.svg/340px-Map-Germany-1945.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3492" data-file-height="2966" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-Germany-1945.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Occupation zone borders in Germany, early 1946. The territories east of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder-Neisse_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Oder-Neisse line">Oder-Neisse line</a>, ceded to Poland and the Soviet Union, are shown as white as is the likewise detached <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">Saar Protectorate</a> (France). Berlin is the multinational area within the Soviet zone.</div></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Four_military_occupied_zones">Four military occupied zones</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Four military occupied zones">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Military_Government,_United_States" title="Office of Military Government, United States">US occupation zone in Germany</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation zone">Soviet occupation zone in Germany</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany#British_Zone_of_Occupation" title="Allied-occupied Germany">British occupation zone in Germany</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="French occupation zone in Germany">French occupation zone in Germany</a></div>
<p>At the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> (17 July to 2 August 1945), after Germany's <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_surrender" title="Unconditional surrender">unconditional surrender</a> on 8 May 1945,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> the Allies officially divided Germany into the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Partitions of Germany">four</a> military <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Occupation_Zones_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Occupation Zones in Germany">occupation zones</a> — France in the Southwest, the United Kingdom in the Northwest, the United States in the South, and the Soviet Union in the East, bounded Eastwards by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder-Neisse_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Oder-Neisse line">Oder-Neisse line</a>. At <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a>, these four zones in total were denoted as 'Germany as a whole', and the four Allied Powers exercised the sovereign authority they now claimed within Germany in agreeing 'in principle' the future transfer of lands of the former <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a> east of 'Germany as a whole' to Poland and the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> These eastern areas were notionally placed under Polish and Soviet administration pending a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">final peace treaty</a> (which was not formalized until 1990, 45 years later); but in actuality were promptly reorganized as organic parts of their respective sovereign states.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In addition, under the Allies' <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Declaration_(1945)" title="Berlin Declaration (1945)">Berlin Declaration (1945)</a>, the territory of the extinguished <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a> was to be treated as the land area within its borders as of 31 December 1937. All land expansion from 1938 to 1945 was hence treated as automatically invalid. Such expansion included the League of Nations administered City-State of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Danzig</a> (occupied by Germany immediately following Germany's 1 September 1939 invasion of Poland), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">the occupied territory of Czechoslovakia</a>, Suwalki, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxembourg, post 27 September 1939 "West Prussia", post 27 September 1939 "Posen Province", northern Slovenia, Eupen, Malmedy, the part of Southern Silesia ultimately detached from 1918 Germany by action of the Versailles Treaty, likewise, the Hultschiner Laendchen.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Flight_and_expulsion_of_ethnic_Germans">Flight and expulsion of ethnic Germans</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Flight and expulsion of ethnic Germans">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%9350)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)">Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)</a></div>
<p>The northern half of East Prussia in the region of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a> was administratively assigned by the Potsdam Agreement to the Soviet Union, pending a final Peace Conference (with the commitment of Britain and the United States to support its incorporation into Russia); and was then annexed by the Soviet Union. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a> and the southern half of East Prussia were incorporated into and annexed by Poland; the Allies having assured the Polish government-in-exile of their support for this after the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> in 1943. It was also agreed at Potsdam that Poland would receive all German lands East of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder-Neisse_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Oder-Neisse line">Oder-Neisse line</a>, although the exact delimitation of the boundary was left to be resolved at an eventual Peace Conference. Under the wartime alliances of the United Kingdom with the Czechoslovak and Polish governments-in-exile, the British had agreed in July 1942 to support "...the General Principle of the transfer to Germany of German minorities in Central and South Eastern Europe after the war in cases where this seems necessary and desirable". In 1944 roughly 12.4 million ethnic Germans were living in territory that became part of post-war Poland and Soviet Union. Approximately 6 million fled or were evacuated before the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> occupied the area. Of the remainder, around 2 million died during the war or in its aftermath (1.4 million as military casualties; 600,000 as civilian deaths),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> 3.6 million were expelled by the Poles, one million declared themselves to be Poles, and 300,000 remained in Poland as Germans. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a> territories, surrendered to Germany by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a>, were returned to Czechoslovakia; these territories containing a further 3 million ethnic Germans. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans_from_Czechoslovakia" title="Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia">'Wild' expulsions from Czechoslovakia</a> began immediately after the German surrender.
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> subsequently sanctioned the "orderly and humane" transfer to Germany of individuals regarded as "ethnic Germans" by authorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. The Potsdam Agreement recognized that these expulsions were already underway and were putting a burden on authorities in the German Occupation Zones, including the re-defined Soviet Occupation Zone. Most of the Germans who were being expelled were from Czechoslovakia and Poland, which included most of the territory to the east of the Oder-Neisse Line. The Potsdam Declaration stated:
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Since the influx of a large number of Germans into Germany would increase the burden already resting on the occupying authorities, they consider that the Allied Control Council in Germany should in the first instance examine the problem with special regard to the question of the equitable distribution of these Germans among the several zones of occupation. They are accordingly instructing their respective representatives on the control council to report to their Governments as soon as possible the extent to which such persons have already entered Germany from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, and to submit an estimate of the time and rate at which further transfers could be carried out, having regard to the present situation in Germany. The Czechoslovak Government, the Polish Provisional Government and the control council in Hungary are at the same time being informed of the above and are being requested meanwhile to suspend further expulsions pending the examination by the Governments concerned of the report from their representatives on the control council.</p></blockquote>
<p>Many of the ethnic Germans, who were primarily women and children, and especially those under the control of Polish and Czechoslovakian authorities, were severely mistreated before they were ultimately deported to Germany. Thousands died in forced labor camps such as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambinowice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambinowice">Lambinowice</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgoda_labour_camp" title="Zgoda labour camp">Zgoda labour camp</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Labour_Camp_Potulice" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Labour Camp Potulice">Central Labour Camp Potulice</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Labour_Camp_Jaworzno" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Labour Camp Jaworzno">Central Labour Camp Jaworzno</a>, Glaz, Milecin, Gronowo, and Sikawa.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> Others starved, died of disease, or froze to death while being expelled in slow and ill-equipped trains; or in transit camps.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500,_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500%2C_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500%2C_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500%2C_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500%2C_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500%2C_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500%2C_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="800" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2003-0703-500,_R%C3%BCckf%C3%BChrung_deutscher_Kinder_aus_Polen.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>August 1948, German children deported from the eastern areas of Germany taken over by Poland arrive in West Germany.</div></div></div>
<p>Altogether, around 8 million ethnic German refugees and expellees from across Europe eventually settled in West Germany, with a further 3 million in East Germany. In West Germany these represented a major <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-German_Bloc/League_of_Expellees_and_Deprived_of_Rights" title="All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights">voting block</a>; maintaining a strong culture of grievance and victimhood against Soviet Power, pressing for a continued commitment to full German reunification, claiming compensation, pursuing the right of return to lost property in the East, and opposing any recognition of the postwar extension of Poland and the Soviet Union into former German lands.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Owing to the Cold War rhetoric and successful political machinations of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a>, this block eventually became <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Expellees" title="Federation of Expellees">substantially aligned</a> with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a>; although in practice 'westward-looking' CDU policies favouring the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">Atlantic Alliance</a> and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> worked against the possibility of achieving the objectives of the expellee population from the east through negotiation with the Soviet Union. But for Adenauer, fostering and encouraging unrealistic demands and uncompromising expectations amongst the expellees would serve his "Policy of Strength" by which West Germany contrived to inhibit consideration of unification or a final Peace Treaty until the West was strong enough to face the Soviets on equal terms. Consequently, the Federal Republic in the 1950s adopted much of the symbolism of expellee groups; especially in appropriating and subverting the terminology and imagery of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>; applying this to post-war German experience instead.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Eventually in 1990, following the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_With_Respect_to_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany</a>, the unified Germany indeed confirmed in treaties with Poland and the Soviet Union that the transfer of sovereignty over the former German eastern territories in 1945 had been permanent and irreversible; Germany now undertaking never again to make territorial claims in respect of these lands.
</p><p>The intended governing body of Germany was called the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Allied Control Council</a>, consisting of the commanders-in-chief in Germany of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union; who exercised supreme authority in their respective zones, while supposedly acting in concert on questions affecting the whole country. In actuality however, the French consistently blocked any progress towards re-establishing all-German governing institutions; substantially in pursuit of French aspirations for a dismembered Germany, but also as a response to the exclusion of France from the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, which lay in the Soviet (eastern) sector, was also divided into four sectors with the Western sectors later becoming <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> and the Soviet sector becoming <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a>, capital of East Germany.
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merchant_flag_of_Germany_(1946%E2%80%931949).svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Merchant_flag_of_Germany_%281946%E2%80%931949%29.svg/220px-Merchant_flag_of_Germany_%281946%E2%80%931949%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Merchant_flag_of_Germany_%281946%E2%80%931949%29.svg/330px-Merchant_flag_of_Germany_%281946%E2%80%931949%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Merchant_flag_of_Germany_%281946%E2%80%931949%29.svg/440px-Merchant_flag_of_Germany_%281946%E2%80%931949%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Germany_(1946-1949).svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Provisional Civil Ensign</div></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Elimination_of_war_potential_and_reparations">Elimination of war potential and reparations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Elimination of war potential and reparations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Denazification">Denazification</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Denazification">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></div>
<p>A key item in the occupiers' agenda was <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">denazification</a>. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastika</a> and other outward symbols of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> regime were banned, and a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">Provisional Civil Ensign</a> was established as a temporary German flag. It remained the official flag of the country (necessary for reasons of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>) until East Germany and West Germany (see below) were independently established in 1949.
</p><p>The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union had agreed at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> to a broad program of decentralization, treating Germany as a single economic unit with some central administrative departments. These plans never materialised, initially because France blocked any establishment of central administrative or political structures for Germany; and also as both the Soviet Union and France were intent on extracting as much material benefit as possible from their occupation zones in order to make good in part the enormous destruction caused by the German Wehrmacht; and the policy broke down completely in 1948 when the Russians blockaded West Berlin and the period known as the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> began.
It was agreed at Potsdam that the leading members of the Nazi regime who had been captured should be put on trial accused of crimes against humanity, and this was one of the few points on which the four powers were able to agree.
In order to secure the presence of the western allies in Berlin, the United States agreed to withdraw from Thuringia and Saxony in exchange for the division of Berlin into four sectors.
</p><p>Future President and General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> and the US War Department initially implemented a strict non-fraternization policy between the US troops and German citizens. The State Department and individual US congressmen pressured to have this policy lifted. In June 1945 the prohibition against speaking with German children was loosened. In July troops were permitted to speak to German adults in certain circumstances. In September 1945 the entire policy was dropped. Only the ban on marriage between Americans and German or Austrian civilians remained in place until 11 December 1946 and 2 January 1946 respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Industrial_disarmament_in_western_Germany">Industrial disarmament in western Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Industrial disarmament in western Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></div>
<p>The initial proposal for the post-surrender policy of the Western powers, the so-called <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a> proposed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Morgenthau, Jr.">Henry Morgenthau, Jr.</a>, was one of "pastoralization".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> The Morgenthau Plan, though subsequently ostensibly shelved due to public opposition, influenced occupation policy; most notably through the U.S. punitive occupation directive <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JCS_1067" class="mw-redirect" title="JCS 1067">JCS 1067</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_industrial_plans_for_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="The industrial plans for Germany">The industrial plans for Germany</a><sup id="cite_ref-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>The "Level of Industry plans for Germany" were the plans to lower German industrial potential after <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. At the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Potsdam conference">Potsdam conference</a>, with the U.S. operating under influence of the Morgenthau plan,<sup id="cite_ref-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517-18">[18]</a></sup> the victorious Allies decided to abolish the German armed forces as well as all munitions factories and civilian industries that could support them. This included the destruction of all ship and aircraft manufacturing capability. Further, it was decided that civilian industries which might have a military potential, which in the modern era of "total war" included virtually all, were to be severely restricted. The restriction of the latter was set to Germany's "approved peacetime needs", which were defined to be set on the average European standard. In order to achieve this, each type of industry was subsequently reviewed to see how many factories Germany required under these minimum level of industry requirements.
</p><p>The first plan, from 29 March 1946, stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Manufacturing plant">manufacturing plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production—the maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25% of the prewar production level.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the U.S., France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> (1932).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Car production was set to 10% of pre-war levels, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered-down plans, equipment had been removed from 706 factories in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons.<sup id="cite_ref-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>Timber exports from the U.S. occupation zone were particularly heavy. Sources in the U.S. government stated that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests."<sup id="cite_ref-Balabkins_Forests_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balabkins_Forests-23">[23]</a></sup>
</p><p>With the beginning of the Cold War, the Western policies changed as it became evident that a return to operation of the West German industry was needed not only for the restoration of the whole European economy but also for the rearmament of West Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union. On 6 September 1946 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">United States Secretary of State</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> made the famous speech <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a>, also known as the Stuttgart speech, where he amongst other things repudiated the Morgenthau plan-influenced policies and gave the West Germans hope for the future. Reports such as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_President%27s_Economic_Mission_to_Germany_and_Austria" title="The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria">The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria</a> helped to show the U.S. public how bad the situation in Germany really was.
</p><p>The next improvement came in July 1947, when after lobbying by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>, and Generals <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Clay</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Marshall" class="mw-redirect" title="George Marshall">Marshall</a>, the Truman administration decided that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent.<sup id="cite_ref-Ray_Salvatore_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ray_Salvatore-24">[24]</a></sup> In July 1947, President <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> rescinded on "national security grounds"<sup id="cite_ref-Ray_Salvatore_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ray_Salvatore-24">[24]</a></sup> the punitive occupation directive <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JCS_1067" class="mw-redirect" title="JCS 1067">JCS 1067</a>, which had directed the U.S. forces in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>The dismantling did however continue, and in 1949 West German Chancellor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> wrote to the Allies requesting that it end, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories and also the unpopularity of the policy.<sup id="cite_ref-Shadow_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shadow-26">[26]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 259">: 259 </span></sup> Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petersberg_Agreement" title="Petersberg Agreement">Petersberg Agreement</a> of November 1949 reduced the levels vastly, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The final limitations on German industrial levels were lifted after the establishment of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</a> in 1951, though arms manufacture remained prohibited.<sup id="cite_ref-Shadow_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shadow-26">[26]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 260, 270–71">: 260, 270–71 </span></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Relations_with_France">Relations with France</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Relations with France">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Germany's second largest center of mining and industry, Upper <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>, had been handed over by the Allies to Poland at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Potsdam conference">Potsdam conference</a> and the German population was being forcibly expelled.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Authority_for_the_Ruhr" title="International Authority for the Ruhr">International Authority for the Ruhr</a> (IAR) was created as part of the agreement negotiated at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Six-Power_Conference" title="London Six-Power Conference">London Six-Power conference</a> in June 1948 to establish the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> French support to internationalize the Ruhr through the IAR was abandoned in 1951 with the West German agreement to pool its coal and steel markets within <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</a>.
</p><p>In the speech <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a>, held in Stuttgart on 6 September 1946, the United States <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> stated the U.S. motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory". The Saar came under French administration in 1947 as the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">Saar Protectorate</a>, but did return to Germany in January 1957 (following a referendum), with economic reintegration with Germany occurring a few years later.
</p><p>In August 1954 the French parliament voted down the treaty that would have established the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Defense_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="European Defense Community">European Defense Community</a>, a treaty they themselves had proposed. Germany was eventually allowed to rearm under the auspices of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_European_Union" title="Western European Union">Western European Union</a>, and later <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Dismantling_in_East_Germany">Dismantling in East Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dismantling in East Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The Soviet Union engaged in a massive industrial dismantling campaign in its occupation zone, much more intensive than that carried out by the Western powers. While the Soviet powers soon realized that their actions alienated the German workforce from the Communist cause, they decided that the desperate economic situation within the Soviet Union took priority over alliance building. The allied leaders had agreed on paper to economic and political cooperation but the issue of reparations dealt an early blow to the prospect of a united Germany in 1945. The figure of $20 Billion had been floated by Stalin as an adequate recompense but as the United States refused to consider this a basis for negotiation The Soviet Union was left only with the opportunity of extracting its own reparations, at a heavy cost to the East Germans. This was the beginning of the formal split of Germany.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Marshall_plan_and_currency_reform">Marshall plan and currency reform</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Marshall plan and currency reform">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Mark</a></div>
<p>With the Western Allies eventually becoming concerned about the deteriorating economic situation in their "<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trizone" class="mw-redirect" title="Trizone">Trizone</a>", the American <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> of economic aid was extended to Western Germany in 1948 and a currency reform, which had been prohibited under the previous occupation directive JCS 1067, introduced the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Mark</a> and halted rampant inflation. Though the Marshall Plan is regarded as playing a key psychological role in the West German recovery, other factors were also significant.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Soviets had not agreed to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a> reform; in March 1948 they withdrew from the four-power governing bodies, and in June 1948 they initiated the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_blockade" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin blockade">Berlin blockade</a>, blocking all ground transport routes between <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Western Germany</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>. The Western Allies replied with a continuous <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Airlift" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Airlift">airlift</a> of supplies to the western half of the city. The Soviets ended the blockade after 11 months.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reparations_to_the_U.S.">Reparations to the U.S.</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reparations to the U.S.">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reparations_for_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German reparations for World War II">German reparations for World War II</a></div>
<p>The Allies confiscated <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "<i>Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany</i>", that the "intellectual reparations" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000000000_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1000000000 (number)">billion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> During the more than two years that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Germany could take place, as any results would have been automatically available to overseas competitors who were encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all records and facilities. Meanwhile, thousands of the best German scientists were being put to work in the U.S. (see also <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation Paperclip</a>)
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nutritional_levels">Nutritional levels</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nutritional levels">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811,_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811%2C_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811%2C_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811%2C_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811%2C_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811%2C_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811%2C_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="535" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28811,_Tagesration_eines_Normalverbrauchers.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The average daily food ration in the UK occupation zone (1948)</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419,_Hungerwinter,_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419%2C_Hungerwinter%2C_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419%2C_Hungerwinter%2C_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419%2C_Hungerwinter%2C_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419%2C_Hungerwinter%2C_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419%2C_Hungerwinter%2C_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419%2C_Hungerwinter%2C_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="543" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R94419,_Hungerwinter,_zusammengebrochener_Mann.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Collapsed employee of the labor office during the hunger-winter, December 1948.</div></div></div>
<p>During the war, Germans seized food supplies from occupied countries and forced millions of foreigners to work on German farms, in addition to food shipped from farms in eastern Germany. When this ended in 1945, the German rationing system (which stayed in place) had much lower supplies of food.<sup id="cite_ref-Bessel_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bessel-33">[33]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 342–54">: 342–54 </span></sup> The U.S. Army sent in large shipments of food to feed some 7.7 million prisoners of war—far more than they had expected<sup id="cite_ref-Bessel_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bessel-33">[33]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 200">: 200 </span></sup>—as well as the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> For several years following the surrender, German nutritional levels were low. The Germans were not high on the priority list for international aid, which went to the victims of the Nazis.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 281">: 281 </span></sup> It was directed that all relief went to non-German <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displaced_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced person">displaced persons</a>, liberated Allied <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POW" class="mw-redirect" title="POW">POWs</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration camp">concentration camp</a> inmates.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 281–82">: 281–82 </span></sup> During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and UK occupation zones received 1200 kilocalories a day in official rations, not counting food they grew themselves or purchased on the large-scale <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 280">: 280 </span></sup> In early October 1945 the UK government privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 280">: 280 </span></sup> The German <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a> was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 281–82">: 281–82 </span></sup> The few agencies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous Caritasverband, were not allowed to use imported supplies. When the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a> attempted to transmit food supplies from Chile to German infants, the U.S. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="State Department">State Department</a> forbade it.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 281">: 281 </span></sup> The German food situation became worse during the very cold winter of 1946–1947 when German calorie intake ranged from 1,000–1,500 kilocalories per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for heating.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 244">: 244 </span></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Forced_labour_reparations">Forced labour reparations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Forced labour reparations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labor_of_Germans_after_World_War_II" title="Forced labor of Germans after World War II">Forced labor of Germans after World War II</a></div>
<p>As agreed by the Allies at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yalta_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Yalta conference">Yalta conference</a> Germans were used as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a> as part of the reparations to be extracted. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> In Norway the last available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mass_rape">Mass rape</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mass rape">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a></div><p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Naimark" title="Norman Naimark">Norman Naimark</a> writes in <i>The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949</i> that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> in the months preceding and years following the capitulation will never be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 victims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in "Befreier und Befreite". Many of these victims were raped repeatedly. Naimark states that not only had each victim to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted a massive <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_trauma" title="Collective trauma">collective trauma</a> on the East German nation (the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="German Democratic Republic">German Democratic Republic</a>). Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until—one could argue—the present."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Some of the victims had been raped as many as 60 to 70 times<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (January 2020)">dubious</span></a> <span class="metadata"> – <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)#Dubious" title="Talk:History of Germany (1945–1990)">discuss</a></span></i>]</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> According to German historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miriam_Gebhardt" title="Miriam Gebhardt">Miriam Gebhardt</a>, as many as 190,000 women were raped by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">U.S. soldiers in Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
</p><h3><span class="mw-headline" id="German_states">German states</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: German states">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">Saar Protectorate</a></div>
<p>On 16 February 1946, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">Saar Protectorate</a> had been established under French control, in the area corresponding to the current German state of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarland" title="Saarland">Saarland</a>. It was not allowed to join its fellow German neighbors until a plebiscite in 1955 rejected the proposed autonomy. This paved the way for the accession of the Saarland to the Federal Republic of Germany as its 12th state, which went into effect on 1 January 1957.
</p><p>On 23 May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, <i>Bundesrepublik Deutschland</i>) was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a> as its "provisional" capital. It comprised the area of 11 newly formed states (replacing the pre-war states), with present-day <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Baden-Württemberg">Baden-Württemberg</a> being split into three states until 1952). The Federal Republic was declared to have "the full authority of a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereign</a> state" on 5 May 1955.
On 7 October 1949 the German Democratic Republic (GDR, <i>Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR)</i>), with East Berlin as its capital, was established in the Soviet Zone.
</p><p>The 1952 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin_Note" title="Stalin Note">Stalin Note</a> proposed <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disengagement_(Cold_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Disengagement (Cold War)">disengagement</a> from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> but Britain, France, and the United States rejected the offer as insincere. Also, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer preferred "Westintegration", rejecting "experiments".
</p><p>In English, the two larger states were known informally as "West Germany" and "East Germany" respectively. In both cases, the former occupying troops remained permanently stationed there. The former German capital, Berlin, was a special case, being divided into East Berlin and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>, with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory. Though the German inhabitants of West Berlin were citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, West Berlin was not legally incorporated into West Germany; it remained under the formal occupation of the western allies until 1990, although most day-to-day administration was conducted by an elected West Berlin government.
</p><p>West Germany was allied with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. A western democratic country with a "<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">social market economy</a>", the country would from the 1950s onwards come to enjoy prolonged economic growth (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftswunder" title="Wirtschaftswunder">Wirtschaftswunder</a>) following the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> help from the Allies, the currency reform of June 1948 and helped by the fact that the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> (1950–53) led to a worldwide increased demand for goods, where the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products.
</p><p>East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Country_comparison">Country comparison</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Country comparison">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>
</th>
<th width="400"><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></b><br />German Democratic Republic (<span style="font-size:90%;"><i>Deutsche Demokratische Republik</i></span>)
</th>
<th width="400"><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></b><br />Federal Republic of Germany (<span style="font-size:90%;"><i>Bundesrepublik Deutschland</i></span>)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Flag & Coat of arms</b>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany"><img alt="East Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/135px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="135" height="81" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/203px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/270px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg" class="image"><img alt="State arms of German Democratic Republic.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg/90px-State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="92" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg/135px-State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg/180px-State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="300" /></a>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany"><img alt="West Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/135px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="135" height="81" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/203px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/270px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="image"><img alt="Coat of arms of Germany.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="117" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="650" /></a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Population in 1990</b>
</td>
<td>16,111,000
</td>
<td>63,254,000
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">Area</a></b>
</td>
<td>108,333 km<sup>2</sup> (41,828 sq mi)
</td>
<td>248,577 km<sup>2</sup> (95,976 sq mi)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Government</b>
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxist-Leninist</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> totalitarian socialist republic
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federal</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary</a> constitutional republic
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Capital</b>
</td>
<td rowspan="2"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_East_Berlin_(1956%E2%80%931990).svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of East Berlin (1956–1990).svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_East_Berlin_%281956%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="660" /></a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Berlin" title="East Berlin">East Berlin</a> – 1,279,212
</td>
<td rowspan="2"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg/23px-Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg/35px-Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg/46px-Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a> – 276,653
<p><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> - 1,652,363
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Largest City</b>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Official language</b>
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>First Leader</b>
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Ulbricht" title="Walter Ulbricht">Walter Ulbricht</a><br /><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_of_East_Germany" title="Leadership of East Germany">First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany</a></i><br />(1950-1971)
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a><br /><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor of Germany</a></i><br />(1949–1963)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Last Leader</b>
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_of_East_Germany" title="Leadership of East Germany">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothar_de_Maizi%C3%A8re" title="Lothar de Maizière">Lothar de Maizière</a> (1990)
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a> (1982–1990)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Main religions</b>
</td>
<td>70.0% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreligion_in_Germany" title="Irreligion in Germany">Irreligion</a><br /> 25.0% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Church_in_Germany" title="Evangelical Church in Germany">Evangelical Church in Germany</a><br /> 10.6% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Germany" title="Catholic Church in Germany">Roman Catholic</a>
</td>
<td>42.9% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Germany" title="Catholic Church in Germany">Roman Catholic</a><br /> 41.6% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Church_in_Germany" title="Evangelical Church in Germany">Evangelical Church in Germany</a><br />14.1% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreligion_in_Germany" title="Irreligion in Germany">Irreligion</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, other <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a>, and other religions
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>GDP</b>
</td>
<td>$82 billion<br /> $5,100 per capita
</td>
<td>$1.182 trillion<br /> $18,690 per capita
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Currency</b>
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_German_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="East German Mark">East German Mark</a> (M) – DDM
</td>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Mark</a> (DM) – DEM
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span id="West_Germany_.28Federal_Republic_of_Germany.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="West_Germany_(Federal_Republic_of_Germany)">West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adenauer_1956.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Adenauer_1956.jpg/170px-Adenauer_1956.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Adenauer_1956.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="253" data-file-height="340" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adenauer_1956.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a></div></div></div>
<p>The Western Allies turned over increasing authority to West German officials and moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government by creating a central Economic Council for their zones. The program later provided for a West German <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituent_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Constituent Assembly">constituent assembly</a>, an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and the political and economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. On 23 May 1949, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Law_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany"><i>Grundgesetz</i></a> (Basic Law), the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated. Following elections in August, the first federal government was formed on 20 September 1949, by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">CDU</a>). Adenauer's government was a coalition of the CDU, the CSU and the Free Democrats. The next day, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_statute" title="Occupation statute">occupation statute</a> came into force, granting powers of self-government with certain exceptions.
</p><p>In 1949 the new <i>provisional</i> capital of the Federal Republic of Germany was established in Bonn, after Chancellor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> intervened emphatically for Bonn (which was only fifteen kilometers away from his hometown). Most of the members of the German <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional assembly">constitutional assembly</a> (as well as the U.S. Supreme Command) had favored <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt am Main">Frankfurt am Main</a> where the Hessian administration had already started the construction of an assembly hall. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlamentarischer_Rat" title="Parlamentarischer Rat">Parlamentarischer Rat</a> (interim parliament) proposed a new location for the capital, as Berlin was then a special administrative region controlled directly by the allies and surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation. The former <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_building" title="Reichstag building">Reichstag building</a> in Berlin was occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesversammlung_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesversammlung (Germany)">Bundesversammlung</a>, the body which elects the German Federal President. However, the Soviets disrupted the use of the Reichstag building by flying very noisy supersonic jets near the building. A number of cities were proposed to host the federal government, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassel" title="Kassel">Kassel</a> (among others) was eliminated in the first round. Other politicians opposed the choice of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> out of concern that, as one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, it would be accepted as a "permanent" capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">reunification</a> and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092,_Andernach,_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092%2C_Andernach%2C_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092%2C_Andernach%2C_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092%2C_Andernach%2C_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092%2C_Andernach%2C_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092%2C_Andernach%2C_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092%2C_Andernach%2C_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="562" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0092,_Andernach,_Adenauer_besucht_Bundeswehr.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Konrad Adenauer, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Heusinger" title="Adolf Heusinger">Adolf Heusinger</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Speidel" title="Hans Speidel">Hans Speidel</a> inspect formations of the newly created Bundeswehr on 20 January 1955</div></div></div>
<p>After the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petersberg_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Petersberg agreement">Petersberg agreement</a> West Germany quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_and_Paris_Conferences" title="London and Paris Conferences">London and Paris agreements</a> of 1954 restored most of the state's sovereignty (with some exceptions) in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization</a> (NATO). In April 1951, West Germany joined with France, Italy and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a> countries in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</a> (forerunner of the European Union).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>The outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950) led to Washington calling for the rearmament of West Germany in order to defend western Europe from the Soviet threat. But the memory of German aggression led other European states to seek tight control over the West German military. Germany's partners in the Coal and Steel Community decided to establish a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Defence_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="European Defence Community">European Defence Community</a> (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.
</p><p>Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French had killed their own proposal. Other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels Treaty">Brussels Treaty</a> was modified to include West Germany, and to form the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_European_Union" title="Western European Union">Western European Union</a> (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm, and have full sovereign control of its military; the WEU would, however, regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Fears of a return to Nazism, however, soon receded, and as a consequence, these provisions of the WEU treaty have little effect today.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1000000th_Beetle.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1000000th_Beetle.jpg/220px-1000000th_Beetle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1000000th_Beetle.jpg/330px-1000000th_Beetle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/1000000th_Beetle.jpg/440px-1000000th_Beetle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2273" data-file-height="1593" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1000000th_Beetle.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Beetle" title="Volkswagen Beetle">Volkswagen Beetle</a> was an icon of West German reconstruction.</div></div></div>
<p>Between 1949 and 1960, the West German economy grew at an unparalleled rate.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> Low rates of inflation, modest wage increases and a quickly rising export quota made it possible to restore the economy and brought a modest prosperity. According to the official statistics the German gross national product grew in average by about 7% annually between 1950 and 1960.
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption>GNP growth 1950–1960
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<td>1951</td>
<td>1952</td>
<td>1953</td>
<td>1954</td>
<td>1955</td>
<td>1956</td>
<td>1957</td>
<td>1958</td>
<td>1959</td>
<td>1960
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>+ 10.5</td>
<td>+ 8.3</td>
<td>+ 7.5</td>
<td>+ 7.4</td>
<td>+11.5</td>
<td>+ 6.9</td>
<td>+ 5.4</td>
<td>+3.3</td>
<td>+ 6.7</td>
<td>+8.8
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><sup id="cite_ref-Informationen_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Informationen-43">[43]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 36">: 36 </span></sup>
</p><p>The initial demand for housing, the growing demand for machine tools, chemicals, and automobiles and a rapidly increasing agricultural production were the initial triggers to this 'Wirtschaftswunder' (economic miracle) as it was known, although there was nothing miraculous about it. The era became closely linked with the name of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Erhard" title="Ludwig Erhard">Ludwig Erhard</a>, who led the Ministry of Economics during the decade. Unemployment at the start of the decade stood at 10.3%, but by 1960 it had dropped to 1.2%, practically speaking full employment. In fact, there was a growing demand for labor in many industries as the workforce grew by 3% per annum, the reserves of labor were virtually used up.<sup id="cite_ref-Informationen_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Informationen-43">[43]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 36">: 36 </span></sup>
The millions of displaced persons and the refugees from the eastern provinces had all been integrated into the workforce. At the end of the decade, thousands of younger East Germans were packing their bags and migrating westwards, posing an ever-growing problem for the GDR nomenclature. With the construction of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin wall">Berlin wall</a> in August 1961 they hoped to end the loss of labor and in doing so they posed the West German government with a new problem—how to satisfy the apparently insatiable demand for labor. The answer was to recruit unskilled workers from Southern European countries; the era of the <i>Gastarbeiter</i> (foreign laborers) began.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001,_Rom,_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001%2C_Rom%2C_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001%2C_Rom%2C_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001%2C_Rom%2C_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001%2C_Rom%2C_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001%2C_Rom%2C_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001%2C_Rom%2C_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="584" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-45653-0001,_Rom,_Vertr%C3%A4ge_%C3%BCber_Zollpakt_und_Eurotom_unterzeichnet.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Konrad Adenauer and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Hallstein" title="Walter Hallstein">Walter Hallstein</a> signing the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome" title="Treaty of Rome">Treaty of Rome</a> in 1957</div></div></div>
<p>In October 1961 an initial agreement was signed with the Turkish government and the first Gastarbeiter began to arrive. By 1966, some 1,300,000 foreign workers had been recruited mainly from Italy, Turkey, Spain, and Greece. By 1971, the number had reached 2.6 million workers. The initial plan was that single workers would come to Germany, would work for a limited number of years and then return home. The significant differences between wages in their home countries and in Germany led many workers to bring their families and to settle—at least until retirement—in Germany. That the German authorities took little notice of the radical changes that these shifts of population structure meant was the cause of considerable debate in later years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In the 1950s Federal Republic, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Restitution_Laws" title="German Restitution Laws">restitution laws</a> for compensation for those who had suffered under the Nazis was limited to only those who had suffered from "racial, religious or political reasons", which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 564">: 564 </span></sup> According to the 1953 law on compensation for suffering during the National Socialist era, only those with a territorial connection with Germany could receive compensation for their suffering, which had the effect of excluding the millions of people, mostly from Central and Eastern Europe, who had been taken to Germany to work as slave labor during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 565">: 565 </span></sup> In the same vein, to be eligible for compensation they would have to prove that they were part of the "realm of German language and culture", a requirement that excluded most of the surviving slave laborers who did not know German or at least enough German to be considered part of the "realm of German language and culture".<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 567">: 567 </span></sup> Likewise, the law excluded homosexuals, Gypsies, Communists, <i>Asoziale</i> ("Asocials" - people considered by the National Socialist state to be anti-social, a broad category comprising anyone from petty criminals to people who were merely eccentric and non-conformist), and homeless people for their suffering in the concentration camps under the grounds that all these people were "criminals" whom the state was protecting German society from by sending them to concentration camps, and in essence these victims of the National Socialist state got what they deserved, making them unworthy of compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 564, 565">: 564, 565 </span></sup> In this regard it is significant<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (August 2015)">according to whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> that the 1935 version of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragraph_175" title="Paragraph 175">Paragraph 175</a> was not repealed until 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-Burleigh,_Michael_page_183_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burleigh,_Michael_page_183-45">[45]</a></sup> As a result, German homosexuals - in many cases survivors of the concentration camps - between 1949 and 1969 continued to be convicted under the same law that had been used to convict them between 1935 and 1945, though in the period 1949–69 they were sent to prison rather than to a concentration camp.<sup id="cite_ref-Burleigh,_Michael_page_183_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burleigh,_Michael_page_183-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>A study done in 1953 showed that of the 42,000 people who had survived the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald concentration camp</a>, only 700 were entitled to compensation under the 1953 law.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 564">: 564 </span></sup> The German historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_L%C3%BCdtke" title="Alf Lüdtke">Alf Lüdtke</a> wrote that the decision to deny that the Roma and the Sinti had been victims of National Socialist racism and to exclude the Roma and Sinti from compensation under the grounds that they were all "criminals" reflected the same anti-Gypsy racism that made them the target of persecution and genocide during the National Socialist era.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 565, 568–69">: 565, 568–69 </span></sup> The cause of the Roma and Sinti excited so little public interest that it was not until 1979 that a group was founded to lobby for compensation for the Roma and the Sinti survivors.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 568–569">: 568–569 </span></sup> Communist concentration camp survivors were excluded from compensation under the grounds that in 1933 the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">KPD</a> had been seeking "violent domination" by working for a Communist revolution, and thus the banning of the KPD and the subsequent repression of the Communists were justified.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 564">: 564 </span></sup> In 1956, the law was amended to allow Communist concentration camp survivors to collect compensation provided that they had not been associated with Communist causes after 1945, but as almost all the surviving Communists belonged to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Persecutees_of_the_Nazi_Regime" title="Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime">Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime</a>, which had been banned in 1951 by the Hamburg government as a Communist front organisation, the new law did not help many of the KPD survivors.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 565–566">: 565–566 </span></sup> Compensation started to be paid to most Communist survivors regardless if they had belonged to the VVN or not following a 1967 court ruling, through the same court ruling had excluded those Communists who had "actively" fought the constitutional order after the banning of the KPD again in 1956.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 565–566">: 565–566 </span></sup> Only in the 1980s were demands made mostly from members of the SPD, FDP and above all the Green parties that the Federal Republic pay compensation to the Roma, Sinti, gay, homeless and <i>Asoziale</i> survivors of the concentration camps.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 568">: 568 </span></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:192px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg/190px-KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="267" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg/285px-KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg/380px-KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="1112" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KAS-Freiheit-Bild-5414-2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Anti-communist propaganda posters of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a>, 1951</div></div></div>
<p>In regards to the memory of the Nazi period in the 1950s Federal Republic, there was a marked tendency to argue that everyone regardless of what side they had been on in World War II were all equally victims of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 561">: 561 </span></sup> In the same way, the Nazi regime tended to be portrayed in the 1950s as a small clique of criminals entirely unrepresentative of German society who were sharply demarcated from the rest of German society or as the German historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Ludtke" class="mw-redirect" title="Alf Ludtke">Alf Ludtke</a> argued in popular memory that it was a case of "us" (i.e ordinary people) ruled over by "them" (i.e. the Nazis).<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 561–62">: 561–62 </span></sup> Though the Nazi regime itself was rarely glorified in popular memory, in the 1950s World War II and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> were intensely gloried and celebrated by the public.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235">: 235 </span></sup> In countless memoirs, novels, histories, newspaper articles, films, magazines, and <i>Landserheft</i> (a type of comic book in Germany glorifying war), the Wehrmacht was celebrated as an awesome, heroic fighting force that had fought a "clean war" unlike the SS and which would have won the war as the Wehrmacht was always portrayed as superior to the Allied forces had not been for mistakes on the part of Hitler or workings of "fate".<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235">: 235 </span></sup> The Second World War was usually portrayed in heavily romantic aura in various works that celebrated the comradeship and heroism of ordinary soldiers under danger with the war itself being shown as "...a great adventure for idealists and daredevils..." who for the most part had a thoroughly fun time.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235">: 235 </span></sup> The tendency in the 1950s to glorify war by depicting World War II as a fun-filled, grand adventure for the men who served in Hitler's war machine meant the horrors and hardship of the war were often downplayed. In his 2004 essay "Celluloid Soldiers" about post-war German films, the Israeli historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omer_Bartov" title="Omer Bartov">Omer Bartov</a> wrote that German films of the 1950s always showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable and patriotic, while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Commendations of the victims of the Nazis tended to center around honoring those involved in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">July 20 <i>putsch</i></a> attempt of 1944, which meant annual ceremonies attended by all the leading politicians at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendlerblock" title="Bendlerblock">Bendlerblock</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%B6tzensee_Prison" title="Plötzensee Prison">Plötzensee Prison</a> to honor those executed for their involvement in the 20 July <i>putsch</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 554–555">: 554–555 </span></sup> By contrast, almost no ceremonies were held in the 1950s at the ruins of the concentration camps like <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp">Bergen-Belsen</a> or <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a>, which were ignored and neglected by the <i>Länder</i> governments in charge of their care.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 555">: 555 </span></sup> Not until 1966 did the <i>Land</i> of Lower Saxony opened Bergen-Belsen to the public by founding a small "house of documentation", and even then it was in response to criticism that the Lower Saxon government was intentionally neglecting the ruins of Bergen-Belsen.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 555">: 555 </span></sup> Though it was usually claimed at the time that everybody in the Second World War was a victim, Ludtke commented that the disparity between the millions of Deutsche Marks spent in the 1950s in turning the Benderblock and Plötzensee prison into sites of remembrance honoring those conservatives executed after the 20 July <i>putsch</i> versus the neglect of the former concentration camps suggested that in both official and popular memory that some victims of the Nazis were considered more worthy of remembrance than others.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 554–555">: 554–555 </span></sup> It was against this context where popular memory was focused on glorifying the heroic deeds of the Wehrmacht while treating the genocide by the National Socialist regime as almost a footnote that in the autumn of 1959 that the philosopher <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a> gave a much-publicized speech on TV that called for <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i> ("coming to terms with the past").<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 550">: 550 </span></sup> Adorno stated that most people were engaged in a process of "willful forgetting" about the Nazi period and used euphemistic language to avoid confronting the period such as the use of the term <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></i> (Crystal Night) for the pogrom of November 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 550">: 550 </span></sup> Adorno called for promoting a critical "consciousness" that would allow people to "come to terms with the past".<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 551">: 551 </span></sup>
</p><p>West German authorities made great efforts to end the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">denazification</a> process that had been started by the occupying powers and to liberate <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_criminals" class="mw-redirect" title="War criminals">war criminals</a> from prison, including those that had been convicted at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a>, while demarcating the sphere of legitimate political activity against blatant attempts at a political rehabilitation of the Nazi regime.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>Until the end of occupation in 1990, the three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 45,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)
</p><p>Political life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Erhard" title="Ludwig Erhard">Ludwig Erhard</a> (1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger" title="Kurt Georg Kiesinger">Kurt Georg Kiesinger</a> (1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by coalitions of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria" title="Christian Social Union in Bavaria">Christian Social Union</a> (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Democratic Party of Germany">Free Democratic Party</a> (FDP).
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_Sixties:_a_time_for_reform">The Sixties: a time for reform</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Sixties: a time for reform">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would place Erhard in this office. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. His aim was apparently to remain in control of German politics for another ten years despite the growing mood for change, but when his advisers informed him just how limited the powers of the president were he quickly lost interest.<sup id="cite_ref-Informationen_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Informationen-43">[43]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_L%C3%BCbke" title="Heinrich Lübke">Heinrich Lübke</a> took on the task and was duly elected.
</p><p>In October 1962, the weekly news magazine <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a></i> published an analysis of the West German military defense. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of <i>Der Spiegel</i> in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized under the orders of the CSU Defense Minister <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Josef_Strauss" title="Franz Josef Strauss">Franz Josef Strauss</a>. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the <i>Bundestag</i> that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Augstein" title="Rudolf Augstein">Rudolf Augstein</a> spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Josef_Strauss" title="Franz Josef Strauss">Franz Josef Strauss</a>, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis by his heavy-handed attempt to silence <i>Der Spiegel</i> for essentially running a story that was unflattering to him (which incidentally was true).<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_Frederick_page_371_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_Frederick_page_371-49">[49]</a></sup> The British historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Taylor_(historian)" title="Frederick Taylor (historian)">Frederick Taylor</a> argued that the Federal Republic under Adenauer retained many of the characteristics of the authoritarian "deep state" that existed under the Weimar Republic, and that the <i>Der Spiegel</i> affair marked an important turning point in German values as ordinary people rejected the old authoritarian values in favor of the more democratic values that are today seen as the bedrock of the Federal Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_Frederick_page_371_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_Frederick_page_371-49">[49]</a></sup> Adenauer's own reputation was impaired by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiegel_scandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiegel scandal">Spiegel affair</a> and he announced that he would step down in the autumn of 1963. His successor was to be the Economics Minister <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Erhard" title="Ludwig Erhard">Ludwig Erhard</a>, who was the man widely credited as the father of the "economic miracle" of the 1950s and of whom great things were expected.<sup id="cite_ref-Informationen_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Informationen-43">[43]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup>
</p><p>The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but, a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. In 1963, a German court ruled that a KGB assassin named <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohdan_Stashynsky" title="Bohdan Stashynsky">Bohdan Stashynsky</a> who had committed several murders in the Federal Republic in the late 1950s was not legally guilty of murder, but was only an accomplice to murder as the responsibility for Stashynsky's murders rested only with his superiors in Moscow who had given him his orders.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 245">: 245 </span></sup> The legal implications of the Stashynsky case, namely that in a totalitarian system only executive decision-makers can be held legally responsible for any murders committed and that anyone else who follows orders and commits murders were just accomplices to murder was to greatly hinder the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the coming decades, and ensured that even when convicted, that Nazi criminals received the far lighter sentences reserved for accomplices to murders than the harsher sentences given to murderers.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 245">: 245 </span></sup> The term executive decision-maker who could be found guilty of murder was reserved by the courts only for those at the highest levels of the <i>Reich</i> leadership during the Nazi period.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 245">: 245 </span></sup> The only way that a Nazi criminal could be convicted of murder was to show that they were not following orders at the time and had acted on their initiative when killing someone.<sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford-50">[50]</a></sup> One courageous attorney, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Bauer" title="Fritz Bauer">Fritz Bauer</a> patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz death camp and about twenty were put trial in Frankfurt between 1963-1965 in what came to be known as the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_Auschwitz_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials">Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials</a>. The men on trial in Frankfurt were tried only for murders and other crimes that they committed on their own initiative at Auschwitz and were not tried for anything that they did at Auschwitz when following orders, which was considered by the courts to be the lesser crime of accomplice to murder.<sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford-50">[50]</a></sup> Because of this, Bauer could only indict for murder those who killed when not following orders, and those who had killed when following orders were indicted as accomplices to murder. Moreover because of the legal distinction between murderers and accomplices to murder, an SS man who killed thousands while operating the gas chambers at Auschwitz could only be found guilty of being accomplice to murder because he had been following orders, while an SS man who had beaten one inmate to death on his initiative could be convicted of murder because he had not been following orders.<sup id="cite_ref-Fulford_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulford-50">[50]</a></sup> Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the <i>Shoah</i> was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term 'Holocaust' for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1943 in a New York Times piece that references "the hundreds and thousands of European Jews still surviving the Nazi holocaust". The term came into widespread use to describe the event following the TV film Holocaust in 1978) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.
</p><p>In the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, the growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate petered into a recession, with no growth in 1967. The economic showdown forced Erhard's resignation in 1966 and he was replaced with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger" title="Kurt Georg Kiesinger">Kurt Georg Kiesinger</a> of the CDU. Kiesinger was to attract much controversy because in 1933 he had joined the National Socialist Legal Guild and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">NSDAP</a> (membership in the former was necessary in order to practice law, but membership in the latter was entirely voluntary).
</p><p>In order to deal with the problem of the economic slowdown, a new coalition was formed. Kiesinger's 1966–69 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">grand coalition</a> was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party</a> (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Emergency_Acts" title="German Emergency Acts">emergency acts</a>—the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> to be limited in case of a state of emergency.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rudi.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Rudi.jpg/170px-Rudi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Rudi.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="268" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rudi.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudi_Dutschke" title="Rudi Dutschke">Rudi Dutschke</a>, student leader</div></div></div>
<p>During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">Free Democratic Party</a>, the rising <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_student_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="German student movement">German student movement</a>, a group calling itself <i>Notstand der Demokratie</i> (Democracy in Crisis), the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au%C3%9Ferparlamentarische_Opposition" title="Außerparlamentarische Opposition">Außerparlamentarische Opposition</a> and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. The late 1960s saw the rise of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_student_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="German student movement">student movement</a> and university campuses in a constant state of uproar. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967 when the Shah of Iran visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as 'Jubelperser'), armed with staves and bricks, attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the center was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benno_Ohnesorg" class="mw-redirect" title="Benno Ohnesorg">Benno Ohnesorg</a> was shot in the head and killed by a plain-clothed policeman <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl-Heinz_Kurras" title="Karl-Heinz Kurras">Karl-Heinz Kurras</a>. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a> security forces.)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">tabloid</a> <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild-Zeitung" class="mw-redirect" title="Bild-Zeitung">Bild-Zeitung</a></i> newspaper, to be acts of terrorism. The conservative <i>Bild-Zeitung</i> waged a massive campaign against the protesters who were declared to be just hooligans and thugs in the pay of East Germany. The press baron <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Springer" title="Axel Springer">Axel Springer</a> emerged as one of the principal hate figures for the student protesters because of <i>Bild-Zeitung'</i>s often violent attacks on them. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigor with which demonstrations were repressed, led to mounting militancy among the students at the universities of Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudi_Dutschke" title="Rudi Dutschke">Rudi Dutschke</a> who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken.<sup id="cite_ref-Kraushaar_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kraushaar-51">[51]</a></sup> In the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of their parents' generation in the Nazi era.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_(16910985309).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_%2816910985309%29.jpg/200px-Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_%2816910985309%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="306" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_%2816910985309%29.jpg/300px-Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_%2816910985309%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_%2816910985309%29.jpg/400px-Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_%2816910985309%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1567" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ludwig_Binder_Haus_der_Geschichte_Studentenrevolte_1968_2001_03_0275.0011_(16910985309).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Protest against the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> in West Berlin in 1968</div></div></div>
<p>In 1968, the <i>Bundestag</i> passed a Misdemeanors Bill dealing with traffic misdemeanors, into which a high-ranking civil servant named Dr. Eduard Dreher who had been drafting the bill inserted a prefatory section to the bill under a very misleading heading that declared that henceforth there was a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> of 15 years from the time of the offense for the crime of being an accomplices to murder which was to apply retroactively, which made it impossible to prosecute war criminals even for being accomplices to murder since the statute of limitations as now defined for the last of the suspects had expired by 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 249">: 249 </span></sup> The <i>Bundestag</i> passed the Misdemeanors Bill without bothering to read the bill in its entirety so its members missed Dreher's amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 249">: 249 </span></sup> It was estimated in 1969 that thanks to Dreher's amendment to the Misdemeanors Bill that 90% of all Nazi war criminals now enjoyed total immunity from prosecution.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 249–50">: 249–50 </span></sup> The prosecutor Adalbert Rückerl who headed the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes told an interviewer in 1969 that this amendment had done immense harm to the ability of the Bureau to prosecute those suspected of war crimes and crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46">[46]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 249">: 249 </span></sup>
</p><p>The calling in question of the actions and policies of the government led to a new climate of debate by the late 1960s. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen_(state)" title="Bremen (state)">Free Hanseatic City of Bremen</a> provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1979, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic. In 1969, the <i>Bundestag</i> repealed the 1935 Nazi amendment to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragraph_175" title="Paragraph 175">Paragraph 175</a>, which not only made homosexual acts a felony, but had also made any expressions of homosexuality illegal (before 1935 only gay sex had been illegal). However, Paragraph 175 which made homosexual acts illegal remained on the statute books and was not repealed until 1994, although it had been softened in 1973 by making gay sex illegal only with those under the age of 18.
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RAF-Logo.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/RAF-Logo.svg/220px-RAF-Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/RAF-Logo.svg/330px-RAF-Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/RAF-Logo.svg/440px-RAF-Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="504" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RAF-Logo.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>RAF symbol</div></div></div>
<p>Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims, led to growing militancy among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the 'struggle against imperialism'.<sup id="cite_ref-Kraushaar_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kraushaar-51">[51]</a></sup> The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalizing the industrial workers and, taking an example from activities in Italy of the Brigade Rosse, many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the 'Baader-Meinhof Group', later known as the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army_Faction" title="Red Army Faction">Red Army Faction</a>, which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. The "Baader-Meinhof gang" was committed to the overthrow of the Federal Republic via terrorism in order to achieve the establishment of a Communist state. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name "RAF". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Political_developments_1969.E2.80.931990"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_developments_1969–1990">Political developments 1969–1990</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Political developments 1969–1990">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>In the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a>—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbors known as <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></i>, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Moscow_(1970)" title="Treaty of Moscow (1970)">Moscow Agreement</a>, August 1970, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_(1970)" title="Treaty of Warsaw (1970)">Warsaw Agreement</a>, December 1970, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four-Power Agreement</a> over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Treaty,_1972" title="Basic Treaty, 1972">agreement on relations between West and East Germany</a>, signed in December 1972).<sup id="cite_ref-Informationen_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Informationen-43">[43]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 32">: 32 </span></sup> These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long term, to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over East-Central Europe. During a visit to Warsaw on 7 December 1970, Brandt made the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warschauer_Kniefall" class="mw-redirect" title="Warschauer Kniefall">Warschauer Kniefall</a> by kneeling before a monument to those killed in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a>, a gesture of humility and penance that no German Chancellor had made until that time. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Guillaume" title="Günter Guillaume">Günter Guillaume</a>, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>. Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his winning the Nobel Peace Prize for 1971.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._military_vehicle,_West_Germany_1978.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/U.S._military_vehicle%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG/220px-U.S._military_vehicle%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/U.S._military_vehicle%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG/330px-U.S._military_vehicle%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/U.S._military_vehicle%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG/440px-U.S._military_vehicle%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2388" data-file-height="1696" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._military_vehicle,_West_Germany_1978.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>U.S. military convoys were still a regular sight in West Germany in the 1970s and 1980s.</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Army_tanks,_West_Germany_1978.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/U.S._Army_tanks%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG/220px-U.S._Army_tanks%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/U.S._Army_tanks%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG/330px-U.S._Army_tanks%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/U.S._Army_tanks%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG/440px-U.S._Army_tanks%2C_West_Germany_1978.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="1696" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Army_tanks,_West_Germany_1978.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>U.S. Army tanks being transported by rail in 1978</div></div></div>
<p>Finance Minister <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Schmidt" title="Helmut Schmidt">Helmut Schmidt</a> (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Dietrich_Genscher" title="Hans-Dietrich Genscher">Hans-Dietrich Genscher</a>, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> Throughout the 1970s, the Red Army Faction had continued its terrorist campaign, assassinating or kidnapping politicians, judges, businessmen, and policemen. The highpoint of the RAF violence came with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a> in autumn 1977. The industrialist <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanns-Martin_Schleyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanns-Martin Schleyer">Hanns-Martin Schleyer</a> was kidnapped on 5 September 1977 in order to force the government to free the imprisoned leaders of the Baader-Meinhof Gang. A group from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a> hijacked <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufthansa_Flight_181" title="Lufthansa Flight 181">Lufthansa Flight 181</a> to seize further hostages to free the RAF leaders. On 18 October 1977, the Lufthansa jet was stormed in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSG_9" title="GSG 9">GSG 9</a> commando unit, who were able to free the hostages. The same day, the leaders of the Baader-Meinhof gang, who had been waging a hunger strike, were found dead in their prison cells with gunshot wounds, which led to Schleyer being executed by his captors. The deaths were controversially ruled suicides.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> The Red Army Faction was to continue its terrorist campaign into the 1990s, but the German Autumn of 1977 was the highpoint of its campaign. That the Federal Republic had faced a crisis caused by a terrorist campaign from the radical left without succumbing to dictatorship as many feared that it would, was seen as vindication of the strength of German democracy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In January 1979, the American mini-series <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_(TV_miniseries)" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust (TV miniseries)">Holocaust</a></i> aired in West Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 543">: 543 </span></sup> The series, which was watched by 20 million people or 50% of West Germans, first brought the matter of the genocide in World War II to widespread public attention in a way that it had never been before.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 545–6">: 545–6 </span></sup> After each part of <i>Holocaust</i> was aired, there was a companion show where a panel of historians could answer questions from people phoning in.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 544–6">: 544–6 </span></sup> The historians' panels were literally overwhelmed with thousands of phone calls from shocked and outraged Germans, a great many of whom stated that they were born after 1945 and that was the first time that they learned that their country had practiced genocide in World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 545–6">: 545–6 </span></sup> By the late 1970s, an initially small number of young people had started to demand that the <i>Länder</i> governments stop neglecting the sites of the concentration camps, and start turning them into proper museums and sites of remembrance, turning them into "locations of learning" meant to jar visitors into thinking critically about the Nazi period.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 556–7">: 556–7 </span></sup>
</p><p>In 1980, the CDU/CSU ran Strauss as their joint candidate in the elections, and he was crushingly<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="vague (April 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> defeated by Schmidt. In October 1982, the SPD-FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU chairman <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a> as Chancellor in a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_Vote_of_No_Confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructive Vote of No Confidence">Constructive Vote of No Confidence</a>. Genscher continued as Foreign Minister in the new Kohl government. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the <i>Bundestag</i> of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Green_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="German Green Party">Greens</a>, who received 5.6% of the vote. In 1983, despite major protests from peace groups, the Kohl government allowed <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pershing_II" title="Pershing II">Pershing II</a> missiles to be stationed in the Federal Republic to counter the deployment of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSD-10_Pioneer" title="RSD-10 Pioneer">SS-20</a> cruise missiles by the Soviet Union in East Germany. In 1985, Kohl, who had something of a tin ear when it came to dealing with the Nazi past,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="vague (April 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> caused much controversy when he invited President <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> of the United States to visit the war cemetery at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitburg" title="Bitburg">Bitburg</a> to mark the 40th anniversary of the end of World War II. The Bitburg cemetery was soon revealed to contain the graves of SS men, which Kohl stated that he did not see as a problem and that to refuse to honor all of the dead of Bitburg including the SS men buried there was an insult to all Germans. Kohl stated that Reagan could come to the Federal Republic to hold a ceremony to honor the dead of Bitburg or not come at all, and that to change the venue of the service to another war cemetery that did not have SS men buried in it was not acceptable to him. Even more controversy was caused by Reagan's statement that all of the SS men killed fighting for Hitler in World War II were "just kids" who were just as much the victims of Hitler as those who been murdered by the SS in the Holocaust.<sup id="cite_ref-buchanan.org_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buchanan.org-55">[55]</a></sup> Despite the huge controversy caused by honoring the SS men buried at Bitburg, the visit to Bitburg went ahead, and Kohl and Reagan honored the dead of Bitburg. What was intended to promote German-American reconciliation turned out to be a public relations disaster that had the opposite effect. Public opinion polls showed that 72% of West Germans supported the service at Bitburg while American public opinion overwhelming disapproved of Reagan honoring the memory of the SS men who gave their lives for Hitler.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Despite or perhaps because of the Bitburg controversy, in 1985 a campaign had been started to build a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust in Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 557">: 557 </span></sup> It was felt by at least some Germans that there was something wrong about the Chancellor and the President of the United States honoring the memory of the SS men buried at Bitburg while there was no memorial to any of the people killed in the Holocaust. The campaign to build a Holocaust memorial, which Germany until then lacked, was given a major boost in November 1989 by the call by television journalist <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea_Rosh" title="Lea Rosh">Lea Rosh</a> to build the memorial at the site for the former Gestapo headquarters.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 557">: 557 </span></sup> In April 1992, the City of Berlin finally decided that a Holocaust memorial could be built.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 557">: 557 </span></sup> Along the same lines, in August 1987, protests put a stop to plans by the City of Frankfurt to raze the last remains of the Frankfurt Jewish Ghetto in order to redevelop the land, arguing that the remnants of the Frankfurt ghetto needed to be preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-Illusions_44-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illusions-44">[44]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 557">: 557 </span></sup>
</p><p>In January 1987, the Kohl-Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Jochen_Vogel" title="Hans-Jochen Vogel">Hans-Jochen Vogel</a>. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%. Later in 1987, Kohl had a summit with the East German leader <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a>. Unknown to Kohl, the meeting room had been bugged by the Stasi, and the Stasi tapes of the summit had Kohl saying to Honecker that he did not see any realistic chance of reunification in the foreseeable future.
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<h2><span id="East_Germany_.28German_Democratic_Republic.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="East_Germany_(German_Democratic_Republic)">East Germany (German Democratic Republic)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: East Germany (German Democratic Republic)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></div>
<p>In the Soviet occupation zone, the Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communist Party in April 1946 to form a new party, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party</a> (<i>Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands</i> or SED). The October 1946 elections resulted in coalition governments in the five <i>Land</i> (state) parliaments with the SED as the undisputed leader.
</p><p>A series of people's congresses were called in 1948 and early 1949 by the SED. Under Soviet direction, a constitution was drafted on 30 May 1949, and adopted on 7 October, the day when East Germany was formally proclaimed. The People's Chamber <i>(<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkskammer" title="Volkskammer">Volkskammer</a>)</i>—the lower house of the East German parliament—and an upper house—the States Chamber <i>(Länderkammer)</i>—were created. (The <i>Länderkammer</i> was abolished again in 1958.) On 11 October 1949, the two houses elected <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Pieck" title="Wilhelm Pieck">Wilhelm Pieck</a> as President, and an SED government was set up. The Soviet Union and its East European allies immediately recognized East Germany, although it remained largely unrecognized by noncommunist countries until 1972–73. East Germany established the structures of a single-party, centralized, totalitarian communist state. On 23 July 1952, the traditional <i>Länder</i> were abolished and, in their place, 14 <i>Bezirke</i> (districts) were established. Even though other parties formally existed, effectively, all government control was in the hands of the SED, and almost all important government positions were held by SED members.
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036,_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren,_bei_Berlin.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036%2C_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren%2C_bei_Berlin.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036%2C_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren%2C_bei_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036%2C_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren%2C_bei_Berlin.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036%2C_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren%2C_bei_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036%2C_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren%2C_bei_Berlin.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036%2C_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren%2C_bei_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="504" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036,_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren,_bei_Berlin.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>North Vietnamese leader <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> with East German <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Th%C3%A4lmann_Pioneer_Organisation" title="Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation">Young Pioneers</a>, 1957</div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_(East_Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Front (East Germany)">National Front</a> was an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_organization" title="Umbrella organization">umbrella organization</a> nominally consisting of the SED, four other political parties controlled and directed by the SED, and the four principal mass organizations—youth, trade unions, women, and culture. However, control was clearly and solely in the hands of the SED. Balloting in East German elections was not secret. As in other Soviet bloc countries, electoral participation was consistently high, as the following results indicate. In October 1950, a year after the formation of the GDR, 98.53% of the electorate voted. 99.72% of the votes were valid and 99.72% were cast in favor of the 'National Front'—the title of the 'coalition' of the Unity Party plus their associates in other conformist groups. In election after election, the votes cast for the Socialist Unity Party were always over 99%, and in 1963, two years after the Berlin Wall was constructed, the support for the S.E.D. was 99.95%. Only 0.05% of the electorate opposed the party according to these results, the veracity of which is disputable.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Industry_and_agriculture_in_East_Germany">Industry and agriculture in East Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Industry and agriculture in East Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>With the formation of a separate East German communist state in October 1949, the Socialist Unity Party faced a huge range of problems. Not only were the cities in ruins, much of the productive machinery and equipment had been seized by the Soviet occupation force and transported to The Soviet Union in order to make some kind of reconstruction possible. While West Germany received loans and other financial assistance from the United States, the GDR was in the role of an exporter of goods to the USSR—a role that its people could ill afford but which they could not avoid.
</p><p>The S.E.D.'s intention was to transform the GDR into a socialist and later into a communist state. These processes would occur step by step according to the laws of scientific 'Marxism-Leninism' and economic planning was the key to this process. In July 1952, at a conference of the S.E.D., Walter Ulbricht announced that "the democratic (sic) and economic development, and the consciousness (Bewusstsein) of the working class and the majority of the employed classes must be developed so that the construction of Socialism becomes their most important objective."<sup id="cite_ref-Steininger_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steininger-57">[57]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 453">: 453 </span></sup> This meant that the administration, the armed forces, the planning of industry and agriculture would be under the sole authority of the S.E.D. and its planning committee. Industries would be nationalized and collectivization introduced in the farm industry. When the first Five-Year Plan was announced, the flow of refugees out of East Germany began to grow. As a consequence, production fell, food became short and protests occurred in a number of factories. On 14 May 1952, the S.E.D. ordered that the production quotas (the output per man per shift) were to be increased by 10%, but wages to be kept at the former level. This decision was not popular with the new leaders in the Kremlin. Stalin had died in March 1953 and the new leadership was still evolving. The imposition of new production quotas contradicted the new direction of Soviet policies for their satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-Steininger_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steininger-57">[57]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 454">: 454 </span></sup>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022,_Berlin,_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022%2C_Berlin%2C_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022%2C_Berlin%2C_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022%2C_Berlin%2C_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022%2C_Berlin%2C_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022%2C_Berlin%2C_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022%2C_Berlin%2C_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="508" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-U1109-022,_Berlin,_Sandm%C3%A4nnchen.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Gerhard Behrendt with Sandmännchen</div></div></div>
<p>On 5 June 1953, the S.E.D. announced a 'new course' in which farmers, craftsmen, and factory owners would benefit from a relaxation of controls. The new production quotas remained; the East German workers protested and up to sixty strikes occurred the following day. One of the window-dressing projects in the ruins of East Berlin was the construction of Stalin Allee, on which the most 'class-conscious' workers (in S.E.D. propaganda terms) were involved. At a meeting, strikers declared "You give the capitalists (the factory owners) presents, and we are exploited!"<sup id="cite_ref-Steininger_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steininger-57">[57]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 455">: 455 </span></sup> A delegation of building workers marched to the headquarters of the S.E.D. demanding that the production quotas be rescinded. The crowd grew, demands were made for the removal of Ulbricht from office and a general strike called for the following day.
</p><p>On 17 June 1953 strikes and demonstrations occurred in 250 towns and cities in the GDR. Between 300,000 and 400,000 workers took part in the strikes, which were specifically directed towards the rescinding of the production quotas and were not an attempt to overthrow the government. The strikers were for the most part convinced that the transformation of the GDR into a socialist state was the proper course to take but that the S.E.D. had taken a wrong turn.<sup id="cite_ref-Steininger_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steininger-57">[57]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 457">: 457 </span></sup>
The S.E.D. responded with all of the force at its command and also with the help of the Soviet Occupation force. Thousands were arrested, sentenced to jail and many hundreds were forced to leave for West Germany. The S.E.D. later moderated its course but the damage had been done. The real face of the East German regime was revealed. The S.E.D. claimed that the strikes had been instigated by West German agents, but there is no evidence for this. Over 250 strikers were killed, around 100 policemen and some 18 Soviet soldiers died in the uprising;<sup id="cite_ref-Steininger_57-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steininger-57">[57]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 459">: 459 </span></sup> 17 June was declared a national day of remembrance in West Germany.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Berlin">Berlin</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Berlin">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Shortly after <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Berlin became the seat of the Allied Control Council, which was to have governed Germany as a whole until the conclusion of a peace settlement. In 1948, however, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> refused to participate any longer in the quadripartite administration of Germany. They also refused to continue the joint administration of Berlin and drove the government elected by the people of Berlin out of its seat in the Soviet sector and installed a communist regime in East Berlin. From then until unification, the Western Allies continued to exercise supreme authority—effective only in their sectors—through the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Kommandatura" title="Allied Kommandatura">Allied Kommandatura</a>. To the degree compatible with the city's special status, however, they turned over control and management of city affairs to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Berlin" title="Senate of Berlin">West Berlin Senate</a> and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abgeordnetenhaus_von_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Abgeordnetenhaus von Berlin">House of Representatives</a>, governing bodies established by constitutional process and chosen by free elections. The Allies and German authorities in West Germany and West Berlin never recognized the communist city regime in East Berlin or East German authority there.
</p><p>During the years of West Berlin's isolation—176 kilometers (110 mi.) inside East Germany—the Western Allies encouraged a close relationship between the Government of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> and that of West Germany. Representatives of the city participated as non-voting members in the West German Parliament; appropriate West German agencies, such as the supreme administrative court, had their permanent seats in the city; and the governing mayor of West Berlin took his turn as President of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesrat_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesrat of Germany">Bundesrat</a>. In addition, the Allies carefully consulted with the West German and West Berlin Governments on foreign policy questions involving unification and the status of Berlin.
</p><p>Between 1948 and 1990, major events such as fairs and festivals were sponsored in West Berlin, and investment in commerce and industry was encouraged by special concessionary tax legislation. The results of such efforts, combined with effective city administration and the West Berliners' energy and spirit, were encouraging. West Berlin's morale was sustained, and its industrial production considerably surpassed the pre-war level.
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Final Settlement Treaty</a> ended Berlin's special status as a separate area under Four Power control. Under the terms of the treaty between West and East Germany, Berlin became the capital of a unified Germany. The Bundestag voted in June 1991 to make Berlin the seat of government. The Government of Germany asked the Allies to maintain a military presence in Berlin until the complete withdrawal of the Western Group of Forces (ex-Soviet) from the territory of the former East Germany. The Russian withdrawal was completed 31 August 1994. Ceremonies were held on 8 September 1994, to mark the final departure of Western Allied troops from Berlin.
</p><p>Government offices have been moving progressively to Berlin, and it became the formal seat of the federal government in 1999. Berlin also is one of the Federal Republic's 16 <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">Länder</a></i>.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Relations_between_East_Germany_and_West_Germany">Relations between East Germany and West Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Relations between East Germany and West Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit">improve this section</a> by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Under <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Chancellor Adenauer</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> declared its right to speak for the entire German nation with an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_mandate" title="Exclusive mandate">exclusive mandate</a>. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a> involved non-recognition of East Germany and restricted (or often ceased) diplomatic relations with countries that gave East Germany the status of a sovereign state.
</p><p>The constant stream of East Germans fleeing across the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_German_border" title="Inner German border">Inner German border</a> to West Germany placed great strains on East German-West German relations in the 1950s. East Germany sealed the borders to West Germany in 1952, but people continued to flee from East Berlin to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>. On 13 August 1961, East Germany began building the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> around West Berlin to slow the flood of refugees to a trickle, effectively cutting the city in half and making West Berlin an enclave of the Western world in communist territory. The Wall became the symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe. Shortly afterward, the main border between the two German states was fortified.
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Reconciliation_of_the_Polish_Bishops_to_the_German_Bishops" title="Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops">Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops</a> of 1965 was controversial at the time, but is now seen as an important step toward improving relations between the German states and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>.
</p><p>In 1969, Chancellor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> announced that West Germany would remain firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance but would intensify efforts to improve relations with the Eastern Bloc, especially East Germany. West Germany commenced this <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a>,</i> initially under fierce opposition from the conservatives, by negotiating nonaggression treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
</p><p>West Germany's relations with East Germany posed particularly difficult questions. Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's <i>Ostpolitik</i> was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations gradually improved. In the early 1970s, the <i>Ostpolitik</i> led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Moscow_(1970)" title="Treaty of Moscow (1970)">Treaty of Moscow</a> (August 1970), the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_(1970)" title="Treaty of Warsaw (1970)">Treaty of Warsaw</a> (December 1970), the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a> (September 1971), the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_Agreement_(1972)" title="Transit Agreement (1972)">Transit Agreement</a> (May 1972), and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Treaty_(1972)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Treaty (1972)">Basic Treaty</a> (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both states joining the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in September 1973. The two German states exchanged <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_Representative" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent Representative">permanent representatives</a> in 1974, and, in 1987, East German head of state <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a> paid an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Honecker%27s_1987_visit_to_West_Germany" title="Erich Honecker's 1987 visit to West Germany">official visit</a> to West Germany.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="The_reunification_of_East_Germany_and_West_Germany">The reunification of East Germany and West Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The reunification of East Germany and West Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>International plans for the unification of Germany were made during the early years following the establishment of the two states, but to no avail. In March 1952, the Soviet government proposed the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin_note" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin note">Stalin Note</a> to hold elections for a united German assembly while making the proposed united Germany a neutral state, i.e. a neutral state approved by the people, similar to the Austrians' approval of a neutral Austria. The Western Allied governments refused this initiative, while continuing West Germany's integration into the Western alliance system. The issue was raised again during the Foreign Ministers' Conference in Berlin in January–February 1954, but the western powers refused to make Germany neutral. Following Bonn's adherence to NATO on 9 May 1955, such initiatives were abandoned by both sides.
</p><p>During the summer of 1989, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Wende" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Wende">rapid changes</a> took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>. Widespread discontent boiled over, following accusations of large scale vote-rigging during the local elections of May 1989. The beginning of the end of Eastern Germany was the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a> in August 1989. The event, which goes back to an idea by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Otto von Habsburg</a>, caused the mass exodus of GDR citizens, the media-informed East German population felt the loss of power of their rulers, and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a> started to break down completely. Erich Honecker explained to the Daily Mirror regarding the Paneuropean picnic and thus showed his people his own inaction: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via Hungary after the Hungarians decided not to use force to stop them. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday demonstrations</a>) with eventually hundreds of thousands of people in several cities—particularly in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>—continued to grow. On 7 October, the Soviet leader <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> visited Berlin to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of East Germany and urged the East German leadership to pursue reform, without success. The movement of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">civil resistance</a> against the East German regime—both the emigration and the demonstrations—continued unabated.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 18 October, Erich Honecker was forced to resign as head of the SED and as head of state and was replaced by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a>. But the exodus continued unabated, and pressure for political reform mounted. On 4 November, a demonstration in East Berlin drew as many as 1 million East Germans. Finally, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened, and East Germans were allowed to travel freely. Thousands poured through the wall into the western sectors of Berlin, and on 12 November, East Germany began dismantling it.
</p><p>On 28 November, West German Chancellor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a> outlined the 10-Point Plan for the peaceful unification of the two German states, based on free elections in East Germany and a unification of their two economies. In December, the East German <i>Volkskammer</i> eliminated the SED monopoly on power, and the entire Politbüro and Central Committee—including Krenz—resigned. The SED changed its name to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_(Germany)" title="Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)">Party of Democratic Socialism</a> (PDS) and the formation and growth of numerous political groups and parties marked the end of the communist system. Prime Minister <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Modrow" title="Hans Modrow">Hans Modrow</a> headed a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caretaker_government" title="Caretaker government">caretaker government</a> which shared power with the new, democratically oriented parties. On 7 December 1989, an agreement was reached to hold free elections in May 1990 and rewrite the East German constitution. On 28 January, all the parties agreed to advance the elections to 18 March, primarily because of an erosion of state authority and because the East German exodus was continuing apace; more than 117,000 left in January and February 1990.
</p><p>In early February 1990, the Modrow government's proposal for a unified, neutral German state was rejected by Chancellor Kohl, who affirmed that a unified Germany must be a member of NATO. Finally, on 18 March, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_German_general_election,_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="East German general election, 1990">first free elections</a> were held in East Germany, and a government led by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothar_de_Maizi%C3%A8re" title="Lothar de Maizière">Lothar de Maizière</a> (CDU) was formed under a policy of expeditious unification with West Germany. The freely elected representatives of the <i>Volkskammer</i> held their first session on 5 April, and East Germany peacefully evolved from a communist to a democratically elected government. Free and secret communal (local) elections were held in the GDR on 6 May, and the CDU again won most of the available seats. On 1 July, the two German states entered into an economic and monetary union.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Treaty_negotiations">Treaty negotiations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Treaty negotiations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit">improve this section</a> by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>During 1990, in parallel with internal German developments, the Four Powers—the Allies of World War II, being the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union—together with the two German states negotiated to end Four Power reserved rights for Berlin and Germany as a whole. These "Two-plus-Four" negotiations were mandated at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_Open_Skies#History" title="Treaty on Open Skies">Open Skies</a> conference on 13 February 1990. The six foreign ministers met four times in the ensuing months in Bonn (5 May), Berlin (22 June), Paris (17 July), and Moscow (12 September). The Polish Foreign Minister participated in the part of the Paris meeting that dealt with the Polish-German borders.
</p><p>Overcoming Soviet objections to a united Germany's membership in NATO was of key importance. This was accomplished in July when the alliance, led by President <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H.W._Bush" class="mw-redirect" title="George H.W. Bush">George H.W. Bush</a>, issued the London Declaration on a transformed NATO. On 16 July, President Gorbachev and Chancellor Kohl announced the agreement in principle on a united Germany in NATO. This cleared the way for the signing in Moscow, on 12 September, of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_With_Respect_to_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany</a>—in effect the peace treaty that was anticipated at the end of World War II. In addition to terminating Four Power rights, the treaty mandated the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Germany by the end of 1994, made clear that the current borders (especially the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder-Neisse_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Oder-Neisse line">Oder-Neisse line</a>) were viewed as final and definitive, and specified the right of a united Germany to belong to NATO. It also provided for the continued presence of British, French, and American troops in Berlin during the interim period of the Soviet withdrawal. In the treaty, the Germans renounced nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and stated their intention to reduce the (combined) German armed forces to 370,000 within 3 to 4 years after the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_Conventional_Armed_Forces_in_Europe" title="Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe">Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe</a>, signed in Paris on 19 November 1990, entered into force.
</p><p>The conclusion of the final settlement cleared the way for the unification of East and West Germany. Formal political union occurred on 3 October 1990, preceded by the GDR declaring its accession to the Federal Republic through Article 23 of West Germany's Basic Law (meaning that constitutionally, East Germany was subsumed into West Germany); but affected in strict legality through the subsequent Unification Treaty of 30 August 1990, which was voted into their constitutions by both the West German Bundestag and the East German Volkskammer on 20 September 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> These votes simultaneously extinguished the GDR and affected fundamental amendments to the West German Basic Law (including the repeal of the very Article 23 under which the GDR had recently declared its post-dated accession). On 2 December 1990, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_German_federal_election" title="1990 German federal election">all-German elections</a> were held for the first time since 1933. The "new" country stayed the same as the West German legal system and institutions were extended to the east. The unified nation kept the name <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesrepublik_Deutschland" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesrepublik Deutschland">Bundesrepublik Deutschland</a> (though the simple 'Deutschland' would become increasingly common) and retained the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency as well. Berlin would formally become the capital of the united Germany, but the political institutions remained at Bonn for the time being. Only after a heated 1991 debate did the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a></i> conclude on moving itself and most of the government to Berlin as well, a process that took until 1999 to complete, when the <i>Bundestag</i> held its first session at the reconstructed <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichstag (building)"><i>Reichstag</i> building</a>. Many government departments still maintain sizable presences in Bonn as of 2008.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aftermath">Aftermath</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">New states of Germany</a></div>
<p>To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> (for example, in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-auto-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFStragart2015" class="citation book cs1">Stragart, Nicholas (2015). <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_German_War" title="The German War"><i>The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45</i></a>. Bodley Head. p. 549.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+War%3B+a+nation+under+arms%2C+1939-45&rft.pages=549&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Stragart&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWachsmann2015" class="citation book cs1">Wachsmann, Nikolaus (2015). <i>KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps</i>. Little, Brown. p. 544.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=KL%3B+A+History+of+the+Nazi+Concentration+Camps&rft.pages=544&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Wachsmann&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 2001 a space odyseey/50.</i> Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt - Wiesbaden. - Stuttgart: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlhammer_Verlag" title="Kohlhammer Verlag">Kohlhammer Verlag</a>, 1958, pp. 35-36</span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims. <i>Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees</i>, Bonn: 1967</span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStragart2015" class="citation book cs1">Stragart, Nicholas (2015). <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_German_War" title="The German War"><i>The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45</i></a>. Bodley Head. p. 551.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+War%3B+a+nation+under+arms%2C+1939-45&rft.pages=551&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Stragart&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKnowles2014" class="citation web cs1">Knowles, Chris (29 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyandpolicy.org/policy-papers/papers/germany-1945-1949-a-case-study-in-post-conflict-reconstruction">"Germany 1945-1949: a case study in post-conflict reconstruction"</a>. <i>History & Policy</i>. History & Policy<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+%26+Policy&rft.atitle=Germany+1945-1949%3A+a+case+study+in+post-conflict+reconstruction&rft.date=2014-01-29&rft.aulast=Knowles&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.historyandpolicy.org%2Fpolicy-papers%2Fpapers%2Fgermany-1945-1949-a-case-study-in-post-conflict-reconstruction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFEditors" class="citation web cs1">Editors, History com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/allies-end-occupation-of-west-germany">"Allies end occupation of West Germany"</a>. <i>HISTORY</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Allies+end+occupation+of+West+Germany&rft.aulast=Editors&rft.aufirst=History+com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Fallies-end-occupation-of-west-germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: extra text: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_Beevor" title="Antony Beevor">Beevor, Antony</a> (2003) [2002]. <i>Berlin: The Downfall 1945</i>. Penguin Books. pp. 402 ff. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-028696-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-028696-9"><bdi>0-14-028696-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berlin%3A+The+Downfall+1945&rft.pages=402+ff&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-14-028696-9&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Uniting Germany : documents and debates, 1944-1993</i>. Jarausch, Konrad Hugo., Gransow, Volker. Providence: Berghahn Books. 1994. p. 1. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781571810113" title="Special:BookSources/9781571810113"><bdi>9781571810113</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/30624400">30624400</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uniting+Germany+%3A+documents+and+debates%2C+1944-1993&rft.place=Providence&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30624400&rft.isbn=9781571810113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: others (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStragart2015" class="citation book cs1">Stragart, Nicholas (2015). <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_German_War" title="The German War"><i>The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45</i></a>. Bodley Head. p. 557.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+War%3B+a+nation+under+arms%2C+1939-45&rft.pages=557&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Stragart&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAlrich2004" class="citation web cs1">Alrich, Amy (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070611032512/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=198721097755610">"An Exploration of the Inner Landscape of Experience"</a>. H-Net Reviews. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=198721097755610">the original</a> on 11 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Exploration+of+the+Inner+Landscape+of+Experience&rft.pub=H-Net+Reviews&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Alrich&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.h-net.org%2Freviews%2Fshowrev.cgi%3Fpath%3D198721097755610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStragart2015" class="citation book cs1">Stragart, Nicholas (2015). <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_German_War" title="The German War"><i>The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45</i></a>. Bodley Head. p. 556.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+War%3B+a+nation+under+arms%2C+1939-45&rft.pages=556&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Stragart&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStragart2015" class="citation book cs1">Stragart, Nicholas (2015). <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_German_War" title="The German War"><i>The German War; a nation under arms, 1939-45</i></a>. Bodley Head. p. 558.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+War%3B+a+nation+under+arms%2C+1939-45&rft.pages=558&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Stragart&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBiddiscombe2001" class="citation journal cs1">Biddiscombe, Perry (2001). "Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the US Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948". <i>Journal of Social History</i>. <b>34</b> (3): 619. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjsh.2001.0002">10.1353/jsh.2001.0002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=Dangerous+Liaisons%3A+The+Anti-Fraternization+Movement+in+the+US+Occupation+Zones+of+Germany+and+Austria%2C+1945%E2%80%931948&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=619&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjsh.2001.0002&rft.aulast=Biddiscombe&rft.aufirst=Perry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMorgenthau1944" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Morgenthau, Jr.">Morgenthau, Henry Jr</a> (September 1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box31/a297a01.html">"Suggested Post-Surrender Program for Germany"</a>. <i>President's Secretary's Files (PSF), German Diplomatic Files, Jan.–Sept. 1944 (i297)</i>. Franklin D. Roosevelt Digital Archives<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2007</span>. <q>It should be the aim of the Allied Forces to accomplish the complete demilitarization of Germany in the shortest possible period of time after its surrender. This means completely disarming the German Army and people (including the removal or destruction of all war material), the total destruction of the whole German armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries which are basic to military strength. [. . .] Within a short period, if possible not longer than 6 months after the cessation of hostilities, all industrial plants and equipment not destroyed by military action shall either be completely dismantled and removed from the [Ruhr] area or completely destroyed. All equipment shall be removed from the mines and the mines shall be thoroughly wrecked.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=President%27s+Secretary%27s+Files+%28PSF%29%2C+German+Diplomatic+Files%2C+Jan.%E2%80%93Sept.+1944+%28i297%29&rft.atitle=Suggested+Post-Surrender+Program+for+Germany&rft.date=1944-09&rft.aulast=Morgenthau&rft.aufirst=Henry+Jr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.fdrlibrary.marist.edu%2Fpsf%2Fbox31%2Fa297a01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBeschloss" class="citation book cs1">Beschloss, Michael R. <i>The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945</i>. p. 233.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conquerors%3A+Roosevelt%2C+Truman+and+the+Destruction+of+Hitler%27s+Germany%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=233&rft.aulast=Beschloss&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPetrov1967" class="citation book cs1">Petrov, Vladimir (1967). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moneyconquestall0000petr"><i>Money and conquest; allied occupation currencies in World War II</i></a></span>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moneyconquestall0000petr/page/228">228–229</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Money+and+conquest%3B+allied+occupation+currencies+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=228-229&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Petrov&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoneyconquestall0000petr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frederick_H_1961_pp._517_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGareau1961" class="citation journal cs1">Gareau, Frederick H. (June 1961). "Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany". <i>The Western Political Quarterly</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 517–534. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F443604">10.2307/443604</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/443604">443604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Western+Political+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Morgenthau%27s+Plan+for+Industrial+Disarmament+in+Germany&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=517-534&rft.date=1961-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F443604&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F443604%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gareau&rft.aufirst=Frederick+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWallich1955" class="citation book cs1">Wallich, Henry C. (1955). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mainspringsofger0000wall"><i>Mainsprings of the German Revival</i></a></span>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mainspringsofger0000wall/page/348">348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mainsprings+of+the+German+Revival&rft.pages=348&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Wallich&rft.aufirst=Henry+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmainspringsofger0000wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071101094055/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,934360,00.html">"ECONOMICS: Cornerstone of Steel"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Magazine">Time Magazine</a></i>. 21 January 1946. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,934360,00.html">the original</a> on 1 November 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Time+Magazine&rft.atitle=ECONOMICS%3A+Cornerstone+of+Steel&rft.date=1946-01-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C934360%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930092335/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852764,00.html">"GERMANY: Cost of Defeat"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Magazine">Time Magazine</a></i>. 8 April 1946. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852764,00.html">the original</a> on 30 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Time+Magazine&rft.atitle=GERMANY%3A+Cost+of+Defeat&rft.date=1946-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C852764%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2014">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHoover1947" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover, Herbert</a> (March 1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=10&documentid=22&documentdate=1947-03-24&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK">"The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report 3"</a>. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+President%27s+Economic+Mission+to+Germany+and+Austria%2C+Report+3&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1947-03&rft.aulast=Hoover&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.trumanlibrary.org%2Fwhistlestop%2Fstudy_collections%2Fmarshall%2Flarge%2Fdocuments%2Findex.php%3Fpagenumber%3D10%26documentid%3D22%26documentdate%3D1947-03-24%26studycollectionid%3Dmp%26nav%3DOK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Balabkins_Forests-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Balabkins_Forests_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBalabkins1964" class="citation book cs1">Balabkins, Nicholas (1964). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanyunderdire0000bala"><i>Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948</i></a></span>. Rutgers University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanyunderdire0000bala/page/119">119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+Under+Direct+Controls%3B+Economic+Aspects+of+Industrial+Disarmament+1945%E2%80%931948&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Balabkins&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanyunderdire0000bala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span> The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to respectively: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>A Year of Potsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender</i>. U.S. Office of Military Government. 1946. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Year+of+Potsdam%3A+The+German+Economy+Since+the+Surrender&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=U.S.+Office+of+Military+Government&rft.date=1946&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The German Forest Resources Survey</i>. U.S. Office of Military Government. 1948. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Forest+Resources+Survey&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=U.S.+Office+of+Military+Government&rft.date=1948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Ray_Salvatore-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ray_Salvatore_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ray_Salvatore_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2012">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJennings2003" class="citation web cs1">Jennings, Ray Salvatore (May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514021020/http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks49.pdf">"The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Peaceworks. p. 15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks49.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Road+Ahead%3A+Lessons+in+Nation+Building+from+Japan%2C+Germany%2C+and+Afghanistan+for+Postwar+Iraq&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Peaceworks&rft.date=2003-05&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=Ray+Salvatore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.usip.org%2Fpubs%2Fpeaceworks%2Fpwks49.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014043427/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html">"CONFERENCES: Pas de Pagaille!"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Magazine">Time Magazine</a></i>. 28 July 1947. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html">the original</a> on 14 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Time+Magazine&rft.atitle=CONFERENCES%3A+Pas+de+Pagaille%21&rft.date=1947-07-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C887417%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Shadow-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shadow_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shadow_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBarkGress1989" class="citation book cs1">Bark, Dennis L.; Gress, David R. (1989). <i>A History of West Germany: From Shadow to Substance</i>. <b>1</b>. Oxford Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+West+Germany%3A+From+Shadow+to+Substance&rft.pub=Oxford+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Bark&rft.aufirst=Dennis+L.&rft.au=Gress%2C+David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=6584">"French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions"</a>. Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe. 8 September 1945<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=French+proposal+regarding+the+detachment+of+German+industrial+regions&rft.pub=Centre+Virtuel+de+la+Connaissance+sur+l%E2%80%99Europe&rft.date=1945-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.ena.lu%3Flang%3D2%26doc%3D6584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFYoder1955" class="citation journal cs1">Yoder, Amos (July 1955). "The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem". <i>The Review of Politics</i>. Cambridge University Press. <b>17</b> (3): 345–358. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0034670500014261">10.1017/s0034670500014261</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Ruhr+Authority+and+the+German+Problem&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=345-358&rft.date=1955-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0034670500014261&rft.aulast=Yoder&rft.aufirst=Amos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2012">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStern" class="citation web cs1">Stern, Susan (2001, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060709055340/http://www.germany.info/relaunch/culture/history/marshall.html">"Marshall Plan 1947–1997 A German View"</a>. <i>Germany Info</i>. German Embassy's Department for Press, Information and Public Affairs, Washington D.C. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.germany.info/relaunch/culture/history/marshall.html">the original</a> on 9 July 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2007</span>. <q>There is another reason for the Plan's continued vitality. It has transcended reality and become a myth. To this day, a truly astonishing number of Germans (and almost all advanced high school students) have an idea what the Marshall Plan was, although their idea is very often very inaccurate. [. . .] Many Germans believe that the Marshall Plan was alone responsible for the economic miracle of the Fifties. And when scholars come along and explain that reality was far more complex, they are skeptical and disappointed. They should not be. For the Marshall Plan certainly did play a key role in Germany's recovery, albeit perhaps more of a psychological than a purely economic one.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Germany+Info&rft.atitle=Marshall+Plan+1947%E2%80%931997+A+German+View&rft.chron=2001%2C+2007&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.germany.info%2Frelaunch%2Fculture%2Fhistory%2Fmarshall.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|year=</code> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWalker1946" class="citation web cs1">Walker, C. Lester (October 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientistsandfriends.com/files/secrets.doc">"Secrets by the Thousands"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's Magazine</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harper%27s+Magazine&rft.atitle=Secrets+by+the+Thousands&rft.date=1946-10&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=C.+Lester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.scientistsandfriends.com%2Ffiles%2Fsecrets.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFNaimark" class="citation book cs1">Naimark, Norman M. <i>The Russians in Germany</i>. p. 206.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russians+in+Germany&rft.pages=206&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: The $10 billion compares to the U.S. annual GDP of $258 billion in 1948. It also compares to the total Marshall plan expenditure (1948–1952) of $13 billion, of which Germany received $1,4 billion (partly as loans).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Bessel-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bessel_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bessel_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBessel2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bessel" title="Richard Bessel">Bessel, Richard</a> (2009). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germany194500rich"><i>Germany 1945: From War to Peace</i></a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+1945%3A+From+War+to+Peace&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Bessel&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermany194500rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHitchcock2008" class="citation book cs1">Hitchcock, William I. (2008). <i>The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe</i>. pp. 205–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bitter+Road+to+Freedom%3A+The+Human+Cost+of+Allied+Victory+in+World+War+II+Europe&rft.pages=205-7&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Hitchcock&rft.aufirst=William+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Dominic_Wiggers_35-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWiggers2003" class="citation book cs1">Wiggers, Richard Dominic (2003). "The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War II". In Vardy, Steven Bela; Tooley, T. Hunt (eds.). <i>Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe</i>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-995-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-995-0"><bdi>0-88033-995-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+United+States+and+the+Refusal+to+Feed+German+Civilians+after+World+War+II&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Cleansing+in+Twentieth-Century+Europe&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-88033-995-0&rft.aulast=Wiggers&rft.aufirst=Richard+Dominic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMacKenzie1994" class="citation journal cs1">MacKenzie, S. P. (September 1994). "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II". <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>66</b> (3): 487–520. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F244883">10.1086/244883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Treatment+of+Prisoners+of+War+in+World+War+II&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=487-520&rft.date=1994-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F244883&rft.aulast=MacKenzie&rft.aufirst=S.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTjersland2006" class="citation web cs1">Tjersland, Jonas (8 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vg.no/pub/vgart.hbs?artid=166207">"Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere"</a> [German soldiers used for mine-clearing] (in Norwegian). VG Nett<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tyske+soldater+brukt+som+mineryddere&rft.pub=VG+Nett&rft.date=2006-04-08&rft.aulast=Tjersland&rft.aufirst=Jonas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.vg.no%2Fpub%2Fvgart.hbs%3Fartid%3D166207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFNaimark1995" class="citation book cs1">Naimark, Norman M. (1995). <i>The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 132, 133. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-78405-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-78405-7"><bdi>0-674-78405-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russians+in+Germany%3A+A+History+of+the+Soviet+Zone+of+Occupation%2C+1945%E2%80%931949&rft.pages=132%2C+133&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-674-78405-7&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHitchcock2004" class="citation book cs1">Hitchcock, William I. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780385497992&view=excerpt"><i>The Struggle for Europe The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945 to the Present</i></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49799-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49799-2"><bdi>978-0-385-49799-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Europe+The+Turbulent+History+of+a+Divided+Continent+1945+to+the+Present&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-385-49799-2&rft.aulast=Hitchcock&rft.aufirst=William+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.randomhouse.com%2Fcatalog%2Fdisplay.pperl%3Fisbn%3D9780385497992%26view%3Dexcerpt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/book-claims-us-soldiers-raped-190-000-german-women-post-wwii-a-1021298.html">"Were Americans As Bad as the Soviets?"</a>. <i>Der Spiegel</i>. 2 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Were+Americans+As+Bad+as+the+Soviets%3F&rft.date=2015-03-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fgermany%2Fbook-claims-us-soldiers-raped-190-000-german-women-post-wwii-a-1021298.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerhard Bebr, "The European Coal and Steel Community: A political and legal innovation." <i>Yale Law Journal</i> 63 (1953): 1+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8236&context=ylj">online</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David R. Henderson, "German economic miracle." in <i>The concise encyclopedia of economics</i> (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/GermanEconomicMiracle.html">online</a>. </span>
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<li id="cite_note-Informationen-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Informationen_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Informationen_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Informationen_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Informationen_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Informationen_43-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation journal cs1"><i>Informationen für Politische Bildung</i> (in German) (256). 1997.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Informationen+f%C3%BCr+Politische+Bildung&rft.issue=256&rft.date=1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Illusions-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Illusions_44-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLudtke1993" class="citation journal cs1">Ludtke, Alf (1993). "<span class="cs1-kern-left">'</span>Coming to Terms with the Past': Illusions of Remembering, Ways of Forgetting Nazism in West Germany". <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>. <b>65</b> (3): 542–572. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F244674">10.1086/244674</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=%27Coming+to+Terms+with+the+Past%27%3A+Illusions+of+Remembering%2C+Ways+of+Forgetting+Nazism+in+West+Germany&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=542-572&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F244674&rft.aulast=Ludtke&rft.aufirst=Alf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Burleigh,_Michael_page_183-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burleigh,_Michael_page_183_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burleigh,_Michael_page_183_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBurleighWippermann1991" class="citation book cs1">Burleigh, Michael; Wippermann, Wolfgang (1991). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich"><i>The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/183">183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Racial+State%3A+Germany+1933-1945&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Burleigh&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Wippermann%2C+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fracialstate00mich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Wette,_Wolfram-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wette,_Wolfram_46-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWette2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfram_Wette" title="Wolfram Wette">Wette, Wolfram</a> (2006), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wehrmacht:_History,_Myth,_Reality" title="The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality"><i>The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality</i></a>, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, p. 235</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wehrmacht%3A+History%2C+Myth%2C+Reality&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Wette&rft.aufirst=Wolfram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBartov2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bartov, Omer (2004). "Celluloid Soldiers: Cinematic Images of the Wehrmacht". In Erickson, Ljubica; Erickson, Mark (eds.). <i>Russia War, Peace, and Diplomacy</i>. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 134–135.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Celluloid+Soldiers%3A+Cinematic+Images+of+the+Wehrmacht&rft.btitle=Russia+War%2C+Peace%2C+and+Diplomacy&rft.place=London&rft.pages=134-135&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Bartov&rft.aufirst=Omer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFrei1996" class="citation book cs1">Frei, Norbert (1996). <i>Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Vergangenheit</i>. C.H.Beck. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-63661-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-63661-5"><bdi>978-3-406-63661-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vergangenheitspolitik%3A+Die+Anf%C3%A4nge+der+Bundesrepublik+und+die+NS-Vergangenheit&rft.pub=C.H.Beck&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-3-406-63661-5&rft.aulast=Frei&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Taylor,_Frederick_page_371-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_Frederick_page_371_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_Frederick_page_371_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2011" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Frederick (2011). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/exorcisinghitler0000tayl"><i>Exorcising Hitler</i></a></span>. London: Bloomsbury Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/exorcisinghitler0000tayl/page/371">371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exorcising+Hitler&rft.place=London&rft.pages=371&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexorcisinghitler0000tayl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Fulford-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fulford_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFulford2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fulford_(journalist)" title="Robert Fulford (journalist)">Fulford, Robert</a> (4 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.robertfulford.com/2005-06-04-auschwitz.html">"How the Auschwitz Trial failed"</a>. National Post<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+Auschwitz+Trial+failed&rft.pub=National+Post&rft.date=2005-06-04&rft.aulast=Fulford&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.robertfulford.com%2F2005-06-04-auschwitz.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kraushaar-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kraushaar_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kraushaar_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKraushaar1998" class="citation book cs1">Kraushaar, Wolfgang (1998). <i>Frankfurter Schule und Studentenbewegung</i> [<i>Frankfurt School and the Student Movement</i>] (in German). <b>2</b>. Rogner und Bernhard. p. 356.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frankfurter+Schule+und+Studentenbewegung&rft.pages=356&rft.pub=Rogner+und+Bernhard&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Kraushaar&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDenso2011" class="citation web cs1">Denso, Christian (8 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeit.de/2011/32/Buback-Tragoedie">"Gefangen in der Geschichte"</a>. <i>ZEIT ONLINE</i> (in German)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ZEIT+ONLINE&rft.atitle=Gefangen+in+der+Geschichte&rft.date=2011-08-08&rft.aulast=Denso&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.zeit.de%2F2011%2F32%2FBuback-Tragoedie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFOtteGreve2000" class="citation book cs1">Otte, Max; Greve, Jürgen (2000). <i>A rising middle power?: German foreign policy in transformation, 1989–1999</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+rising+middle+power%3F%3A+German+foreign+policy+in+transformation%2C+1989%E2%80%931999&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Otte&rft.aufirst=Max&rft.au=Greve%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thelocal.de/20130420/49253">"No new investigation into RAF prison deaths"</a>. <i>www.thelocal.de</i>. 20 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thelocal.de&rft.atitle=No+new+investigation+into+RAF+prison+deaths&rft.date=2013-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.thelocal.de%2F20130420%2F49253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-buchanan.org-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-buchanan.org_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081008152726/http://www.buchanan.org/pma-99-1105-wallstjl.html">"Pat Buchanan'S Response To Norman Podhoretz'S Op-Ed"</a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i>. Internet Archive. 5 November 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buchanan.org/pma-99-1105-wallstjl.html">the original</a> on 8 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Pat+Buchanan%27S+Response+To+Norman+Podhoretz%27S+Op-Ed&rft.date=1999-11-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.buchanan.org%2Fpma-99-1105-wallstjl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Zahlenspiegel ein Vergleich Bundesrepublik Deutschland Deutsche Demokratische Republik Ministerium für Innerdeutsche Beziehungen</i> (in German). 1973. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zahlenspiegel+ein+Vergleich+Bundesrepublik+Deutschland+Deutsche+Demokratische+Republik+Ministerium+f%C3%BCr+Innerdeutsche+Beziehungen&rft.pages=7&rft.date=1973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Steininger-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steininger_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steininger_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steininger_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steininger_57-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steininger_57-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSteininger" class="citation book cs1">Steininger. <i>Deutsch Geschichte 1945–1961</i>. <b>2</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutsch+Geschichte+1945%E2%80%931961&rft.au=Steininger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miklós Németh in Interview with Peter Bognar, Grenzöffnung 1989: „Es gab keinen Protest aus Moskau“ (German - Border opening in 1989: There was no protest from Moscow), in: Die Presse 18 August 2014.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">„Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows“ (German - August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic - With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMaier2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Maier, Charles S. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC">"Civil Resistance and Civil Society: Lessons from the Collapse of the German Democratic Republic in 1989"</a>. In <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Roberts_(scholar)" title="Adam Roberts (scholar)">Roberts, Adam</a>; <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Ash, Timothy Garton</a> (eds.). <i>Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 260–76. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199552016" title="Special:BookSources/9780199552016"><bdi>9780199552016</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+Resistance+and+Civil+Society%3A+Lessons+from+the+Collapse+of+the+German+Democratic+Republic+in+1989&rft.btitle=Civil+Resistance+and+Power+Politics%3A+The+Experience+of+Non-violent+Action+from+Gandhi+to+the+Present&rft.pages=260-76&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780199552016&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBxOQKrCe7UUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKommers2012" class="citation cs2">Kommers, Donald P (2012), <i>The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany</i>, Duke University Press, p. 309</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+Jurisprudence+of+the+Federal+Republic+of+Germany&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Kommers&rft.aufirst=Donald+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<p><b>Works cited</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Fulbrook, Mary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071101070814/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/German/staff/fulbrook.htm">[1]</a>"The Two Germanies, 1945–90" (ch. 7) and "The Federal Republic of Germany Since 1990" (ch. 8) in <i>A Concise History of Germany</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004): 203–249; 249–257.</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a>, <i>Germany Beyond The Wall: People, Politics, and Prosperity</i>, Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969.</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a>, <i>Lucius D. Clay: An American Life</i>, New York: Henry, Holt, & Company, 1990.</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a>, <i>The Defense of Berlin</i>, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963.</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a>, <i>The Papers of Lucius D. Clay</i>, 2 Vols., Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974.</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_H_Childs" class="mw-redirect" title="David H Childs">David H Childs</a>, Germany in the Twentieth Century, (From pre-1918 to the restoration of German unity), Batsford, Third edition, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7134-6795-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7134-6795-9">0-7134-6795-9</a></li>
<li>David H Childs and Jeffrey Johnson, West Germany: Politics And Society, Croom Helm, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-0702-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-0702-8">0-7099-0702-8</a></li>
<li>David H Childs, The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy & Soviet Communism Since 1945, Routledge, 2000.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Ahonen, Pertti. "Germany and the Aftermath of the Second World War." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 89#2 (2017): 355-387.</li>
<li>Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. <i>A History of West Germany Vol 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963</i> (1992); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16787-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16787-7">978-0-631-16787-7</a>; vol 2: <i>Democracy and Its Discontents 1963–1988</i> (1992) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16788-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16788-4">978-0-631-16788-4</a></li>
<li>Berghahn, Volker Rolf. <i>Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century</i> (1987) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01673">ACLS E-book online</a></li>
<li>Bernhard, Michael. "Democratization in Germany: A Reappraisal." <i>Comparative Politics</i> 33#4 (2001): 379-400. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/422440">in JSTOR</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessel,_Richard" class="mw-redirect" title="Bessel, Richard">Bessel, Richard</a>. <i>Germany 1945: From War to Peace</i> (Harper Collins Publishers, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-054036-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-054036-4">978-0-06-054036-4</a></li>
<li>Davis, Franklin M., Jr. <i>Come as Conqueror: The United States Army’s Occupation of Germany, 1945-49</i> (Macmillan, 1967).</li>
<li>Hanrieder, Wolfram F. <i>Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy</i> (1989) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-04022-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-04022-9">0-300-04022-9</a></li>
<li>Jarausch, Konrad H.<i>After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–1995</i> (2008)</li>
<li>Junker, Detlef, ed. <i>The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War</i> (2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521168643/">excerpt and text search vol 1</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521168651/">excerpt and text search vol 2</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLovelace2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lovelace, Alexander G (2013). "Trends in the Western Historiography of the United States' Occupation of Germany". <i>International Bibliography of Military History</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 148–163. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22115757-03302004">10.1163/22115757-03302004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Bibliography+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Trends+in+the+Western+Historiography+of+the+United+States%27+Occupation+of+Germany&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=148-163&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22115757-03302004&rft.aulast=Lovelace&rft.aufirst=Alexander+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Merritt, Anna J., and Richard L. Merritt. <i>Public opinion in occupied Germany: the OMGUS surveys, 1945-1949</i> (University of Illinois Press, 1970), OMGUS polls.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMiller2013" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Paul D (2013). "A bibliographic essay on the Allied occupation and reconstruction of West Germany, 1945–1955". <i>Small Wars & Insurgencies</i>. <b>24</b> (4): 751–759. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592318.2013.857935">10.1080/09592318.2013.857935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Small+Wars+%26+Insurgencies&rft.atitle=A+bibliographic+essay+on+the+Allied+occupation+and+reconstruction+of+West+Germany%2C+1945%E2%80%931955&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=751-759&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09592318.2013.857935&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Paul+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Schwarz, Hans-Peter. <i>Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction</i> (2 vol 1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T4vQw1RNkQ8C">excerpt and text search vol 2</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11134689">full text vol 1</a>; and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/98804131">full text vol 2</a></li>
<li>Smith, Jean Edward. <i>Lucius D. Clay: An American Life</i> (1990), a major scholarly biography</li>
<li>Smith, Gordon, ed, <i> Developments in German Politics</i> (1992) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-1266-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-1266-2">0-8223-1266-2</a>, broad survey of reunified nation</li>
<li>Weber, Jurgen. <i>Germany, 1945–1990</i> (Central European University Press, 2004)</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFZiemke,_Earl_Frederick1975" class="citation book cs1">Ziemke, Earl Frederick (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ILY6y4XOwPoC&pg=PR1"><i>The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany: 1944-1946</i></a>. Government Printing Office. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780160899188" title="Special:BookSources/9780160899188"><bdi>9780160899188</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Army+in+the+Occupation+of+Germany%3A+1944-1946&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780160899188&rft.au=Ziemke%2C+Earl+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DILY6y4XOwPoC%26pg%3DPR1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281945%E2%80%931990%29" class="Z3988"></span>, the official Army history</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="GDR">GDR</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: GDR">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li>Fulbrook, Mary. <i>Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949–1989</i> (1998)</li>
<li>Jarausch, Konrad H. and Eve Duffy. <i>Dictatorship As Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR</i> (1999)</li>
<li>Jarausch, Konrad H., and Volker Gransow, eds. <i>Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944–1993</i> (1994), primary sources on reunification</li>
<li>Pritchard, Gareth. <i>The Making of the GDR, 1945–53</i> (2004)</li>
<li>Ross, Corey. <i>The East German Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of the GDR</i> (2002)</li>
<li>Steiner, André. <i>The Plans That Failed: An Economic History of East Germany, 1945–1989</i> (2010)</li>
<li>Windsor, Philip. "The Berlin Crises" <i>History Today</i> (June 1962) Vol. 6, p375-384, summarizes the series of crises 1946 to 1961; online.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<li><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="noviewer thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/48px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/64px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span><span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:East_Germany" title="Portal:East Germany">East Germany portal</a></span></li>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=309">Germany at the onset of the cold war</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=4023">James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly</a> (The division of Germany)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentid=24&documentdate=1947-02-28&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK">The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report No. 1 (1947)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentid=22&documentdate=1947-03-24&studycollectionid=mp&nav=OK">The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report 3 (1947)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ghi-dc.org/fileadmin/user_upload/GHI_Washington/PDFs/Occasional_Papers/The_Struggle_for_Germany.pdf">The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War</a> by Melvyn P. Leffler</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeitgeschichte-online.de/">Contemporary History</a> maintained by the <i>Institute for Contemporary Historical Research in Potsdam</i> <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901074949/http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box32/t298x01.html">Special German series 2. The Committee on Dismemberment of Germany</a> Allied discussions on the dismemberment of Germany into separate states, 29 March 1945.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/send-pdf.cgi/Stark%20John%20Robert.pdf?acc_num=osu1045174197">The overlooked majority: German women in the four zones of occupied Germany, 1945–1949, a comparative study</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928004721/http://www.ostberlin.de/en/">East Berlin, Past and Present</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/History.GerRecon">Germany Under Reconstruction</a> is a digital collection that provides a varied selection of publications in both English and German from the period immediately following World War II. Many are publications of the U.S. occupying forces, including reports and descriptions of efforts to introduce U.S.-style democracy to Germany. Some of the other books and documents describe conditions in a country devastated by years of war, efforts at political, economic and cultural development, and the differing perspectives coming from the U.S. and British zones and the Russian zone of occupation.</li>
<li>For representation of the German Partition in literature, one can consult the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raiganj_University" title="Raiganj University">Raiganj University</a> - <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinaki_Roy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pinaki Roy (page does not exist)">Pinaki Roy</a>'s "<i>Das Bewusstsein für die Wand</i>: A Very Brief Review of German Partition Literature", in <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Atlantic_Critical_Review_Quarterly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Atlantic Critical Review Quarterly (page does not exist)">The Atlantic Critical Review Quarterly</a></i> (ISSN 0972-6373; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-269-1747-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-269-1747-1">978-81-269-1747-1</a>) 11 (2), April–June 2012: 157–68. In his "<i>Patriots in Fremden Landern</i>: 1939-45 German Émigré Literature", collected in <i>Writing Difference: Nationalism, Identity, and Literature</i>, edited by G.N. Ray, J. Sarkar, and A. Bhattacharyya, and published by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>-based <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_Publishers_and_Distributors_Pvt._Ltd.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atlantic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd. (page does not exist)">Atlantic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.</a> in 2014 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-269-1938-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-269-1938-3">978-81-269-1938-3</a>; pages-367-90), Roy examines the attitudes and ideologies of those anti-<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> litterateurs who were forced to relocate due to their opposition to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialism">National Socialism</a> and hence suffered from a sort of identity-crisis.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/eadrbc.rb013001">Post-World War II Posters from Germany, 1945-1947</a> From the Collections at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.geschichte-abitur.de/east-west-german-division/chronology">Chronology of the East-West-German division</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military history</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ancient,</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_Germanic_peoples" title="List of ancient Germanic peoples">List of ancient Germanic peoples</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">History of the Huns</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_tribes" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic tribes">Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic tribes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_campaigns_in_Germania_(12_BC_%E2%80%93_AD_16)" title="Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)">Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Wars" title="Gothic Wars">Gothic Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">Sack of Rome (410)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early modern period, 1500–1800</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th-century</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_Constitution" title="Frankfurt Constitution">Frankfurt Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%9319" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–19">Revolution of 1918</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany#World_War_II" title="Nazi Germany">World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied occupation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Flight and expulsions</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Divided Germany</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Germany_since_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germany since 1990">History of Germany since 1990</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Prussia">History of Prussia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Brandenburg">History of Brandenburg</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a>, 1583-1588</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden_Revolution" title="Baden Revolution">Baden Revolution</a>, 1848</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/80px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="104" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/160px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="650" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Germany" title="Geography of Germany">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of Germany">Administrative divisions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">States</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Germany" title="Districts of Germany">Districts</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Germany" title="List of cities and towns in Germany">Cities and towns</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Germany" title="List of earthquakes in Germany">Earthquakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Germany" title="Geology of Germany">Geology</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Germany" title="List of islands of Germany">Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Germany" title="List of lakes of Germany">Lakes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Germany" title="Category:Mountains of Germany">Mountains</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Germany" title="Category:Rivers of Germany">Rivers</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Germany" title="Politics of Germany">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesrat_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesrat of Germany">Bundesrat</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr"><i>Bundeswehr</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(military)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_Germany" title="Cabinet of Germany">Cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_(1949%E2%80%93)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor of Germany (1949–)">Chancellor</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_Germany" title="Judiciary of Germany">Court system</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_Germany" title="Elections in Germany">Elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Germany" title="Foreign relations of Germany">Foreign relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Germany" title="Human rights in Germany">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Germany" title="Intersex rights in Germany">Intersex</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Germany" title="LGBT rights in Germany">LGBT</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_rights_in_Germany" title="Transgender rights in Germany">Transgender</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Germany" title="Law enforcement in Germany">Law enforcement</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Germany" title="List of political parties in Germany">Political parties</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Germany" title="Economy of Germany">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Germany" title="Agriculture in Germany">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Germany" title="Automotive industry in Germany">Automobile industry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking_in_Germany" title="Banking in Germany">Banking</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbank" title="Deutsche Bundesbank">Central bank</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_German_Chemical_Triangle" title="Middle German Chemical Triangle">Chemical Triangle</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_Germany" title="Energy in Germany">Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Germany" title="List of exports of Germany">Exports</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_model" title="German model">German model</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_states_by_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="List of German states by GDP">German states by GDP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelstand" title="Mittelstand"><i>Mittelstand</i> companies</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany" title="Science and technology in Germany">Science and technology</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_Stock_Exchange" title="Frankfurt Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_Germany" title="Taxation in Germany">Taxation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Telecommunications</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_Germany" title="Tourism in Germany">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Germany" title="Trade unions in Germany">Trade unions</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Germany" title="Transport in Germany">Transport</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare in Germany">Welfare</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:German_society" title="Category:German society">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_in_Germany" title="Crime in Germany">Crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_in_Germany" title="Corruption in Germany">Corruption</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Germany" title="Demographics of Germany">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Germany" title="Drug policy of Germany">Drug policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Germany" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Germany">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_in_Germany" title="Healthcare in Germany">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_Germany" title="Immigration to Germany">Immigration</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany" title="Pensions in Germany">Pensions</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Racism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_issues_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues in Germany">Social issues</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Germany" title="Culture of Germany">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutschlandlied" title="Deutschlandlied">Anthem</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Germany" title="Architecture of Germany">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_art" title="German art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Arts_in_Germany" title="Category:Arts in Germany">Arts</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Germany" title="Cinema of Germany">Cinema</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany" title="Coat of arms of Germany">Coat of arms</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_cuisine" title="German cuisine">Cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cultural_icons_of_Germany" title="List of cultural icons of Germany">Cultural icons</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Dance_in_Germany" title="Category:Dance in Germany">Dance</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_fashion" title="German fashion">Fashion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Festivals_in_Germany" title="Category:Festivals in Germany">Festivals</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_folklore" title="German folklore">Folklore</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">Flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language">Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Germany" title="List of libraries in Germany">Libraries</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_literature" title="German literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_in_Germany" title="Internet in Germany">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Germany">Media</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Germany" title="Music of Germany">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_Germany" title="Names of Germany">Names</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Germany" title="Sport in Germany">Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_Germany" title="Television in Germany">Television</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Germany" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Germany">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Germany" title="Outline of Germany">Outline</a></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Germany-related_articles" title="Index of Germany-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Germany" title="Category:Germany">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=East_Germany&#124;link=East_Germany_Foreign_relations_of_East_Germany" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Foreign_relations_of_East_Germany" title="Template:Foreign relations of East Germany"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Foreign_relations_of_East_Germany" title="Template talk:Foreign relations of East Germany"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Foreign_relations_of_East_Germany&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=East_Germany&#124;link=East_Germany_Foreign_relations_of_East_Germany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany"><img alt="East Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> Foreign relations of East Germany</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateralism" title="Bilateralism">Bilateral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afghanistan%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Afghanistan–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albania%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albania–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angola%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Angola–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">Angola</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benin%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benin–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulgaria%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bulgaria–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">Bulgaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cambodia%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cambodia–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">Cambodia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=China%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="China–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Republic_of_the_Congo_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Republic of the Congo relations (page does not exist)">Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">DR Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cuba%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cuba–East Germany relations (page does not exist)">Cuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia%E2%80%93East_Germany_relations" title="Czechoslovakia–East Germany relations">Czechoslovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Ethiopia_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Ethiopia relations (page does not exist)">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Grenada_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Grenada relations (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Hungary_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Hungary relations (page does not exist)">Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93India_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–India relations (page does not exist)">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93Israel_relations" title="East Germany–Israel relations">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Laos_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Laos relations (page does not exist)">Laos</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Mongolia_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Mongolia relations (page does not exist)">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Mozambique_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Mozambique relations (page does not exist)">Mozambique</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93North_Korea_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–North Korea relations (page does not exist)">North Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" title="East Germany–Pakistan relations">Pakistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%94Poland_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany—Poland relations (page does not exist)">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Romania_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Romania relations (page does not exist)">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Somalia_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Somalia relations (page does not exist)">Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93South_Yemen_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–South Yemen relations (page does not exist)">South Yemen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="East Germany–Soviet Union relations">Soviet Union</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="East Germany–United States relations">United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany–Vietnam relations (page does not exist)">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93West_Germany_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="East Germany–West Germany relations">West Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93Yugoslavia_relations" title="East Germany–Yugoslavia relations">Yugoslavia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93Zanzibar_relations" title="East Germany–Zanzibar relations">Zanzibar</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg" class="image" title="State arms of German Democratic Republic"><img alt="State arms of German Democratic Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg/50px-State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg/75px-State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg/100px-State_arms_of_German_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="300" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations_within_the_Comecon" title="International relations within the Comecon">Comecon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Germany_and_the_United_Nations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Germany and the United Nations (page does not exist)">United Nations</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Cold_War&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div id="*USA_*USSR_*NATO_*Warsaw_Pact_*ANZUS_*SEATO_*Baghdad_Pact_(METO)_*Non-Aligned_Movement">
<ul><li><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">USA</a></b></li>
<li><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a></b></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Pact" title="Baghdad Pact">Baghdad Pact</a> (METO)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukbalahap_Rebellion" title="Hukbalahap Rebellion">Hukbalahap Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentages_agreement" title="Percentages agreement">Percentages agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">Operation <i>Downfall</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Gouzenko" title="Igor Gouzenko">Gouzenko Affair</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1947%E2%80%931949_Palestine_war" title="1947–1949 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Palestinian_exodus" title="1948 Palestinian exodus">1948 Palestinian exodus</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_Curtain" title="Bamboo Curtain">Bamboo Curtain</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau_Mau_Uprising" title="Mau Mau Uprising">Mau Mau Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_1952" title="Egyptian revolution of 1952">Egyptian revolution of 1952</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Tanker_Tuapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Tanker Tuapse">Capture of Tanker Tuapse</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_protests_of_1956" title="Poznań protests of 1956">Poznań protests of 1956</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution">Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhofar_Rebellion" title="Dhofar Rebellion">Dhofar Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_War" title="Football War">Football War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_rebellion_in_the_Philippines" title="Communist rebellion in the Philippines">Communist rebellion in the Philippines</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_Revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective Revolution (Egypt)">Corrective Revolution (Egypt)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenite_War_of_1972" title="Yemenite War of 1972">Yemenite War of 1972</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup d'état attempt">1978 Somali coup d'état attempt</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_conflict" title="Chadian–Libyan conflict">Chadian–Libyan conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenite_War_of_1979" title="Yemenite War of 1979">Yemenite War of 1979</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_conflict_in_Peru" title="Internal conflict in Peru">Peruvian Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Yemen_Civil_War" title="South Yemen Civil War">South Yemen Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_INFEKTION" title="Operation INFEKTION">Operation INFEKTION</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RYAN" title="RYAN">RYAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhaz%E2%80%93Georgian_conflict" title="Abkhaz–Georgian conflict">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_status_of_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Political status of Nagorno-Karabakh">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-Worldism" title="Third-Worldism">Third-Worldism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Pact" title="Baghdad Pact">METO</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Pro-democratic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Free_Asia" title="Radio Free Asia">Radio Free Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Elise_Sarotte" title="Mary Elise Sarotte">Mary Elise Sarotte</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny" title="Vojtech Mastny">Vojtech Mastny</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">SS (MI5)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service" title="Secret Intelligence Service">SIS (MI6)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">USSR–USA summits</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;font-weight:bold;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cold_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cold War">Commons</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_events_in_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of events in the Cold War">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1641914434 |