Examine individual changes

'{{EngvarB|date=November 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} '''Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia''' is the study of the [[genetics]] and [[archaeogenetics]] of the [[ethnic groups of South Asia]]. It aims at uncovering these groups' [[genetic history]]. The geographic position of South Asia makes its biodiversity important for the study of the early dispersal of [[anatomically modern human]]s across [[Asia]]. Studies based on Mitochondrial DNA ([[mtDNA]]) variations have reported genetic unity across various South Asian sub–populations, showing that most of the ancestral nodes of the phylogenetic tree of all the mtDNA types originated in South Asia.<ref name="Kivisild1999b" /><ref name="Baig2004" /><ref name="Kumar" /><ref name=Tripathy2008 /> Conclusions of studies based on Y Chromosome variation and Autosomal DNA variation have been varied. Recent genome studies show that South Asians are descendants of an indigenous South Asian population (termed ''Ancient Ancestral South Indians'', "AASI", distantly related to the Andamanese and Native Australians), and later-arriving West Eurasian groups, with some also having East-Eurasian admixture in varying degrees.<ref name="Metspalu2011" /><ref name="Moorjani2013" />{{sfn|Silva et al.|2017}}<ref name="Basu2016" /> Yelmen et al. 2019 concluded that the AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indians) form their own ancestral clade, best represented by the indigenous tribes, such as the [[Irula people]] and [[Paniya people]].<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Yelmen|first1=Burak|last2=Mondal|first2=Mayukh|last3=Marnetto|first3=Davide|last4=Pathak|first4=Ajai K.|last5=Montinaro|first5=Francesco|last6=Gallego Romero|first6=Irene|last7=Kivisild|first7=Toomas|last8=Metspalu|first8=Mait|last9=Pagani|first9=Luca|date=1 August 2019|title=Ancestry-Specific Analyses Reveal Differential Demographic Histories and Opposite Selective Pressures in Modern South Asian Populations|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|language=en|volume=36|issue=8|pages=1628–1642|doi=10.1093/molbev/msz037|pmid=30952160|pmc=6657728|issn=0737-4038}}</ref> Genomic studies have described the genetic landscape of South Asia as a composite of West Eurasian and [[East Asia]]n exogenous components that mixed with the indigenous South Asian groups to create modern-day South Asians.<ref name="auto" /> The East Asian ancestry component detected in India is mainly restricted to specific populations in the [[Himalayan foothills]] and [[Northeast India]].<ref name="ChaubeyEast" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chaubey |first1=Gyaneshwer |last2=Kadian |first2=Anurag |last3=Bala |first3=Saroj |last4=Rao |first4=Vadlamudi Raghavendra |s2cid=848806 |title=Genetic Affinity of the Bhil, Kol and Gond Mentioned in Epic Ramayana |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 June 2015 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=e0127655 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0127655 |pmid=26061398 |pmc=4465503 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1027655C |language=en |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref> It has been found that the ancestral node of the phylogenetic tree of all the [[mtDNA]] types ([[mitochondrial DNA haplogroup]]s) typically found in Central Asia, the West Asia and Europe are also to be found in South Asia at relatively high frequencies. The inferred divergence of this common ancestral node is estimated to have occurred slightly less than 50,000 years ago, supporting an "Out-of-India" event for West-Eurasian populations such as Europeans, during the early Paleolithic.<ref name=Kivisild2000a /> In India, the major maternal lineages are various [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|M]] subclades, followed by [[Haplogroup R (mtDNA)|R]] and [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U]] sublineages. These mitochondrial haplogroups' coalescence times have been approximated to date to 50,000 BP.<ref name=Kivisild2000a /> The major paternal lineages of Indians, represented by [[Y chromosome]]s, are haplogroups [[Haplogroup R1a1|R1a1]], [[Haplogroup R2|R2]], [[Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)|H]], [[Haplogroup L (Y-DNA)|L]] and [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]]. The ancestral lineages are suggested to have diverged within South Asia and than spreaded to Europe and northern Africa respectively.<ref name=mcDonald /> Some researchers have argued that Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a1 (M17) is of [[autochthon (person)|autochthonous]] South Asian origin.<ref name="Sengupta2006" /><ref name=Sahoo2006 /> However, proposals for a Central Asian origin for R1a1 are also quite common.<ref name="Thanseem2006" /><ref name=Zhao2009 /> == Overview == The indigenous population (AASI) originated within South Asia from an early basal-South-Eurasian lineage, and were genetically isolated from other populations since approximately 45,000 years [[BCe]]. Indigenous South Asian (AASI) ancestry forms the primary ancestry component of modern South Asians, next to more recent West-Eurasian and East-Eurasian geneflow during the [[Neolithic Period|Neolithic period]]. The tribal [[Paniya people]] are, next to the [[Irula people]] and the [[Soliga people]], the best proxy for indigenous South Asian ancestry.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Yelmen B, Mondal M, Marnetto D, Pathak AK, Montinaro F, Gallego Romero I, Kivisild T, Metspalu M, Pagani L|date=August 2019|title=Ancestry-Specific Analyses Reveal Differential Demographic Histories and Opposite Selective Pressures in Modern South Asian Populations|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=36|issue=8|pages=1628–1642|doi=10.1093/molbev/msz037|pmc=6657728|pmid=30952160}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rowold|first=Diane J.|last2=Chennakrishnaiah|first2=Shilpa|last3=Gayden|first3=Tenzin|last4=Luis|first4=Javier Rodriguez|last5=Alfonso-Sanchez|first5=Miguel A.|last6=Bukhari|first6=Areej|last7=Garcia-Bertrand|first7=Ralph|last8=Herrera|first8=Rene J.|date=2020-01-13|title=The Y-chromosome of the Soliga, an ancient forest-dwelling tribe of South India|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7286085/|journal=Gene: X|volume=5|pages=100026|doi=10.1016/j.gene.2019.100026|issn=2590-1583|pmc=7286085|pmid=32550553}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Petraglia|first=Michael D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA201|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|last2=Allchin|first2=Bridget|date=2007-05-22|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Eurasian_PCA.png|thumb|350x350px|Genetic position of South Asians among other Eurasian populations. South Asians largely descend from the indigenous South-Eurasian lineage (AASI) with some variation of West-Eurasian and East-Eurasian geneflow.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Srivastava|first=Anshika|last2=Singh|first2=Prajjval Pratap|last3=Bandopadhyay|first3=Audditiya|last4=Singh|first4=Pooja|last5=Das|first5=Debashruti|last6=Tamang|first6=Rakesh|last7=Chaubey|first7=Akhilesh Kumar|last8=Shrivastava|first8=Pankaj|last9=van Driem|first9=George|last10=Chaubey|first10=Gyaneshwer|date=2020-03-27|title=Genetic and linguistic non-correspondence suggests evidence for collective social climbing in the Kol tribe of South Asia|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-61941-z|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=5593|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-61941-z|issn=2045-2322}}</ref>]] == mtDNA == {{See also|Recent single origin hypothesis}} The most frequent [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|mtDNA haplogroups]] in South Asia are [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|M]], [[Haplogroup R (mtDNA)|R]] and [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U]] (where U is a descendant of R).<ref name=mcDonald /> [[File:Most-of-the-extant-mtDNA-boundaries-in-South-and-Southwest-Asia-were-likely-shaped-during-the-1471-2156-5-26-11.jpg|thumb|Distribution of indigenous South Asian (AASI), West-Eurasian, and East-Eurasian lineages.]] Arguing for the longer term "rival Y-Chromosome model",<ref name="Sengupta2006" /> [[Stephen Oppenheimer]] believes that it is highly suggestive that India is the origin of the [[Eurasia]]n [[mtDNA]] haplogroups which he calls the "Eurasian Eves". According to Oppenheimer it is highly probable that nearly all human maternal lineages in Central Asia, the Middle East and Europe descended from only four mtDNA lines that originated in South Asia 50,000–100,000 years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Oppenheimer|2003}}{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> === Macrohaplogroup M === The [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|macrohaplogroup M]], which is considered as a cluster of the proto-Asian maternal lineages,<ref name =Kivisild2000a /> represents more than 60% of South Asian MtDNA.<ref name=Thangaraj2006 /> The M macrohaplotype in India includes many subgroups that differ profoundly from other sublineages in East Asia especially Mongoloid populations.<ref name =Kivisild2000a /> The deep roots of M phylogeny clearly ascertain the relic of South Asian lineages as compared to other M sublineages (in East Asia and elsewhere) suggesting 'in-situ' origin of these sub-haplogroups in South Asia, most likely in India. These deep-rooting lineages are not language specific and spread over all the language groups in India.<ref name=Thangaraj2006 /> Virtually all modern Central Asian MtDNA M lineages seem to belong to the Eastern Eurasian ([[Mongoloid|Mongolian]]) rather than the South Asian subtypes of haplogroup M, which indicates that no large-scale migration from the present [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking populations of Central Asia occurred to India. The absence of haplogroup M in Europeans, compared to its equally high frequency among South Asians, East Asians and in some Central Asian populations contrasts with the Western Eurasian leanings of South Asian paternal lineages.<ref name =Kivisild2000a /> Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in South and Southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans.<ref name="Metspalu2004" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left; font-size: 90%" |- ! Haplogroup || Important Sub clades || Populations |- ! M2 || M2a, M2b || Throughout the continent with low presence in Northwest <br /> Peaking in Bangladesh, Andhra Pradesh, coastal Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka |- ! M3 || M3a || Concentrated into northwestern India <br /> Highest amongst the Parsees of Mumbai |- ! M4 || M4a || Peaks in Pakistan, Kashmir and Andhra Pradesh |- ! M6 || M6a, M6b || Kashmir and near the coasts of the Bay of Bengal, Sri Lanka |- ! M18 || || Throughout South Asia<br /> Peaking at Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh |- ! M25 || || Moderately frequent in Kerala and Maharashtra but rather infrequent elsewhere in India |} === Macrohaplogroup R === {{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center | width = 130 | image1=Most-of-the-extant-mtDNA-boundaries-in-South-and-Southwest-Asia-were-likely-shaped-during-the-1471-2156-5-26-2.jpg | image2=Most-of-the-extant-mtDNA-boundaries-in-South-and-Southwest-Asia-were-likely-shaped-during-the-1471-2156-5-26-1.jpg | image3=Most-of-the-extant-mtDNA-boundaries-in-South-and-Southwest-Asia-were-likely-shaped-during-the-1471-2156-5-26-3.jpg | footer = The spatial distribution of [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|M]], [[Haplogroup R (mtDNA)|R]] and [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U]] mtDNA haplogroups and their sub-haplogroups in South Asia. }} The [[Haplogroup R (mtDNA)|macrohaplogroup R]] (a very large and old subdivision of [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|macrohaplogroup N]]) is also widely represented and accounts for the other 40% of South Asian MtDNA. A very old and most important subdivision of it is [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|haplogroup U]] that, while also present in [[West Eurasia]], has several subclades specific to South Asia. Most important South Asian haplogroups within R:<ref name="Metspalu2004" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left; font-size: 90%" |- ! Haplogroup || Populations |- ! R2 || Distributed widely across the sub continent |- ! R5 || widely distributed in most of India. <br /> Peaks in coastal SW India |- ! R6 || widespread at low rates across India. <br /> Peaks among Tamils and Kashmiris |- ! W || Found in northwestern states. <br /> Peaks in Gujarat, Punjab and Kashmir, frequency is low elsewhere. |} ==== Haplogroup U ==== [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|Haplogroup U]] is a sub-haplogroup of macrohaplogroup R.<ref name="Metspalu2004" /> The distribution of haplogroup U is a mirror image of that for haplogroup M: the former has not been described so far among eastern Asians but is frequent in European populations as well as among South Asians.<ref name=Kivisild1999a /> South Asian U lineages differ substantially from those in Europe and their coalescence to a common ancestor also dates back to about 50,000 years.<ref name=Kivisild1999b /> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left; font-size: 90%" |- ! Haplogroup || Populations |- ! U2* || (a [[parahaplogroup]]) is sparsely distributed specially in the northern half of the South Asia. It is also found in SW Arabia. |- ! U2a || shows relatively high density in Pakistan and NW India but also in Karnataka, where it reaches its higher density. |- ! U2b || has highest concentration in Uttar Pradesh but is also found in many other places, specially in Kerala and Sri Lanka. It is also found in Oman. |- ! U2c || is specially important in Bangladesh and West Bengal. |- ! U2l || is maybe the most important numerically among U subclades in South Asia, reaching specially high concentrations (over 10%) in Uttar Pradesh, Sri Lanka, Sindh and parts of Karnataka. It also has some importance in Oman. [[mtDNA haplogroup U2i]] is dubbed "Western Eurasian" in Bamshad ''et al.'' study but "Eastern Eurasian (mostly India specific)" in Kivisild ''et al.'' study. |- ! U7 || this haplogroup has a significant presence in Gujarat, Punjab and Pakistan. The possible homeland of this haplogroup spans Gujarat (highest frequency, 12%) and Iran because from there its frequency declines steeply both to the east and to the west. |} == Y chromosome == [[File:Haplogroup F (Y-DNA).PNG|thumb|350px|The diversion of [[Haplogroup F (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup F]] and its descendants.]] '''{{details|topic=individual groups by Y-DNA|Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of South Asia}}''' The major South Asian Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups are [[Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)|H]], [[Haplogroup J-M172|J2]], [[Haplogroup L-M20|L]], [[Haplogroup R1a1|R1a1]] and [[Haplogroup R2a|R2]].<ref name=mcDonald /> Their geographical origins are listed as follows, according to the latest scholarship: {| class="wikitable" border="1" !width=16%|Major South Asian Y-chromosomal lineages: !width=16%|H !width=16%|J2 !width=16%|L !width=16%|R1a !width=16%|R2 |- valign=top !Basu ''et al.'' (2003) |no comment |no comment |no comment |Central Asia |no comment |- !Kivisild ''et al.'' (2003) |India |Western Asia |India |Southern and Western Asia |South-Central Asia |- !Cordaux ''et al.'' (2004) |India |West or Central Asia |Middle Eastern |Central Asia |South-Central Asia |- !Sengupta ''et al.'' (2006) |India |The Middle East and Central Asia |South India |North India |North India |- !Thanseem ''et al.'' (2006) |India |The Levant |The Middle East |Southern and Central Asia |Southern and Central Asia |- !Sahoo ''et al.'' (2006) |South Asia |The Near East |South Asia |South or West Asia |South Asia |- !Mirabal ''et al.'' (2009) |no comment |no comment |no comment |Northwestern India or Central Asia |no comment |- !Zhao ''et al.'' (2009) |India |The Middle East |The Middle East |Central Asia or West Eurasia |Central Asia or West Eurasia |- !Sharma ''et al.'' (2009) |no comment |no comment |no comment |South Asia |no comment |- !Thangaraj ''et al.'' (2010) |South Asia |The Near East |The Near East |South Asia |South Asia |} === Haplogroup H === {{Main|Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)}} [[Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)]] is found at a high frequency in South Asia and is considered to represent the major indigenous paternal lineage. H is today rarely found outside of South Asia, but is common among South Asian-descended populations, such as the [[Romanis]], particularly the H-M82 subgroup. H was also found in some ancient samples of Europe and is still found today at a low frequency in certain southeastern Europeans and Arabs of the [[Levant]]. Haplogroup H is frequently found among populations of [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]] and the [[Maldives]]. All three branches of [[Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)]] are found in South Asia. [[Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup H]] is believed to have arisen in South Asia between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago.<ref name="isogg.org" /> Its probable site of introduction is South Asia, since it is concentrated there. It seems to represent the main Y-Chromosome haplogroup of the paleolithic inhabitants of South Asia and Europe respectively. Some individuals in South Asia have also been shown to belong to the much rarer subclade H3 (Z5857).<ref name="isogg.org" /> Haplogroup H is by no means restricted to specific populations. For example, H is possessed by about 28.8% of Indo-Aryan castes.<ref name="Sengupta2006" /><ref name=Cordaux2004 /> and in tribals about 25–35%.<ref name="Thanseem2006" /><ref name="Cordaux2004" /> === Haplogroup J2 === {{Main|Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)}} Haplogroup J2 has been present in South Asia mostly as J2a-M410 and J2b-M102, since neolithic times (9500 YBP).<ref name="Singh2016">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Sakshi |last2=Singh |first2=Ashish |last3=Rajkumar |first3=Raja |last4=Sampath Kumar |first4=Katakam |last5=Kadarkarai Samy |first5=Subburaj |last6=Nizamuddin |first6=Sheikh |last7=Singh |first7=Amita |last8=Ahmed Sheikh |first8=Shahnawaz |last9=Peddada |first9=Vidya |last10=Khanna |first10=Vinee |last11=Veeraiah |first11=Pandichelvam |last12=Pandit |first12=Aridaman |last13=Chaubey |first13=Gyaneshwer |last14=Singh |first14=Lalji |last15=Thangaraj |first15=Kumarasamy |title=Dissecting the influence of Neolithic demic diffusion on Indian Y-chromosome pool through J2-M172 haplogroup |journal=Scientific Reports |date=12 January 2016 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=19157 |doi=10.1038/srep19157 |pmid=26754573 |pmc=4709632 |bibcode=2016NatSR...619157S |language=en |issn=2045-2322}}</ref><ref name="Herrera2018">{{cite book |last1=Herrera |first1=Rene J. |last2=Garcia-Bertrand |first2=Ralph |title=Ancestral DNA, Human Origins, and Migrations |date=2018 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-804128-4 |page=250 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF1gDwAAQBAJ&q=Ancestral+DNA+Human+Origins+and+Migrations+J2b-M102+South+Asia&pg=PA250 |language=en}}</ref> J2 clades attain peak frequencies in the North-West and South India<ref name="Singh2016" /> and is found at 19% within South Indian castes, 11% in North Indian castes and 12% in Pakistan.<ref name=Sengupta2006 /> In [[South India]], the presence of J2 is higher among middle castes at 21%, followed by upper castes at 18.6% and lower castes at 14%.<ref name=Sengupta2006 /> Among caste groups, the highest frequency of J2-M172 is observed among Tamil [[Vellalar]]s of South India, at 38.7%.<ref name="Sengupta2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sengupta S, Zhivotovsky LA, King R, Mehdi SQ, Edmonds CA, Chow CE, Lin AA, Mitra M, Sil SK, Ramesh A, Usha Rani MV, Thakur CM, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Majumder PP, Underhill PA | display-authors = 6 | title = Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 78 | issue = 2 | pages = 202–21 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16400607 | pmc = 1380230 | doi = 10.1086/499411 }}</ref> J2 is present in tribals too<ref name="Singh2016" /> and has a frequency of 11% in Austro-Asiatic tribals. Among the Austro-Asiatic tribals, the predominant [[Haplogroup J2 (Y-DNA)|J2]] occurs in the Lodha (35%).<ref name=Sengupta2006 /> J2 is also present in the South Indian [[hill tribe]] [[Toda people|Toda]] at 38.46%,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Arunkumar G, Soria-Hernanz DF, Kavitha VJ, Arun VS, Syama A, Ashokan KS, Gandhirajan KT, Vijayakumar K, Narayanan M, Jayalakshmi M, Ziegle JS, Royyuru AK, Parida L, Wells RS, Renfrew C, Schurr TG, Smith CT, Platt DE, Pitchappan R | display-authors = 6 | title = Population differentiation of southern Indian male lineages correlates with agricultural expansions predating the caste system | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 11 | pages = e50269 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23209694 | pmc = 3508930 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0050269 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...750269A | doi-access = free }}</ref> in the [[Andh|Andh tribe]] of [[Telangana]] at 35.19%<ref name="Thanseem2006" /> and in the [[Kol people|Kol tribe]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] at a frequency of 33.34%.<ref name="Sharma2009"/> Haplogroup J-P209 was found to be more common in India's [[Shia Muslim]]s, of which 28.7% belong to haplogroup J, with 13.7% in J-M410, 10.6% in J-M267 and 4.4% in J2b {{harv|Eaaswarkhanth|2009}}. In [[Pakistan]], the highest frequencies of J2-M172 were observed among the [[Parsi]]s at 38.89%, the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]-speaking [[Brahui people|Brahuis]] at 28.18% and the Makrani [[Baloch people|Balochs]] at 24%.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal | vauthors = Qamar R, Ayub Q, Mohyuddin A, Helgason A, Mazhar K, Mansoor A, Zerjal T, Tyler-Smith C, Mehdi SQ | display-authors = 6 | title = Y-chromosomal DNA variation in Pakistan | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 1107–24 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 11898125 | pmc = 447589 | doi = 10.1086/339929 }}</ref> It also occurs at 18.18% in [[Siddi|Makrani Siddis]] and at 3% in [[Siddis of Karnataka|Karnataka Siddis]].<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shah AM, Tamang R, Moorjani P, Rani DS, Govindaraj P, Kulkarni G, Bhattacharya T, Mustak MS, Bhaskar LV, Reddy AG, Gadhvi D, Gai PB, Chaubey G, Patterson N, Reich D, Tyler-Smith C, Singh L, Thangaraj K | display-authors = 6 | title = Indian Siddis: African descendants with Indian admixture | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 89 | issue = 1 | pages = 154–61 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21741027 | pmc = 3135801 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030 }}</ref> J2-M172 is found at an overall frequency of 10.3% among the [[Sinhalese people]] of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=kivisild2003/> In [[Maldives]], 20.6% of Maldivian population were found to be haplogroup J2 positive.<ref name="Pijpe2013">{{cite journal |last1=Pijpe |first1=Jeroen |last2=de Voogt |first2=Alex |last3=van Oven |first3=Mannis |last4=Henneman |first4=Peter |last5=van der Gaag |first5=Kristiaan J. |last6=Kayser |first6=Manfred |last7=de Knijff |first7=Peter |title=Indian ocean crossroads: Human genetic origin and population structure in the maldives |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=21 March 2013 |volume=151 |issue=1 |pages=58–67 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.22256 |pmid=23526367 |pmc=3652038 |language=en |issn=0002-9483}}</ref> === Haplogroup L === {{Main|Haplogroup L (Y-DNA)}} According to Dr. [[Spencer Wells]], L-M20 originated in the [[Pamir Knot]] region in [[Tajikistan]] and migrated into [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] ca. 30,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wells|first1=Spencer|title=Deep ancestry: inside the Genographic project|date=2007|publisher=National Geographic|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-1426201189}}</ref><ref name="David G 2017"/><ref>Spencer Wells (2003), ''The Journey of Man. A Genetic Odyssey''. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, p. 167</ref> However, most other studies have proposed a South Asian origin for L-M20 and associated its expansion with the [[Indus valley]] (~7,000 YBP).<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao Z, Khan F, Borkar M, Herrera R, Agrawal S | title = Presence of three different paternal lineages among North Indians: a study of 560 Y chromosomes | journal = Annals of Human Biology | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 46–59 | date = 2009 | pmid = 19058044 | pmc = 2755252 | doi = 10.1080/03014460802558522 }}</ref><ref name="Thanseem2006"/><ref name="Cordaux2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cordaux R, Aunger R, Bentley G, Nasidze I, Sirajuddin SM, Stoneking M | s2cid = 5721248 | title = Independent origins of Indian caste and tribal paternal lineages | journal = Current Biology | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 231–5 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14761656 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2004.01.024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McElreavey K, Quintana-Murci L | s2cid = 109014 | title = A population genetics perspective of the Indus Valley through uniparentally-inherited markers | journal = Annals of Human Biology | volume = 32 | issue = 2 | pages = 154–62 | date = 2005 | pmid = 16096211 | doi = 10.1080/03014460500076223 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thangaraj K, Naidu BP, Crivellaro F, Tamang R, Upadhyay S, Sharma VK, Reddy AG, Walimbe SR, Chaubey G, Kivisild T, Singh L | display-authors = 6 | title = The influence of natural barriers in shaping the genetic structure of Maharashtra populations | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 5 | issue = 12 | pages = e15283 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21187967 | pmc = 3004917 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0015283 | bibcode = 2010PLoSO...515283T | doi-access = free }}</ref> There are three subbranches of haplogroup L: L1-M76 (L1a1), L2-M317 (L1b) and L3-M357 (L1a2), found at varying levels in South Asia.<ref name=Sengupta2006 /> ==== India ==== [[Haplogroup L-M20|Haplogroup L]] shows time of neolithic expansion.<ref name=Thangaraj2010 /> The clade is present in the Indian population at an overall frequency of ca. 7–15%.<ref name=Sengupta2006 /><ref name="Thanseem2006" /><ref name=Basu2003 /><ref name=Cordaux2004 /> [[Haplogroup L-M20|Haplogroup L]] has a higher frequency among south Indian castes (ca. 17–19%) and reaches 68% in some castes in [[Karnataka]] but is somewhat rarer in northern Indian castes (ca. 5–6%).<ref name=Sengupta2006 /> The presence of haplogroup L is quite rare among tribal groups (ca. 5,6–7%),<ref name=Sengupta2006 /><ref name="Thanseem2006" /><ref name=Cordaux2004 /> however 14.6% has been observed among the [[Chenchu]]s.<ref name=kivisild2003 /> Among regional and social groups, moderate to high frequencies have been observed in Konkanastha Brahmins (18.6%), Punjabis (12.1%), Gujaratis (10.4%), [[Lambadis]] (17.1%), and [[Jats]] (36.8%).<ref name=kivisild2003 /><ref name="David G 2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahal DG, Matsoukas IG | title = Y-STR Haplogroup Diversity in the Jat Population Reveals Several Different Ancient Origins | journal = Frontiers in Genetics | volume = 8 | pages = 121 | date = 20 September 2017 | pmid = 28979290 | pmc = 5611447 | doi = 10.3389/fgene.2017.00121 | doi-access = free }}</ref> ==== Pakistan ==== In Pakistan, L1-M76 and L3-M357 subclades of L-M20 reach overall frequencies of 5.1% and 6.8%, respectively.<ref name=Sengupta2006 /> Haplogroup L3 (M357) is found frequently among [[Burusho people|Burusho]] (approx. 12%<ref name=Firasat2007 />) and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] (approx. 7%<ref name=Firasat2007 />). Its highest frequency can be found in south western [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] province along the [[Makran]] coast (28%) to [[Indus River]] delta. L3a (PK3) is found in approximately 23% of [[Nuristani people|Nuristani]] in northwest [[Pakistan]].<ref name=Firasat2007 /> The clade is present in moderate distribution among the general Pakistani population (14% approx).{{sfn|Qamar|2002}}{{sfn|Mcelreavey|2005}} ====Sri Lanka==== In one study, 16% of the Sinhalese were found to be Haplogroup L-M20 positive.<ref name=kivisild2003a/> In another study 18% were found to belong to L1.<ref name=kivisild2003 /> === Haplogroup R1a1 === {{Main|Haplogroup R1a1a}} In South Asia, R1a1 has been observed often with high frequency in a number of demographic groups,<ref name=Sahoo2006 /><ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005">{{Harvcoltxt|Sengupta et al.|2005}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2020}}</ref><ref name=Underhill2009 /> as well as with highest [[Microsatellite|STR]] diversity which lead some to see it as the locus of origin.<ref name=kivisild2003 /><ref name=Sharma2009 /><ref name=Mirabal2009 /> [[File:Haplogroup P of Y-DNA.png|thumb|Haplogroup P expanded probably within a genetically South-Eurasian population in coastal Southeast Asia, and was introduced into West- and East-Eurasian populations through genetic drift. Its descended lineage R later returned to South Asia through historical migrations.]] While R1a originated ca. 22,000<ref name="Sharma2009" /> to 25,000{{sfn|Underhill|2014}} years ago, its subclade M417 (R1a1a1) diversified ca. 5,800 years ago.{{sfn|Underhill|2014}} The distribution of M417-subclades R1-Z282 (including R1-Z280){{sfn|Pamjav|2012}} in Central and Eastern Europe and R1-Z93 in Asia{{sfn|Pamjav|2012}}{{sfn|Underhill|2014}} suggests that R1a1a diversified within the [[Eurasian Steppe]]s or the [[Middle East]] and [[Caucasus]] region.{{sfn|Pamjav|2012}} The place of origin of these subclades plays a role in the debate about the origins of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-Europeans]]. While haplogroup R is commonly found among West-Eurasians, recent studies suggest that its ancestral lineage ([[Haplogroup P (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup P]]) descended from a South-Eurasian population in [[Southeast Asia]]. Today it is commonly found among [[Aeta people]], [[Jahai people]], and some [[Andamanese peoples]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hallast|first=Pille|last2=Agdzhoyan|first2=Anastasia|last3=Balanovsky|first3=Oleg|last4=Xue|first4=Yali|last5=Tyler-Smith|first5=Chris|date=2021|title=A Southeast Asian origin for present-day non-African human Y chromosomes|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7864842/|journal=Human Genetics|volume=140|issue=2|pages=299–307|doi=10.1007/s00439-020-02204-9|issn=0340-6717|pmc=7864842|pmid=32666166}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McColl|first=Hugh|last2=Racimo|first2=Fernando|last3=Vinner|first3=Lasse|last4=Demeter|first4=Fabrice|last5=Gakuhari|first5=Takashi|last6=Moreno-Mayar|first6=J. Víctor|last7=van Driem|first7=George|last8=Gram Wilken|first8=Uffe|last9=Seguin-Orlando|first9=Andaine|last10=de la Fuente Castro|first10=Constanza|last11=Wasef|first11=Sally|date=2018-07-06|title=The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia|url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aat3628|journal=Science|volume=361|issue=6397|pages=88–92|doi=10.1126/science.aat3628}}</ref> ==== India ==== In [[India]], a high percentage of this haplogroup is observed in [[Bengali Brahmins|West Bengal Brahmins]] (72%)<ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005" /> to the east, [[Lohana|Gujarat Lohanas]] (60%)<ref name=Underhill2009 /> to the west, [[Khatri]]s (67%)<ref name=Underhill2009 /> in the north, and [[Iyengar|Iyengar Brahmins]] (31%) in the south.<ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005" /> It has also been found in several [[South Indian]] [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]-speaking [[Adivasi|tribals]] including the Kotas (41%) of Tamil Nadu,{{sfn|ArunkumarG|2012}} [[Chenchu]] (26%) and Valmikis of [[Andhra Pradesh]]<ref name=kivisild2003 /> as well as the [[Yadav]] and [[Kallar(caste)|Kallar]] of [[Tamil Nadu]] suggesting that M17 is widespread in these southern Indians tribes.<ref name=kivisild2003>{{Harvcoltxt|Kivisild|2003}}</ref> Besides these, studies show high percentages in regionally diverse groups such as [[Meitei people|Manipuris]] (50%)<ref name=Underhill2009 /> to the extreme northeast and in among [[Punjabis]] (47%)<ref name=kivisild2003/> to the extreme northwest. ==== Pakistan ==== In Pakistan, it is found at 71% among the Mohanna of [[Sindh Province]] to the south and 46% among the [[Balti people|Baltis]] of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] to the north.<ref name=Underhill2009 /> ==== Sri Lanka ==== 23% of the [[Sinhalese people]] out of a sample of 87 subjects were found to be R1a1a (R-SRY1532) positive according to a 2003 research.<ref name=kivisild2003a>{{Cite book | last1 = Kivisild | first1 = Toomas | last2 = Rootsi |first2=Siiri |last3=Metspalu |first3=Mait |last4=Metspalu |first4=Ene |last5=Parik |first5=Juri |last6=Kaldma |first6=Katrin |last7=Usanga |first7=Esien |last8=Mastana |first8=Sarabjit |last9=Papiha |first9=Surinder S. |last10=Villems |first10=Richard | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2003 | chapter= The Genetics of Language and Farming Spread in India |editor=Bellwood P, Renfrew C |title=Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis | publisher = McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom | pages = 215–222 |chapter-url=http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Kivisild2003a.pdf }}</ref> ==== Maldives ==== In the [[Maldives]], 23.8% of the [[Maldivian people]] were found to be R1a1a (M17) positive.<ref name="Pijpe2013" /> ==== Nepal ==== People in [[Terai]] Region, [[Nepal]] show R1a1a at 69%.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fornarino et al.|2009}}</ref> === Haplogroup R2 === {{Main|Haplogroup R2 (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup R2a (Y-DNA)}} In South Asia, the frequency of [[Haplogroup R2 (Y-DNA)|R2]] and [[Haplogroup R2a (Y-DNA)|R2a]] lineage is around 10–15% in India and [[Sri Lanka]] and 7–8% in Pakistan. At least 90% of R-M124 individuals are located in South Asia.<ref name="Manoukian" /> It is also reported in [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]] at a lower frequency. A genetic study by Mondal et al. in 2017 concluded that [[Haplogroup R2]] originated in northern India and was already present before the Steppe migration.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mondal|first1=Mayukh|last2=Bergström|first2=Anders|last3=Xue|first3=Yali|last4=Calafell|first4=Francesc|last5=Laayouni|first5=Hafid|last6=Casals|first6=Ferran|last7=Majumder|first7=Partha P.|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Bertranpetit|first9=Jaume|s2cid=3725426|date=1 May 2017|title=Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese|journal=Human Genetics|language=en|volume=136|issue=5|pages=499–510|doi=10.1007/s00439-017-1800-0|pmid=28444560|issn=1432-1203|hdl=10230/34399|hdl-access=free}}</ref> ==== India ==== Among regional groups, it is found among [[West Bengal|West]] [[Bengalis]] (23%), [[New Delhi]] [[Hindu]]s (20%), [[Punjabis]] (5%) and [[Gujaratis]] (3%).<ref name=kivisild2003 /> Among tribal groups, Karmalis of [[West Bengal]] showed highest at 100%<ref name=Sahoo2006 /> followed by [[Lodha people|Lodhas]] (43%)<ref name=Kumar2007 /> to the east, while [[Bhil]] of [[Gujarat]] in the west were at 18%,<ref name=Sharma2009 /> [[Tharu people|Tharus]] of the north showed it at 17%,<ref name=Tripathy2008 /> the [[Chenchu]] and [[Pallan]] of the south were at 20% and 14% respectively.<ref name=Sahoo2006 /><ref name="Sengupta2006" /> Among caste groups, high percentages are shown by [[Jaunpur district|Jaunpur]] [[Kshatriya]]s (87%), [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]] (73%), [[Bihar]] [[Yadav]] (50%), [[Khandayat]] (46%)and [[Kallar (caste)|Kallar]] (44%).<ref name=Sahoo2006 /> It is also significantly high in many [[Brahmin]] groups including [[Punjabi Brahmins]] (25%), [[Bengali Brahmins]] (22%), [[Konkanastha]] Brahmins (20%), [[Chaturvedi]]s (32%), [[Bhargava]]s (32%), [[Kashmiri Pandit]]s (14%) and [[Lingayat]] Brahmins (30%).<ref name=Sharma2009 /><ref name=Zhao2009 /><ref name=Tripathy2008 /><ref name=Sahoo2006 /> North Indian Muslims have a frequency of 19% ([[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]) and 13% ([[Shia islam|Shia]]),<ref name=Zhao2009 /> while [[Dawoodi Bohra|Dawoodi Bohra Muslim]] in the western state of Gujarat have a frequency of 16% and [[Mappila|Mappila Muslims]] of southern India have a frequency of 5%.<ref name=Eaaswarkhanth2009 /> ==== Pakistan ==== The R2 haplogroup is found in 71% of the [[Burusho people]].<ref name="Firasat2007" /> Among the [[Hunza people]] it is found at 18% while the [[Parsi]]s show it at 20%.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} ==== Sri Lanka ==== 38% of the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] of Sri Lanka were found to be R2 positive according to a 2003 research.<ref name=kivisild2003 /> ==== Maldives ==== 12% of the [[Maldivian people]] of Maldives are found to have R2.<ref name="Pijpe2013" /> ==== Nepal ==== In Nepal, R2 percentages range from 2% to 26% within different groups under various studies. [[Newar]]s show a significantly high frequency of 26% while people of [[Kathmandu]] show it at 10%. == Reconstructing South Asian population history == The {{harvtxt|Indian Genome Variation Consortium|2008}}, divides the population of South Asia into four ethnolinguistic (not genetic) groups: [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] and [[Austroasiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]].<ref> {{Cite web |url=http://www.imtech.res.in/raghava/reprints/IGVdb.pdf |title=The Place of the Indian mtDNA Variants in the Global Network of Maternal Lineages and the Peopling of the Old World |access-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308154249/http://www.imtech.res.in/raghava/reprints/IGVdb.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2012 |url-status=live }} </ref><ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=2-16|title=Ethnologue report for Indo-European|publisher=Ethnologue.com|access-date=24 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015090404/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=2-16|archive-date=15 October 2012|url-status=live}} </ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Baldi|first=Philip| name-list-style = vanc |author-link=Philip Baldi|title=Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1990|isbn=978-3-11-011908-4|page=342}}</ref>{{sfnp|Burling|2003|pp=174–178}}<ref> Bradley (2012) notes, ''MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic.''[https://www.academia.edu/1542763/Languages_and_Language_Families_in_China Languages and Language Families in China] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430061616/http://www.academia.edu/1542763/Languages_and_Language_Families_in_China |date=30 April 2017 }} </ref> The molecular anthropology studies use three different type of markers: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation which is maternally inherited and highly polymorphic, Y Chromosome variation which involves uniparental transmission along the male lines, and Autosomal DNA variation.<ref name=Tripathy2008 />{{rp|04}} === mtDNA variation === Most of the studies based on mtDNA variation have reported genetic unity of South Asian populations across language, caste and tribal groups.<ref name="Kivisild1999b" /><ref name="Baig2004" /><ref name="Kumar"> {{cite book|last=Singh|first=Ashok Kumar| name-list-style = vanc |title=Science & Technology For Upsc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzV1MgFH6oMC&pg=PA595|year=2007|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-065548-5|page=595|access-date=24 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103134039/http://books.google.com/books?id=CzV1MgFH6oMC&pg=PA595|archive-date=3 January 2014|url-status=live}} </ref> It is likely that haplogroup M was brought to Asia from East Africa along the southern route by earliest migration wave 78,000 years ago.<ref name="Kivisild1999b" /> According to [[Toomas Kivisild|Kivisild]] et al. (1999), "Minor overlaps with lineages described in other Eurasian populations clearly demonstrate that recent immigrations have had very little impact on the innate structure of the maternal [[gene pool]] of South Asians. Despite the variations found within India, these populations stem from a limited number of founder lineages. These lineages were most likely introduced to South Asia during the Middle Palaeolithic, before the peopling of Europe 48,000 years ago and perhaps the Old World in general."<ref name=Kivisild1999b /> Basu et al. (2003) also emphasises underlying unity of female lineages in India.<ref name=Basu2003 /> === Y Chromosome variation === Conclusions based on Y Chromosome variation have been more varied than those based on mtDNA variation. While {{harvtxt|Kivisild et al.|2003}} proposes an ancient and shared genetic heritage of male lineages in South Asia, Bamshad et al. (2001) suggests an affinity between South Asian male lineages and modern west Eurasians proportionate to upper-caste rank and places upper-caste populations of southern Indian states closer to East Europeans.<ref name=Bamshad2001 /> Basu et al. (2003) concludes that Austro–Asiatic tribal populations entered India first from the Northwest corridor and much later some of them through Northeastern corridor.<ref name="Basu2003" /> Whereas, Kumar et al. (2007) analysed 25 South Asian Austro-Asiatic tribes and found a strong paternal genetic link among the sub-linguistic groups of the South Asian Austro-Asiatic populations.<ref name=Kumar2007 /> Mukherjee et al. (2001) places Pakistanis and North Indians between west Asian and Central Asian populations,<ref name=Mukherjee2001 /> whereas Cordaux et al. (2004) argues that the Indian caste populations are closer to Central Asian populations.<ref name="Cordaux2004" /> Sahoo et al. (2006) and Sengupta et al. (2006) suggest that Indian caste populations have not been subject to any recent admixtures.<ref name="Sengupta2006" /><ref name=Sahoo2006 /> Sanghamitra Sahoo concludes his study with:<ref name=Sahoo2006 /> {{Quote|It is not necessary, based on the current evidence, to look beyond South Asia for the origins of the paternal heritage of the majority of Indians at the time of the onset of settled agriculture. The perennial concept of people, language, and agriculture arriving to India together through the northwest corridor does not hold up to close scrutiny. Recent claims for a linkage of haplogroups J2, L, R1a, and R2 with a contemporaneous origin for the majority of the Indian castes’ paternal lineages from outside the South Asia are rejected, although our findings do support a local origin of haplogroups F* and H. Of the others, only J2 indicates an unambiguous recent external contribution, from West Asia rather than Central Asia. The current distributions of haplogroup frequencies are, with the exception of the lineages, predominantly driven by geographical, rather than cultural determinants. Ironically, it is in the northeast of India, among the TB groups that there is clear-cut evidence for large-scale demic diffusion traceable by genes, culture, and language, but apparently not by agriculture.}} Closest-neighbor analysis done by Mondal et al. in 2017 concluded that Indian Y-lineages are close to southern [[Europe]]an populations and the time of divergence between the two predated Steppe migration:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mondal |first1=Mayukh |last2=Bergström |first2=Anders |last3=Xue |first3=Yali |last4=Calafell |first4=Francesc |last5=Laayouni |first5=Hafid |last6=Casals |first6=Ferran |last7=Majumder |first7=Partha P. |last8=Tyler-Smith |first8=Chris |last9=Bertranpetit |first9=Jaume |s2cid=3725426 |title=Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese |journal=Human Genetics |date=25 April 2017 |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=499–510 |doi=10.1007/s00439-017-1800-0 |pmid=28444560 |hdl=10230/34399 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{Quote|text=These results suggest that the European-related ancestry in Indian populations might be much older and more complex than anticipated, and might originate from the first wave of agriculturists or even earlier|sign=Mondal et al. 2017|source=}} === Autosomal DNA variation === ====AASI-ANI-ASI==== Results of studies based upon autosomal DNA variation have also been varied. In a major study (2009) using over 500,000 biallelic autosomal markers, Reich hypothesized that the modern South Asian population was the result of admixture between two genetically divergent ancestral populations dating from the post-Holocene era. These two "reconstructed" ancient populations he termed "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI) and "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI). According to Reich: "ANI ancestry is significantly higher in Indo-European than Dravidian speakers, suggesting that the ancestral ASI may have spoken a Dravidian language before mixing with the ANI." While the ANI is genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians and Europeans, the ASI is not closely related to groups outside of the subcontinent. As no "ASI" ancient DNA is available, the indigenous [[Andamanese]] [[Onge people|Onge]] are used as an (imperfect) proxy of ASI (according to Reich et al., the Andamanese, though distinct from them, are the closest living population to the ASI). According to Reich et al., both ANI and ASI ancestry are found all over the subcontinent (in both northern and southern India) in varying proportions, and that "ANI ancestry ranges from 39-71% in India, and is higher in traditionally upper caste and Indo-European speakers."<ref name="Reich2009" /> Moorjani et al. 2013 state that the ASI, though not closely related to any living group, are "related (distantly) to indigenous Andaman Islanders." Moorjani et al. however suggest possible gene flow into the Andamanese from a population related to the ASI, causing the modeled relationship. The study concluded that "almost all groups speaking Indo-European or Dravidian languages lie along a gradient of varying relatedness to West-Eurasians in PCA (referred to as "Indian cline")”.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moorjani P, Thangaraj K, Patterson N, Lipson M, Loh PR, Govindaraj P, Berger B, Reich D, Singh L | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 93 | issue = 3 | pages = 422–38 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23932107 | pmc = 3769933 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006 }}</ref> A 2013 study by Chaubey using the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), shows that the genome of Andamanese people (Onge) is closer to those of other Oceanic Negrito groups than to that of South Asians.<ref name="Chaubey_and_Endicott">{{cite journal|last1=Chaubey|first1=Gyaneshwer|last2=Endicott|first2=Phillip|date=June 2013|title=The Andaman Islanders in a Regional Genetic Context: Reexamining the Evidence for an Early Peopling of the Archipelago from South Asia|url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/7|journal=Human Biology|volume=85|issue=1–3|pages=153–172|doi=10.3378/027.085.0307|pmid=24297224|s2cid=7774927}}</ref> According to Basu et al. 2016, further analysis revealed that the genomic structure of mainland Indian populations is best explained by contributions from four ancestral components. In addition to the ANI and ASI, Basu et. al (2016) identified two East Asian ancestral components in mainland India that are major for the Austro-Asiatic-speaking tribals and the Tibeto-Burman speakers, which they denoted as AAA (for "Ancestral Austro-Asiatic") and ATB (for "Ancestral Tibeto-Burman") respectively. The study also infers that the populations of the [[Andaman Islands]] archipelago form a distinct ancestry, which "was found to be coancestral to [[Oceania|Oceanic]] populations" but more distant from South Asians.<ref name="Basu2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Basu A, Sarkar-Roy N, Majumder PP | title = Genomic reconstruction of the history of extant populations of India reveals five distinct ancestral components and a complex structure | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 113 | issue = 6 | pages = 1594–9 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26811443 | pmc = 4760789 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1513197113 | bibcode = 2016PNAS..113.1594B | doi-access = free }} </ref> The cline of admixture between the ANI and ASI lineages is dated to the period of c. 4.2–1.9 kya by Moorjani et al. (2013), corresponding to the Indian Bronze Age, and associated by the authors with the process of deurbanisation of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and the population shift to the Gangetic system in the incipient Indian Iron Age.<ref name="Moorjani2013" /> Basu et al. (2003) suggests that "Dravidian speakers were possibly widespread throughout India before the arrival of the Indo-European-speaking nomads" and that "formation of populations by fission that resulted in founder and drift effects have left their imprints on the genetic structures of contemporary populations".<ref name="Basu2003" /> The geneticist PP Majumder (2010) has recently argued that the findings of Reich et al. (2009) are in remarkable concordance with previous research using mtDNA and Y-DNA:<ref name="Majumder2010" /> {{Quote|Central Asian populations are supposed to have been major contributors to the Indian gene pool, particularly to the northern Indian gene pool, and the migrants had supposedly moved into India through what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan. Using [[mitochondrial DNA]] variation data collated from various studies, we have shown that populations of Central Asia and Pakistan show the lowest coefficient of genetic differentiation with the north Indian populations, a higher differentiation with the south Indian populations, and the highest with the northeast Indian populations. Northern Indian populations are genetically closer to Central Asians than populations of other geographical regions of India... . Consistent with the above findings, a recent study using over 500,000 biallelic autosomal markers has found a north to south gradient of genetic proximity of Indian populations to western Eurasians. This feature is likely related to the proportions of ancestry derived from the western Eurasian gene pool, which, as this study has shown, is greater in populations inhabiting northern India than those inhabiting southern India.}} Chaubey et al. 2015 detected a distinctive East Asian ancestral component, mainly restricted to specific populations in the foothills of Himalaya and northeastern part of India. Highest frequency of the component is observed among the Tibeto-Burmese speaking groups of northeast India and was also detected in Andamanese populations at 32%, with substantial presence also among Austroasiatic speakers. It is found to be largely absent in Indo-European and Dravidian speakers, except in some specific ethnic groups living in the Himalayan foothills and central-south India.<ref name="ChaubeyEast">{{cite journal |last1=Chaubey |first1=Gyaneshwer |title=East Asian ancestry in India |date=January 2015 |journal=Indian Journal of Physical Anthropology and Human Genetics |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=193–199 |url=https://serialsjournals.com/abstract/78963_2.pdf |quote=Here the analysis of genome wide data on Indian and East/Southeast Asian demonstrated their restricted distinctive ancestry in India mainly running along the foothills of Himalaya and northeastern part.}}</ref> The researchers however suggested that the East Asian ancestry (represented by the Han) measured in the studied Andamanese groups may actually reflect the capture of the affinity of the Andamanese with Melanesians and Malaysian Negritos (rather than true East Asian admixture),<ref name="ChaubeyEast"/> as a previous study by Chaubey et al. suggested "a deep common ancestry" between Andamanese, Melanesians and other Negrito groups,<ref name="ChaubeyEast"/> and an affinity between Southeast Asian Negritos and Melanesians (as well as the Andamanese) with East Asians.<ref name="Chaubey_and_Endicott" /> Lazaridis et al. (2016) notes "The demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial, as the [[Mala (caste)|Mala]], a south Indian [[Dalit]] population with minimal Ancestral North Indian (ANI) ancestry still have ~ 18% [[steppe-related ancestry|steppe-related Yamnaya ancestry]], while the [[Kalash people|Kalash]] of Pakistan are inferred to have ~ 50% steppe-related Yamnaya ancestry, one of the highest percentage next to eastern Europeans at 51%."<ref>Citation error. See inline comment how to fix. {{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/909570260 by a bug in VisualEditor and later identified by a bot. The original cite can be found at Special:Permalink/909439483 (or in a rev close to it) in either cite #44 or cite #38 - find and verify the cite and replace this template with it (1). [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> Lazaridis et al.'s 2016 study estimated (6.5–50.2%) steppe-related admixture in South Asians. Lazaridis et al. further notes that "A useful direction of future research is a more comprehensive sampling of ancient DNA from steppe populations, as well as populations of central Asia (east of Iran and south of the steppe), which may reveal more proximate sources of the ANI than the ones considered here, and of South Asia to determine the trajectory of population change in the area directly. Pathak et al. 2018 concluded that the [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] speakers of the [[Gangetic Plains]] and the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] speakers have significant [[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Early-Middle Bronze Age]] (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry but no Middle-Late Bronze Age Steppe (Steppe_MLBA) ancestry. On the other hand, the "North-Western Indian and Pakistani" populations (PNWI) showed significant Steppe_MLBA ancestry along with Yamnaya (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry. The study also noted that ancient South Asian samples had significantly higher Steppe_MLBA than Steppe_EMBA (or Yamnaya). The study also suggested that the [[Ror]]s could be used as a proxy for the ANI.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=Ajai K. |last2=Kadian |first2=Anurag |last3=Kushniarevich |first3=Alena |last4=Montinaro |first4=Francesco |last5=Mondal |first5=Mayukh |last6=Ongaro |first6=Linda |last7=Singh |first7=Manvendra |last8=Kumar |first8=Pramod |last9=Rai |first9=Niraj |last10=Parik |first10=Jüri |last11=Metspalu |first11=Ene |last12=Rootsi |first12=Siiri |last13=Pagani |first13=Luca |last14=Kivisild |first14=Toomas |last15=Metspalu |first15=Mait |last16=Chaubey |first16=Gyaneshwer |last17=Villems |first17=Richard |title=The Genetic Ancestry of Modern Indus Valley Populations from Northwest India |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=December 2018 |volume=103 |issue=6 |pages=918–929 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.10.022 |pmid=30526867 |pmc=6288199 }}</ref> [[David Reich (geneticist)|David Reich]] in his 2018 book ''[[Who We Are and How We Got Here]]'' states that the 2016 analyses found the ASI to have significant amounts of an ancestry component deriving from Iranian farmers (about 25% of their ancestry), with the remaining 75% of their ancestry deriving from native South Asian hunter-gatherers. He adds that ASI were unlikely the local hunter-gatherers of South Asia as previously established, but a population responsible for spreading agriculture throughout South Asia. In the case of the ANI, the Iranian farmer ancestry is 50%, with the rest being from steppe groups related to the Yamnaya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Reich |first1=David |title=Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past |date=2018 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-257040-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8NFeDwAAQBAJ&q=Who+We+Are+and+How+We+Got+Here+asi&pg=PT216 |access-date=2 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref> {{harvtxt|Narasimhan et al.|2018}}, similarly, conclude that ANI and ASI were formed in the 2nd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} They were preceded by a mixture of AASI (ancient ancestral south Indian, i.e. hunter-gatherers sharing a distant root with the Andamanese, Australian Aboriginals, and East Asians); and Iranian agriculturalists who arrived in India ca. 4700–3000 BCE, and "must have reached the Indus Valley by the 4th millennium BCE".{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} According to Narasimhan et al., this mixed population, which probably was native to the Indus Valley Civilisation, "contributed in large proportions to both the ANI and ASI", which took shape during the 2nd millennium BCE. ANI formed out of a mixture of "''Indus Periphery''-related groups" and migrants from the steppe, while ASI was formed out of "''Indus Periphery''-related groups" who moved south and mixed further with local hunter-gatherers. The ancestry of the ASI population is suggested to have averaged about 73% from the AASI and 27% from Iranian-related farmers. Narasimhan et al. observe that samples from the Indus periphery group are always mixes of the same two proximal sources of AASI and Iranian agriculturalist-related ancestry; with "one of the Indus Periphery individuals having ~42% AASI ancestry and the other two individuals having ~14-18% AASI ancestry" (with the remainder of their ancestry being from the Iranian agriculturalist-related population).{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} The authors propose that the AASI indigenous hunter-gatherers represent a divergent branch that split off around the same time that East Asian, Onge (Andamanese) and Australian Aboriginal ancestors separated from each other. It inferred, "essentially all the ancestry of present-day eastern and southern Asians (prior to West Eurasian-related admixture in southern Asians) derives from a single eastward spread, which gave rise in a short span of time to the lineages leading to AASI, East Asians, Onge, and Australians."{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} A genetic study by Yelmen et al. (2019) however shows that modern South Asian populations are generally closest to each other, and quite distinct from populations outside of South Asia. They concluded that modern South Asians are basically a mixture of an indigenous South Asian (AASI) component and a later-arriving West-Eurasian component (derived from both West Asia and the western Steppes). The authors also revealed that the indigenous South Asian (AASI) component is rather distinct from the Andamanese or East Asians, and that the Andamanese are thus an imperfect proxy. They propose that the South Indian tribal [[Paniya]] people (a group of predominantly ASI ancestry) would serve as a better proxy than the Andamanese (Onge) for the "indigenous South Asian" component in modern South Asians, as the Paniya are directly derived from the natives of South Asia, while the Onge may have received geneflow from other groups. They found that the indigenous South Asian population was isolated from other populations since at least 45,000 BC.<ref name="auto"/> Two genetic studies (Shinde et al. 2019 and Narasimhan et al. 2019,) analysing remains from the Indus Valley civilisation (of parts of Bronze Age Northwest India and East Pakistan), found them to have a mixture of ancestry: They found their samples to have genome from native South Asian hunter-gatherers at ~50%, with the remainder being largely of Iranian-related origin. The analysed samples of both studies have little to none of the "[[Steppe ancestry]]" component associated with later Indo-European migrations into India. The authors found that the respective amounts of those ancestries varied significantly between individuals, and concluded that more samples are needed to get the full picture of Indian population history.<ref name="IVCDNA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shinde V, Narasimhan VM, Rohland N, Mallick S, Mah M, Lipson M, Nakatsuka N, Adamski N, Broomandkhoshbacht N, Ferry M, Lawson AM, Michel M, Oppenheimer J, Stewardson K, Jadhav N, Kim YJ, Chatterjee M, Munshi A, Panyam A, Waghmare P, Yadav Y, Patel H, Kaushik A, Thangaraj K, Meyer M, Patterson N, Rai N, Reich D | title = An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers | journal = Cell | volume = 179 | issue = 3 | pages = 729–735.e10|date = September 2019 | pmid = 31495572| pmc = 6800651 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048 }}</ref><ref name="IVCDNA2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Narasimhan VM, Patterson N, Moorjani P, Rohland N, Bernardos R, Mallick S, Lazaridis I, Nakatsuka N, Olalde I, Lipson M, Kim AM, Olivieri LM, Coppa A, Vidale M, Mallory J, Moiseyev V, Kitov E, Monge J, Adamski N, Alex N, Broomandkhoshbacht N, Candilio F, Callan K, Cheronet O, Culleton BJ, Ferry M, Fernandes D, Freilich S, Gamarra B, Gaudio D, Hajdinjak M, Harney É, Harper TK, Keating D, Lawson AM, Mah M, Mandl K, Michel M, Novak M, Oppenheimer J, Rai N, Sirak K, Slon V, Stewardson K, Zalzala F, Zhang Z, Akhatov G, Bagashev AN, Bagnera A, Baitanayev B, Bendezu-Sarmiento J, Bissembaev AA, Bonora GL, Chargynov TT, Chikisheva T, Dashkovskiy PK, Derevianko A, Dobeš M, Douka K, Dubova N, Duisengali MN, Enshin D, Epimakhov A, Fribus AV, Fuller D, Goryachev A, Gromov A, Grushin SP, Hanks B, Judd M, Kazizov E, Khokhlov A, Krygin AP, Kupriyanova E, Kuznetsov P, Luiselli D, Maksudov F, Mamedov AM, Mamirov TB, Meiklejohn C, Merrett DC, Micheli R, Mochalov O, Mustafokulov S, Nayak A, Pettener D, Potts R, Razhev D, Rykun M, Sarno S, Savenkova TM, Sikhymbaeva K, Slepchenko SM, Soltobaev OA, Stepanova N, Svyatko S, Tabaldiev K, Teschler-Nicola M, Tishkin AA, Tkachev VV, Vasilyev S, Velemínský P, Voyakin D, Yermolayeva A, Zahir M, Zubkov VS, Zubova A, Shinde VS, Lalueza-Fox C, Meyer M, Anthony D, Boivin N, Thangaraj K, Kennett DJ, Frachetti M, Pinhasi R, Reich D | display-authors = 6 | title = The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia | journal = Science | volume = 365 | issue = 6457 | pages = eaat7487 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 31488661 | pmc = 6822619 | doi = 10.1126/science.aat7487 }}</ref> ==== Genetic distance between caste groups and tribes ==== Studies by Watkins et al. (2005) and Kivisild et al. (2003) based on autosomal markers conclude that Indian caste and tribal populations have a common ancestry.<ref name="kivisild2003" /><ref name=Watkins2005 /> Reddy et al. (2005) found fairly uniform allele frequency distributions across caste groups of southern [[Andhra Pradesh]], but significantly larger genetic distance between caste groups and tribes indicating [[genetic isolation]] of the tribes and castes.<ref name=Reddy2005 /> Viswanathan et al. (2004) in a study on genetic structure and affinities among tribal populations of southern India concludes, "''Genetic differentiation was high and genetic distances were not significantly correlated with geographic distances. Genetic drift therefore probably played a significant role in shaping the patterns of genetic variation observed in southern Indian tribal populations.'' Otherwise, analyses of population relationships showed that all Indian and South Asian populations are still similar to one another, regardless of phenotypic characteristics, and do not show any particular affinities to Africans. We conclude that the phenotypic similarities of some Indian groups to Africans ''do not'' reflect a close relationship between these groups, but are better explained by ''convergence''."<ref name=Vishwanathan2004 /> A 2011 study published in the [[American Journal of Human Genetics]]<ref name=Metspalu2011 /> indicates that Indian ancestral components are the result of a more complex demographic history than was previously thought. According to the researchers, South Asia harbours two major ancestral components, one of which is spread at comparable frequency and genetic diversity in populations of Central Asia, West Asia and Europe; the other component is more restricted to South Asia. However, if one were to rule out the possibility of a large-scale Indo-Aryan migration, these findings suggest that the genetic affinities of both Indian ancestral components are the result of multiple gene flows over the course of thousands of years.<ref name=Metspalu2011 />{{Quote|Modeling of the observed haplotype diversities suggests that both Indian ancestry components are older than the purported Indo-Aryan invasion 3,500 YBP. Consistent with the results of pairwise genetic distances among world regions, Indians share more ancestry signals with West than with East Eurasians.}} Narashimhan et al 2019 found Austroasiatic-speaking Munda tribals could not be modeled simply as mixture of ASI, AASI, ANI ancestry unlike other South Asians but required additional ancestry component from Southeast Asia. They were modeled as mixture of 88% AASI, and 12% East Asian-related to [[Nicobarese people|Nicobarese]], thus the ancestry profile of the Mundas provides an independent line of ancestry from Southeast Asia around the 3rd millennium BCE.<ref>Narashimhan et al 2019</ref> Lipson et al. 2018 found similar admixture results in regard to Munda tribals stating ''"we obtained a good fit with three ancestry components: one western Eurasian, one deep eastern Eurasian (interpreted as an indigenous South Asian lineage), and one from the Austroasiatic clade"''.<ref>lipson et al 2018</ref> Lipson et al. 2018 further found that the Austroasiatic source clad (proportion 35%) in Munda tribals was inferred to be closest to [[Mlabri people|Mlabri]].<ref name="Lipson et al 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Cheronet |first2=Olivia |last3=Mallick |first3=Swapan |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Oxenham |first5=Marc |last6=Pietrusewsky |first6=Michael |last7=Oliver Pryce |first7=Thomas |last8=Willis |first8=Anna |last9=Matsumura |first9=Hirofumi |last10=Buckley |first10=Hallie |last11=Domett |first11=Kate |last12=Hai Nguyen |first12=Giang |last13=Hiep Trinh |first13=Hoang |last14=Kyaw |first14=Aung Aung |last15=Win |first15=Tin Tin |last16=Pradier |first16=Baptiste |last17=Broomandkhoshbacht |first17=Nasreen |last18=Candilio |first18=Francesca |last19=Changmai |first19=Piya |last20=Fernandes |first20=Daniel |last21=Ferry |first21=Matthew |last22=Gamarra |first22=Beatriz |last23=Harney |first23=Eadaoin |last24=Kampuansai |first24=Jatupol |last25=Kutanan |first25=Megan |last26=Novak |first26=Mario |last27=Oppenheimer |first27=Jonas |last28=Sirak |first28=Kendra |last29=Stewardson |first29=Kristin |last30=Zhang |first30=Zhao |last31=Flegontov |first31=Pavel |last32=Pinhasi |first32=Ron |last33=Reich |first33=David |title=Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory |journal=Science |date=6 July 2018 |volume=361 |issue=6397 |pages=92–95 |doi=10.1126/science.aat3188 |pmid=29773666 |pmc=6476732 |bibcode=2018Sci...361...92L |url=}}</ref> Singh et al 2020 similarly found Austroasiatic speakers in South Asia fall out of the South Asian cline due to their Southeast Asian genetic affinity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pratap Singh |first1=Prajjval |last2=Vishwakarma |first2=Shani |last3=Nahar Sultana |first3=Gazi Nurun |last4=Pilvar |first4=Arno |last5=Karmin |first5=Monika |last6=Rootsi |first6=Siiri |last7=Villems |first7=Richard |last8=Metspalu |first8=Mait |last9=M. Behar |first9=Doron |last10=Kivisild |first10=Toomas |last11=Van Driem |first11=George |last12=Chaubey |first12=Gyaneshwer |title=Dissecting the paternal founders of Mundari (Austroasiatic) speakers associated with the language dispersal in South Asia |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |date=21 October 2020 |volume=172 |issue=3 |pages=528–532 |doi=10.1038/s41431-020-00745-1 |pmid=33087879 |pmc=7940493 |s2cid=224824515 |url=|pmc-embargo-date=March 1, 2022 }}</ref> == See also == {{Portal|Evolutionary biology}} *[[Archaeogenetics]] *[[Ethnic groups of South Asia]] *[[List of ethnolinguistic regions of South Asia]] *[[Peopling of India]] *[[Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of South Asia]] *[[Genetic studies on Gujarati people]] *[[Genetic history of Europe]] *[[Genetic history of the Middle East]] == References == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= <ref name="Baig2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baig MM, Khan AA, Kulkarni KM | title = Mitochondrial DNA diversity in tribal and caste 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recent population mixture in India | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 93 | issue = 3 | pages = 422–38 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23932107 | pmc = 3769933 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006 | author7-link = Bonnie Berger }}</ref> <ref name=Reddy2005>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reddy BM, Naidu VM, Madhavi VK, Thangaraj LK, Kumar V, Langstieh BT, Venkatramana P, Reddy AG, Singh L | s2cid = 18446485 | display-authors = 6 | title = Microsatellite diversity in Andhra Pradesh, India: genetic stratification versus social stratification | journal = Human Biology | volume = 77 | issue = 6 | pages = 803–23 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16715839 | doi = 10.1353/hub.2006.0018 | url = http://dspace.nehu.ac.in/handle/1/1547 }}</ref> <ref name=Sahoo2006>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sahoo S, Singh A, Himabindu G, Banerjee J, Sitalaximi T, Gaikwad S, Trivedi R, Endicott P, Kivisild T, Metspalu M, Villems R, Kashyap VK | display-authors = 6 | title = A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: evaluating demic diffusion scenarios | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 103 | issue = 4 | pages = 843–8 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16415161 | pmc = 1347984 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0507714103 | bibcode = 2006PNAS..103..843S | doi-access = free }}</ref> <ref name=Sharma2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma S, Rai E, Sharma P, Jena M, Singh S, Darvishi K, Bhat AK, Bhanwer AJ, Tiwari PK, Bamezai RN | s2cid = 22162114 | display-authors = 6 | title = The Indian origin of paternal haplogroup R1a1* substantiates the autochthonous origin of Brahmins and the caste system | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–55 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19158816 | doi = 10.1038/jhg.2008.2 | doi-access = free }}</ref> <ref name=Thangaraj2006>{{cite journal | vauthors = Puente XS, Velasco G, Gutiérrez-Fernández A, Bertranpetit J, King MC, López-Otín C | title = Comparative analysis of cancer genes in the human and chimpanzee genomes | journal = BMC Genomics | volume = 7 | pages = 15 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16438707 | pmc = 1382208 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2164-7-15 }}</ref> <ref name=Thangaraj2010>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thangaraj K, Naidu BP, Crivellaro F, Tamang R, Upadhyay S, Sharma VK, Reddy AG, Walimbe SR, Chaubey G, Kivisild T, Singh L | display-authors = 6 | title = The influence of natural barriers in shaping the genetic structure of Maharashtra populations | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 5 | issue = 12 | pages = e15283 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21187967 | pmc = 3004917 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0015283 | editor1-last = Cordaux | bibcode = 2010PLoSO...515283T | editor1-first = Richard | doi-access = free }}</ref> <ref name="Thanseem2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Thanseem I, Thangaraj K, Chaubey G, Singh VK, Bhaskar LV, Reddy BM, Reddy AG, Singh L | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic affinities among the lower castes and tribal groups of India: inference from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA | journal = BMC Genetics | volume = 7 | pages = 42 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16893451 | pmc = 1569435 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2156-7-42}}</ref> <ref name=Tripathy2008>{{cite journal |last1=Tripathy |first1=Vikal |last2=Nirmala |first2=A. |last3=Reddy |first3=B. Mohan |s2cid=12763485 |title=Trends in Molecular Anthropological Studies in India |journal=International Journal of Human Genetics |date=4 September 2017 |volume=8 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1080/09723757.2008.11886015 }}</ref> <ref name=Vishwanathan2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vishwanathan H, Deepa E, Cordaux R, Stoneking M, Usha Rani MV, Majumder PP | s2cid = 24230856 | title = Genetic structure and affinities among tribal populations of southern India: a study of 24 autosomal DNA markers | journal = Annals of Human Genetics | volume = 68 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 128–38 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15008792 | doi = 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00083.x }}</ref> <ref name=Watkins2005>{{cite journal | vauthors = Watkins WS, Prasad BV, Naidu JM, Rao BB, Bhanu BA, Ramachandran B, Das PK, Gai PB, Reddy PC, Reddy PG, Sethuraman M, Bamshad MJ, Jorde LB | display-authors = 6 | title = Diversity and divergence among the tribal populations of India | journal = Annals of Human Genetics | volume = 69 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 680–92 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16266407 | doi = 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2005.00200.x | s2cid = 31907598 }}</ref> <ref name=Zhao2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhao Z, Khan F, Borkar M, Herrera R, Agrawal S | title = Presence of three different paternal lineages among North Indians: a study of 560 Y chromosomes | journal = Annals of Human Biology | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 46–59 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19058044 | pmc = 2755252 | doi = 10.1080/03014460802558522 }}</ref> <ref name=Bamshad2001>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bamshad M, Kivisild T, Watkins WS, Dixon ME, Ricker CE, Rao BB, Naidu JM, Prasad BV, Reddy PG, Rasanayagam A, Papiha SS, Villems R, Redd AJ, Hammer MF, Nguyen SV, Carroll ML, Batzer MA, Jorde LB | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic evidence on the origins of Indian caste populations | journal = Genome Research | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 994–1004 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11381027 | pmc = 311057 | doi = 10.1101/gr.GR-1733RR }}</ref> <ref name=Basu2003>{{cite journal | vauthors = Basu A, Mukherjee N, Roy S, Sengupta S, Banerjee S, Chakraborty M, Dey B, Roy M, Roy B, Bhattacharyya NP, Roychoudhury S, Majumder PP | display-authors = 6 | title = Ethnic India: a genomic view, with special reference to peopling and structure | journal = Genome Research | volume = 13 | issue = 10 | pages = 2277–90 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14525929 | pmc = 403703 | doi = 10.1101/gr.1413403 }}</ref> <ref name=Kivisild1999a>{{cite journal |last1=Kivisild |first1=T. |last2=Bamshad |first2=M.J. |last3=Kaldma |first3=K. |last4=Metspalu |first4=M. |last5=Metspalu |first5=E. |last6=Reidla |first6=M. |last7=Laos |first7=S. |last8=Parik |first8=J. |last9=Watkins |first9=W.S. |last10=Dixon |first10=M.E. |last11=Papiha |first11=S.S. |last12=Mastana |first12=S.S. |last13=Mir |first13=M.R. |last14=Ferak |first14=V. |last15=Villems |first15=R. |s2cid=2821966 |title=Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages |journal=Current Biology |date=November 1999 |volume=9 |issue=22 |pages=1331–1334 |doi=10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3 |pmid=10574762 }}</ref> <ref name=Kivisild1999b>{{cite book | vauthors = Kivisild T, Kaldma K, Metspalu M, Parik J, Papiha S, Villems R |author-link1=Toomas Kivisild |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-4263-6_11 | chapter =The Place of the Indian Mitochondrial DNA Variants in the Global Network of Maternal Lineages and the Peopling of the Old World |title =Genomic Diversity |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-4613-6914-1 |pages=135–152 }}</ref> <ref name=Underhill2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Underhill PA, Myres NM, Rootsi S, Metspalu M, Zhivotovsky LA, King RJ, Lin AA, Chow CE, Semino O, Battaglia V, Kutuev I, Järve M, Chaubey G, Ayub Q, Mohyuddin A, Mehdi SQ, Sengupta S, Rogaev EI, Khusnutdinova EK, Pshenichnov A, Balanovsky O, Balanovska E, Jeran N, Augustin DH, Baldovic M, Herrera RJ, Thangaraj K, Singh V, Singh L, Majumder P, Rudan P, Primorac D, Villems R, Kivisild T | display-authors = 6 | title = Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 479–84 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 19888303 | pmc = 2987245 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2009.194 }}</ref> <ref name=Majumder2010>{{cite journal | vauthors = Majumder PP | s2cid = 1490419 | title = The human genetic history of South Asia | journal = Current Biology | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = R184-7 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20178765 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.053 }}</ref> <ref name=Mukherjee2001>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mukherjee N, Nebel A, Oppenheim A, Majumder PP | s2cid = 13267463 | title = High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from Central Asia and West Asia into India | journal = Journal of Genetics | volume = 80 | issue = 3 | pages = 125–35 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11988631 | doi = 10.1007/BF02717908 }}</ref> <ref name="Reich2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Reich D, Thangaraj K, Patterson N, Price AL, Singh L | title = Reconstructing Indian population history | journal = Nature | volume = 461 | issue = 7263 | pages = 489–94 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19779445 | pmc = 2842210 | doi = 10.1038/nature08365 | bibcode = 2009Natur.461..489R }}</ref> }} === Further reading === {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Allikas A, Ord D, Kurg R, Kivi S, Ustav M | title = Roles of the hinge region and the DNA binding domain of the bovine papillomavirus type 1 E2 protein in initiation of DNA replication | journal = Virus Research | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–106 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11325464 | doi = 10.1016/S0168-1702(01)00219-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Behar DM, Garrigan D, Kaplan ME, Mobasher Z, Rosengarten D, Karafet TM, Quintana-Murci L, Ostrer H, Skorecki K, Hammer MF | s2cid = 10310338 | display-authors = 6 | title = Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome variation in Ashkenazi Jewish and host non-Jewish European populations | journal = Human Genetics | volume = 114 | issue = 4 | pages = 354–65 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14740294 | doi = 10.1007/s00439-003-1073-7 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bhattacharyya NP, Basu P, Das M, Pramanik S, Banerjee R, Roy B, Roychoudhury S, Majumder PP | display-authors = 6 | title = Negligible male gene flow across ethnic boundaries in India, revealed by analysis of Y-chromosomal DNA polymorphisms | journal = Genome Research | volume = 9 | issue = 8 | pages = 711–9 | date = August 1999 | pmid = 10447506 | doi = 10.1101/gr.9.8.711 | url = http://genome.cshlp.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10447506 | doi-broken-date = 6 May 2021 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Cann RL | s2cid = 19367408 | title = Genetic clues to dispersal in human populations: retracing the past from the present | journal = Science | volume = 291 | issue = 5509 | pages = 1742–8 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11249820 | doi = 10.1126/science.1058948 | bibcode = 2001Sci...291.1742C }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Cinnioğlu C, King R, Kivisild T, Kalfoğlu E, Atasoy S, Cavalleri GL, Lillie AS, Roseman CC, Lin AA, Prince K, Oefner PJ, Shen P, Semino O, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA | s2cid = 10763736 | display-authors = 6 | title = Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia | journal = Human Genetics | volume = 114 | issue = 2 | pages = 127–48 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14586639 | doi = 10.1007/s00439-003-1031-4 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Das B, Chauhan PS, Seshadri M | s2cid = 12835244 | title = Minimal sharing of Y-chromosome STR haplotypes among five endogamous population groups from western and southwestern India | journal = Human Biology | volume = 76 | issue = 5 | pages = 743–63 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15757245 | doi = 10.1353/hub.2005.0003 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Hemphill | first1 = Brian E. | last2 = Christensen | first2 = Alexander F. | name-list-style = vanc | title = The Oxus Civilization as a Link between East and West: A Non-Metric Analysis of Bronze Age Bactrain Biological Affinities | date = 3 November 1994 | location = Madison, Wisconsin | page = 13}} (paper read at the South Asia Conference) * {{cite journal | vauthors = Jobling MA, Tyler-Smith C | s2cid = 13508130 | title = The human Y chromosome: an evolutionary marker comes of age | journal = Nature Reviews. Genetics | volume = 4 | issue = 8 | pages = 598–612 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12897772 | doi = 10.1038/nrg1124 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Kivisild T, Rootsi S, Metspalu M, Mastana S, Kaldma K, Parik J, Metspalu E, Adojaan M, Tolk HV, Stepanov V, Gölge M, Usanga E, Papiha SS, Cinnioğlu C, King R, Cavalli-Sforza L, Underhill PA, Villems R | display-authors = 6 | title = The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 313–32 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12536373 | pmc = 379225 | doi = 10.1086/346068 | author-link1 = Toomas Kivisild }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Metspalu M, Kivisild T, Metspalu E, Parik J, Hudjashov G, Kaldma K, Serk P, Karmin M, Behar DM, Gilbert MT, Endicott P, Mastana S, Papiha SS, Skorecki K, Torroni A, Villems R | display-authors = 6 | title = Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans | journal = BMC Genetics | volume = 5 | pages = 26 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15339343 | pmc = 516768 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2156-5-26 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Patowary A, Purkanti R, Singh M, Chauhan RK, Bhartiya D, Dwivedi OP, Chauhan G, Bharadwaj D, Sivasubbu S, Scaria V | s2cid = 11466942 | display-authors = 6 | title = Systematic analysis and functional annotation of variations in the genome of an Indian individual | journal = Human Mutation | volume = 33 | issue = 7 | pages = 1133–40 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22461382 | doi = 10.1002/humu.22091 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rootsi S, Magri C, Kivisild T, Benuzzi G, Help H, Bermisheva M, Kutuev I, Barać L, Pericić M, Balanovsky O, Pshenichnov A, Dion D, Grobei M, Zhivotovsky LA, Battaglia V, Achilli A, Al-Zahery N, Parik J, King R, Cinnioğlu C, Khusnutdinova E, Rudan P, Balanovska E, Scheffrahn W, Simonescu M, Brehm A, Goncalves R, Rosa A, Moisan JP, Chaventre A, Ferak V, Füredi S, Oefner PJ, Shen P, Beckman L, Mikerezi I, Terzić R, Primorac D, Cambon-Thomsen A, Krumina A, Torroni A, Underhill PA, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS, Villems R, Semino O | display-authors = 6 | title = Phylogeography of Y-chromosome haplogroup I reveals distinct domains of prehistoric gene flow in europe | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 75 | issue = 1 | pages = 128–37 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15162323 | pmc = 1181996 | doi = 10.1086/422196 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Qamar R, Ayub Q, Mohyuddin A, Helgason A, Mazhar K, Mansoor A, Zerjal T, Tyler-Smith C, Mehdi SQ | display-authors = 6 | title = Y-chromosomal DNA variation in Pakistan | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 1107–24 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 11898125 | pmc = 447589 | doi = 10.1086/339929 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Semino O, Magri C, Benuzzi G, Lin AA, Al-Zahery N, Battaglia V, Maccioni L, Triantaphyllidis C, Shen P, Oefner PJ, Zhivotovsky LA, King R, Torroni A, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS | display-authors = 6 | title = Origin, diffusion, and differentiation of Y-chromosome haplogroups E and J: inferences on the neolithization of Europe and later migratory events in the Mediterranean area | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 74 | issue = 5 | pages = 1023–34 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15069642 | pmc = 1181965 | doi = 10.1086/386295 }} {{Refend}} == Sources == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | author = Indian Genome Variation Consortium | s2cid = 21473349 | title = Genetic landscape of the people of India: a canvas for disease gene exploration | journal = Journal of Genetics | volume = 87 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–20 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18560169 | doi = 10.1007/s12041-008-0002-x }} <!-- E --> * {{cite book |last1=Endicott |first1=Phillip |last2=Metspalu |first2=Mait |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas | name-list-style = vanc |chapter=Genetic evidence on modern human dispersals in South Asia: Y chromose and mitochondrial DNA perspectives |editor1=Michael D. Petraglia |editor2=Bridget Allchin |title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia |publisher=Springer |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4020-5561-4 |pages=201–228 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA201}} <!-- H --> * {{cite book |last1=Hemphill |first1=B.E. |last2=Lukacs |first2=J.R. |last3=Kennedy |first3=K.A.R. | name-list-style = vanc |chapter=Biological Adaptations and Affinities of Bronze Age Harappans |editor1-first=Richard H. |editor1-last=Meadow |title=Harappa excavations 1986–1990: a multidisciplinary approach to third millennium urbanism |year=1991 |pages=137–82 |isbn=978-0-9629110-1-9 }} <!-- K --> * {{Cite book | last1 = Kennedy | first1 = Kenneth A.R. | name-list-style = vanc | author-link = Kenneth A.R. Kennedy | chapter = A Reassessment of the Theories of Racial Origins of the People of the Indus Valley Civilization from Recent Anthropological Data | title = Studies in the Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology of South Asia | pages = 99–107 | editor1-last = Kennedy | editor1-first = Kenneth A.R. | editor2-last = Possehl | editor2-first = Gregory L. | publisher = Humanities Press | year = 1984 | location = [[Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey|Atlantic Highlands, NJ]]}}<!--? Oxford: American Institute of Indian Studies--> * {{cite book |last1=Kennedy |first=Kenneth A. R. | name-list-style = vanc |year=1995 |chapter=Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia? |editor=George Erdosy |title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-014447-5 |pages=49–54 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ZRShEIFwMC&pg=PA49}} * {{cite book | last = Kivisild | first = Toomas | name-list-style = vanc | title = The origins of southern and western Eurasian populations: an mtDNA study | publisher = Tartu University, Estonia | year = 2000b | url = http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Kivisild2000PhD.pdf }} (PhD) <!-- M --> * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascarenhas DD, Raina A, Aston CE, Sanghera DK | title = Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage | journal = BioMed Research International | volume = 2015 | pages = 651415 | year = 2015 | pmid = 26491681 | pmc = 4605215 | doi = 10.1155/2015/651415 | doi-access = free }} <!-- N --> * {{cite book | last1 =Narasimhan | first1 =Vagheesh M. | last2 =Anthony | first2 =David | last3 =Mallory | first3 =James | last4 =Reich | first4 =David | s2cid =89658279 | name-list-style = vanc | year =2018 | title =The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia | biorxiv =10.1101/292581 |ref={{sfnref|Narasimhan et al.|2018}}| doi =10.1101/292581 | hdl =21.11116/0000-0001-E7B3-0 | hdl-access =free }} <!-- O --> * {{Cite book | last = Oppenheimer | first = Stephen | name-list-style = vanc | author-link = Stephen Oppenheimer | title = The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey out of Africa | year = 2003 | location = New York | publisher = Carroll and Graf Publishers | isbn = 978-0-7867-1192-5}} <!-- P --> * {{cite journal |last1=Pamjav |s2cid=4820868 |title =Brief communication: New Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1 | journal =American Journal of Physical Anthropology| volume= 149| issue= 4| pages= 611–615|date= December 2012 | doi=10.1002/ajpa.22167 | pmid=23115110}} * {{cite book | year = 2000a | title = An Indian Ancestry: a Key for Understanding Human Diversity in Europe and Beyond | editor1-last = Renfrew | editor1-first = Colin | editor2-last = Boyle | editor2-first = Katie | name-list-style = vanc | url = http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Kivisild2000.pdf | isbn= 978-1-902937-08-3}} <!-- S --> * {{cite journal | vauthors = Silva M, Oliveira M, Vieira D, Brandão A, Rito T, Pereira JB, Fraser RM, Hudson B, Gandini F, Edwards C, Pala M, Koch J, Wilson JF, Pereira L, Richards MB, Soares P | display-authors = 6 | title = A genetic chronology for the Indian Subcontinent points to heavily sex-biased dispersals | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 88 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28335724 | pmc = 5364613 | doi = 10.1186/s12862-017-0936-9 |ref={{sfnref|Silva et al.|2017}}}} <!-- U --> * {{cite journal | vauthors = Underhill PA | s2cid = 15527457 | title = Inferring human history: clues from Y-chromosome haplotypes | journal = Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology | volume = 68 | pages = 487–93 | year = 2003 | pmid = 15338652 | doi = 10.1101/sqb.2003.68.487 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Underhill PA, Poznik GD, Rootsi S, Järve M, Lin AA, Wang J, Passarelli B, Kanbar J, Myres NM, King RJ, Di Cristofaro J, Sahakyan H, Behar DM, Kushniarevich A, Sarac J, Saric T, Rudan P, Pathak AK, Chaubey G, Grugni V, Semino O, Yepiskoposyan L, Bahmanimehr A, Farjadian S, Balanovsky O, Khusnutdinova EK, Herrera RJ, Chiaroni J, Bustamante CD, Quake SR, Kivisild T, Villems R | display-authors = 6 | title = The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 124–31 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 24667786 | pmc = 4266736 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 }} <!-- W --> * {{cite book | vauthors = Wells S |year=2003 |title=The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey | url = https://archive.org/details/journeyofmangene00well | url-access = registration |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691115320 }} {{Refend}} == External links == {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www.le.ac.uk/genetics/maj4/NewWebSurnames041008.html ''Introduction to Haplogroups and Haplotypes''], Mark A. Jobling, University of Leicester. [http://www.le.ac.uk/genetics/maj4/SurnamesForWeb.pdf ] * [http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/ Journey of Man: Peopling of the World], Bradshaw Foundation, in association with [[Stephen Oppenheimer]]. * [http://igvdb.res.in/ Indian Genome Variation Database] [[Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology]] * [http://sites.google.com/site/r2dnainfo/R2-Home/r2-dna/r2-frequency/r2-frequencies-worldwide?pli=1 List of R2 frequency] * [http://maldives-ancestry.blogspot.in/2013/05/maldivian-ancestry-in-light-of-genetics.html Maldives] {{Human genetics}} [[Category:Human Y-DNA haplogroups|+]] [[Category:Human genetics|South Asia]] [[Category:Modern human genetic history|South Asia]] [[Category:Genetics by country|South Asia]] [[Category:South Asia]] [[Category:India]] [[Category:Pakistan]]'