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Main article: California State Route 1
State Route 1 marker
State Route 1
Cabrillo-San Simeon Highway; Roosevelt Highway
Route information
Maintained by Caltrans
Length71.2 mi (114.6 km)
(accessible via Nacimiento-Fergusson Road)
Tourist
routes
  • Route One, Big Sur Coast Highway
Restrictions
Special restrictions'[1]
  • No trucks exceeding 30 feet kingpin to rearmost axle distance
Location
CountryUnited States
StateCalifornia
Highway system
Highway 1 near Ragged Point at the southern end of the Big Sur region

Highway 1 is a dominant feature of the Big Sur coast, providing the primary means of access and transportation. Prior to its completion, the California coast south of Carmel and north of San Simeon was one of the most remote regions in the state, rivaling at the time nearly any other region in the United States for its difficult access.

The road was first proposed by Dr. John L. D. Roberts, a physician who was summoned on April 21, 1894 to treat survivors of the wreck of the 493 tons (447 t) S.S. Los Angeles (originally USRC Wayanda), which had run aground near the Point Sur Light Station about 25 miles (40 km) south of Carmel-by-the-Sea. The ride on his two-wheeled, horse-drawn cart took him 3+1⁄2 hours, a very fast trip for the day. Construction began in 1921, ceased for two years in 1926 when funding ran out, and after 18 years of construction, the Carmel–San Simeon Highway was completed in 1937. The route was incorporated into the state highway system and re-designated as Highway 1 in 1939.

Along with the ocean views, this winding, narrow road, often cut into the face of towering seaside cliffs, dominates the visitor's experience of Big Sur. The highway has been closed more than 55 times by landslides, and in May 2017, a 2,000,000-cubic-foot (57,000 m3) slide blocked the highway at Mud Creek, north of Salmon Creek near the San Luis Obispo County line, to just south of Gorda. The road was reopened on July 18, 2018, but is subject to closure during heavy storms.

History

Prior to the construction of Highway 1, the California coast south of Carmel and north of San Simeon was one of the most remote regions in the state, rivaling at the time nearly any other region in the United States for its difficult access.[2] It remained largely an untouched wilderness until early in the twentieth century.[3] When the region was first settled by European immigrants in 1853, it was the United States' "last frontier."[4]

After the brief industrial boom faded, the early decades of the twentieth century passed with few changes, and Big Sur remained a nearly inaccessible wilderness. As late as the 1920s, only two homes in the entire region had electricity, locally generated by water wheels and windmills.[5]: 328 [6][7]: 64  Most of the population lived without power until connections to the California electric grid were established in the early 1950s.[2]

The region has always been relatively difficult to access and only the sturdiest and most self-sufficient settlers stayed. A rough trail from Carmel to Mill Creek (present-day Bixby Canyon) was in use by about 1855 when it was declared a public road by the county.[2]: 4–2, 3 

Charles Henry Bixby arrived in the Big Sur area in 1868. He built a sawmill on what was then called Mill Creek. Bixby tried to persuade the county to improve a road to his ranch, but they refused, replying that "no one would want to live there." It was impossible to build a wharf from the cliffs that dropped into the ocean, and he instead built a hoist that could be used to load goods on coastal schooners anchored slightly offshore.[8][9] In 1870, he and his father hired men to improve the rough single-lane track and constructed the first wagon road, including 23 bridges, from the Carmel Mission to Bixby Creek.[10]

James W. Post built a home in Big Sur in 1877. He and his wife hosted visitors to the Big Sur coast informally for years, but in 1910 she began charging guests.

In 1886 Bixby partnered with W. B. Post and they improved and realigned what became known as the Old Coast Road south to his ranch near Sycamore Canyon. At Bixby Creek, the road was necessarily built 11 miles (18 km) inland to circumvent the deep canyon. It also circumvented the wide canyon mouth of the Little Sur River. The road led to the Post family home, about 7 miles (11 km) south of the Molera Ranch on the former Rancho El Sur.[2]: 4–2, 3  The 30 mi (48 km) trip from Carmel could take three days by wagon or stagecoach.[11]: 24  The single-lane road was closed in winter when it became impassable. Coast residents would occasionally receive supplies via a hazardous landing by boat from Monterey or San Francisco.[2]: 4–4 

By around 1900, residents extended the road another 2.5 miles (4.0 km) south near Castro Canyon, near the present-day location of Deetjen's Big Sur Inn. The Pfeiffer family's hospitality was enjoyed by friends and strangers alike for years. They finally began charging guests in 1910, naming it Pfeiffer's Ranch Resort, and it became one of the earliest places to stay.[12] In July 1937, the California Highways and Public Works department described the journey. "There was a narrow, winding, steep road from Carmel south ... approximately 35 miles to the Big Sur River. From that point south to San Simeon, it could only be traveled by horseback or on foot."[13][14] The southern portion, which was for many years merely a foot and horse trail, became known as the "Coast Ridge Road."[5] It used to begin near the Old Post Ranch. It is currently only accessible on foot from near the Ventana Inn. It passes through private land and connects with the Nacimiento-Fergusson Road. It follows the crest of the coastal ridge south about 34 miles (55 km) to within a couple of miles of Cone Peak.[15][16]: 353  Both the Old Coast Road and the Coast Ridge Road are often unusable during and after winter storms.[2]

Due to the limited access, settlement was primarily concentrated near the Big Sur River and present-day Lucia, and individual settlements along a 25 miles (40 km) stretch of coast between the two. The northern and southern regions of the coast were isolated from one another.[2]

The southern region of Monterey County coast was isolated from the few settlements in the north by the steep terrain. The southern homesteaders were more closely tied to the people in the interior San Antonio Valley including the Jolon and Lockwood areas than to coastal communities to the north. A horse trail connected Jolon through present-day Fort Hunter Liggett to the Santa Lucia divide, from which several trails split to the coast or to the several mining camps.[17] Those who lived in the vicinity of the Big Sur River were connected with Monterey to the north.[2]

Origins

Bixby Creek Bridge under construction in 1932

During the 1890s, Dr. John L. D. Roberts, a physician and land speculator who had founded Seaside, California and resided on the Monterey Peninsula, was summoned on April 21, 1894 to assist treating survivors of the wreck of the 493 tons (447 t) S.S. Los Angeles (originally USRC Wayanda),[18] which had run aground near the Point Sur Light Station about 25 miles (40 km) south of Carmel-by-the-Sea. The ride on his two-wheeled, horse-drawn cart took him 3+1⁄2 hours, a very fast trip for the day.[18][19]

In 1897, he walked the entire stretch of rocky coast from Monterey to San Luis Obispo in five days and mapped out the course of the future road. He photographed the land and became the first surveyor of the route. He became convinced of the need for a road along the coast to San Simeon, which he believed could be built for $50,000 (equivalent to $1,089,750 in 2023).[18] In 1915, he presented the results of his survey and photographic work to a joint session of the California legislature. Roberts initially promoted the coastal highway to allow access to a region of spectacular beauty, but failed to obtain funding.[20][19]

Funding

Bixby Creek Bridge, May 2013

California was booming during the 1920s, driven by rapidly expanding aviation, oil, and agricultural business. The number of state residents doubled between 1910 and 1930. This stimulated the rapid expansion of the state's road network.[21] State Senator Elmer S. Rigdon from Cambria, at the southern end of the Big Sur region, embraced the necessity of building the road. He was a member of the California Senate Committee on Roads and Highways and promoted the military necessity of defending California's coast which persuaded the legislature to approve the project. In 1919, the legislature approved building Route 56, or the Carmel – San Simeon Highway, to connect Big Sur to the rest of California. A $1.5 million bond issue was approved by voters, but construction was delayed by World War I. Federal funds were appropriated and in 1921 voters approved additional state funds.[18][8]

Construction

1921-1924

In 1918, state highway engineer Lester Gibson led a mule pack train along the Big Sur coast to complete an initial survey to locate the future Coast Highway. The first contract was awarded in 1921. The contractor Blake and Heaney built a prison labor camp for 120 prisoners and 20 paid laborers at Piedras Blancas Light Station. They began work on 12 miles (19 km) of road between Piedras Blancas Light Station near San Simeon and Salmon Creek. Most of the road lay within San Luis Obisbo County.[22] As they progressed, the work camp was moved 9 miles (14 km) north to Willow Creek and then another 10 miles (16 km) north to Kirk Creek.[18] When the section to Salmon Creek was completed, the crew began work on the road north toward Big Creek.

Contractor George Pollock Company of Sacramento started construction next on one of the most remote segments, a 13 miles (21 km) stretch between Anderson Canyon and Big Sur in September, 1922. The region was so remote and access so poor that the company brought most of its supplies and equipment in by barge at a sheltered cove near the middle of the project. Machines were hoisted to the road level using steam-powdered donkey engines.

Construction required extensive excavation utilizing steam shovels and explosives on the extremely steep slopes. The work was dangerous, and accidents and earth slides were common. One or more accidents were reported nearly every week. Equipment was frequently damaged and lost. In one incident, a steam shovel fell more than 500 feet (150 m) into the ocean and was destroyed.[18][23]

Overcoming all the difficulties, the crews completed two portions of the highway in October, 1924, the southern section from San Simeon to Salmon Creek and a second segment from the Big Sur Village south to Anderson Creek.[22] When these sections were completed, the contractor had used up all of the available funds and work was halted.

California Governor Friend William Richardson felt the state could not afford to complete the 30 miles (48 km) remaining, including the most difficult section remaining between Salmon Creek and Anderson Canyon.[18]

1928-1937

The California state legislature passed a law in 1915 that allowed the state to use convict labor under the control of the State Board of Prison Directors and prison guards. When the law was revised in 1921, it gave control of the convicts and camps to the Division of Highways, although control and discipline remained with the State Board of Prison Directors and guards.[22] The law helped the contractors who had a difficult time attracting labor to work in remote regions of the state.[24] In March, 1928, work was renewed. Convicts were paid $2.10 per day but the cost of clothing, food, medical attention, toilet articles, transportation to the camp, construction tools, and even their guards was deducted from their pay. Actual wages were just under $0.34 per day. If a convict escaped, the law provided for a reward of $200 for their capture and return. The reward was automatically deducted from the all other convict's pay.[18]

San Quentin State Prison set up three temporary prison camps to provide unskilled convict labor to help with road construction. The first was built in March, 1928 near Salmon Creek for 120 prisoners and 20 free men. They worked north toward Big Creek, about 46 miles (74 km) south of Carmel.

Anderson Canyon Labor Camp
Anderson Canyon labor camp

In July, 1928, a second camp was built near the mouth of the Little Sur River on the El Sur Ranch about 18 miles (29 km) south of Carmel. They worked on an 8 miles (13 km) section of the highway from 9 miles (14 km) to the south, to Rocky Creek, about 4 miles (6.4 km) to the north. When the completed this portion, the contractor moved the work camp south to Anderson Creek. From this camp, they built the road south 7 miles (11 km) south to Big Creek. When this task was finished, the workers reconstructed and realigned the portion of the road from Anderson Creek to Big Sur which had originally been completed in 1924.[18]

Two and three shifts of convicts and free men worked every day, using four large steam shovels.[18] Locals, including writer John Steinbeck, also worked on the road.[20] The laborers used tons of dynamite and blasted large amounts of earth and rock debris over the edge of the road and often into the ocean. Many members of the original families were upset by the damage to the environment caused by the construction.[25]

Bridges required

The Dolan Creek Bridge south of Slates Hot Springs was a three-pinned arch design built from redwood timber in 1934–35. It was replaced by a precast concrete girder bridge in 1961.
Six of the 29 bridges built along the Carmel–San Simeon Highway during its construction. (Counterclockwise, from upper left) Lime Creek, Torre Creek, Dolan Creek, Burns Creek, Mal Paso Creek, Bixby Bridge.

Road construction necessitated construction of 29 bridges, the most difficult of which was the bridge over Bixby Creek, about 13 miles (21 km) south of Carmel. Upon completion, the Bixby Creek Bridge was 714 feet (218 m) long, 24 feet (7.3 m) wide, 260 feet (79 m) above the creek bed below, and had a main span of 360 feet (110 m).[26] The bridge was designed to support more than six times its intended load.[27] When it was completed on October 15, 1932, Bixby Creek Bridge was the largest arched highway structure in the Western states. Five more reinforced concrete bridges were built at Rocky, Granite, Garapata, Malpaso, and Wildcat Creeks.[13] But the entire highway was not completed for another five years.[18] All of the concrete arch bridges were listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. They were also included in the California Register of Historic Resources in 1992.[28][29][18]

The contractor built a large bridge of Redwood with a span of 514 feet (157 m) at Dolan Creek because of the considerable distance required to haul concrete. They also built wood bridges at Lime Creek, Prewitt Creek, Wild Cattle Creek and Torre Canyon. Steel bridges were built at Burns Creek, San Simeon Creek, Pico Creek, Castro Canyon, Mill Creek and Little Pico Creek. The timber and steel bridges, with the exception of Castro Canyon and Mill Creek, were all replaced with concrete bridges later on.[29]

Water fountains

To provide water to thirsty travelers, the Civilian Conservation Corps built between 1933 and 1937 six hand-crafted stone drinking fountains at Soda Springs, Big Redwood, Willow Creek/Seven Stairs, Lucia, and Rigdon. The crews built masonry stone walls around local springs at each location. One of the fountains is believed to have been lost due to one of the many landslides. Some of them are still operational.[30]

Completion

After 18 years of construction, aided by New Deal funds during the Great Depression, the paved two-lane road was completed and opened on June 17, 1937.[31] About 70,000 pounds (32,000 kg) of dynamite was used to help blast more than 10,000,000 cubic yards (7,600,000 m3) of granite, marble and sandstone. Bixby Bridge alone required 300,000 board feet of Douglas fir, 6,600 cubic yards (5,000 m3) of concrete, and 600,000 pounds (270,000 kg) of reinforcing steel.[32]

On June 27, 1937, Governor Frank Merriam led a caravan from the Cambria Pines Lodge to San Simeon, where dedication ceremonies began. The wife of the late Senator Elmer Rigdon, who had promoted the bridge and obtained funding, dedicated a silver fir to her husband's memory. A water fountain in a turnout between Vicente Creek Bridge and Big Creek Bridge, four miles north of Lucia, was dedicated as the Elmer Rigdon Memorial Drinking Fountain.[28] The Native Sons of the Golden West dedicated two redwood trees. The caravan then drove north to Pfeiffer Redwoods State Park, where a larger dedication ceremony was held.[18] The initial $1.5 million bond measure wasn't enough. The final cost when the road was completed 18 years later was $19 million (equivalent to $445.08 million in 2023).[32][19]

The road was initially called the Carmel-San Simeon Highway, but was better known as the Roosevelt Highway, honoring then-current President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The road was not paved and was frequently closed for extended periods during the winter, making it a seasonal route.[24] During 1941, 160 inches (410 cm) of rain fell on Big Sur, and the state considered abandoning the route. Slides were so common that gates were used to close the road to visitors at the northern and southern ends during the winter.[33] During World War II, nighttime blackouts along the coast were ordered as a precaution against Japanese attack.[24]

Impact on residents

Deetjen's Big Sur Inn

The opening of Highway 1 in 1937 dramatically altered the local economy. Before the highway was completed, a developer who wanted to build a subdivision offered to buy the Pfeiffer Ranch from John and Florence Pfeiffer for $210,000 ($3.83 million in 2023). John was the son of Big Sur pioneers Michael Pfeiffer and Barbara Laquet. Pfeiffer wanted the land preserved and he sold 680 acres (2.8 km2) to the state of California in 1933.[34] This became the foundation of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park.[35] The Civilian Conservation Corps built campgrounds, buildings, fences, a footbridge, and trails in Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park. They used redwood lumber and river rocks as building materials to create a wood and stone "park rustic" style. They also fought fires and removed poison oak. A relative of the Pfeiffer family built the Big Sur River Inn in 1934.[34]

Land values rose. Some residents regretted the access provided by the highway. Jaime de Angulo, who first arrived in Big Sur in 1915, wrote:[36]

But my coast is gone, you see. It will be an altogether different affair. I don't know what to think of it, on the whole. My first reaction of course was one of intense sorrow and horror. My Coast had been defiled and raped. The spirits would depart. And as I travelled with Mr. Farmer (the stage man) past Castro's place, past Grimes' cañon, and contemplated the fearful gashes cut into the mountain, and the dirt sliding down, right down into the water in avalanches, my heart bled.

Deetjen's Big Sur Inn was opened in 1936. The region's economy and population growth was driven by a change to a tourist-oriented economy and the construction of permanent and summer homes. Many visitor facilities were constructed. The agricultural and industrial economy was quickly supplanted by a tourism-oriented economy.[37][38]

Improvements

The route was incorporated into the state highway system and re-designated as Highway 1 in 1939. In 1940, the state contracted for "the largest installation of guard rail ever placed on a California state highway", calling for 12 miles (19 km) of steel guard rail and 3,649 guide posts along 46.6 miles (75.0 km) of the road.[24] During the 1970s, highway engineers and others advocating turning the two-lane road into a four-lane freeway. In 1976, the state legislature limited the road along the Big Sur coast to two lanes.[39]: 157 

Highway 1 has been at capacity for many years. As early as 1977, the U.S. Forest Service noted in its environmental impact statement, "Highway 1 has reached its design capacity during peak-use periods."[15] It is currently at or near capacity much of the year. The primary transportation objective of the Big Sur Coastal Land Use plan is to maintain Highway 1 as a scenic two-lane road and to reserve most remaining capacity for the priority uses of the act.[25]

Repeated closings

Rockslide on Highway 1 near the San Luis Obispo County line on February 18, 1994

Due to the extreme slopes and condition of the rock, the California Department of Transportation has had to make many repairs to the road. Highway 1 has been closed on more than 55 occasions due to damage from landslides, mudslides, erosion, and fire.[40]: 2–2  Aside from Highway 1, the only access to Big Sur is via the winding, narrow, 24.5 miles (39.4 km) long Nacimiento-Fergusson Road, which from Highway 1 south of Lucia passes east through Fort Hunter Liggett to Mission Road in Jolon. It's about a 50 miles (80 km) and hour-and-a-half drive to Highway 101.[41]

On January 15, 1952, the highway was closed 7 miles (11 km) north of San Simeon to Big Sur due to "numerous heavy slides."[42] December 1955 was the fifth wettest since 1872. At the Big Sur Maintenance Station, 8.45 inches of rain was recorded in one 24-hour period on December 23. Torrential rains caused flood conditions throughout Monterey County and Highway 1 in Big Sur was closed in numerous locations due to slides.[43]

A series of storms in the winter of 1983 caused four major road-closing slides between January and April, including a large 963 feet (294 m) high landslide slide near Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park and McWay Falls that buried Highway 1 with 4,000,000 cubic yards (3,100,000 m3) of rocks and dirt. Twenty-six bulldozers worked for 22 weeks to clear the highway.[44] The repair crews pushed the slide into the ocean which ended up creating a beach inside McWay Cove that didn't exist before.[45] It was up to that date the largest earth-moving project ever undertaken by CalTrans.[39]: 157  CalTrans routinely pushed slide debris into the ocean shore until the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary was created, which made dumping material into the ocean illegal. Highway 1 was closed for 14 months.[40]: 2–10 

In 1998, about 40 different locations on the road were damaged by El Niño storms, including a major slide 2 miles (3.2 km) south of Gorda that closed the road for almost three months.[23] The Associated Press described the damage as "the most extensive destruction in the 60-year history of the world famous scenic route."[42]

In March 2011, a 40 feet (12 m) section of Highway 1 just south of the Rocky Creek Bridge collapsed, closing the road for several months until a single lane bypass could be built.[46][47] The state replaced that section of road with a viaduct that wraps around the unstable hillside.[41] On January 16, 2016, the road was closed for portions of a day due to a mudslide near Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park.[48]

In January 2014, CalTrans completed construction of a new bridge and rock shelter at Pitkins Curve in Big Sur, one of the ongoing trouble spots on Highway 1 near Limekiln State Park.[49]

A highway bridge leads to a rock shelter protecting the roadway from rocks falling off the cliff above.
The Pitkins Curve bridge and rock shed protect Highway 1 from rock slides.

One individual was killed while repairing the road. In 1983, Skinner Pierce died while clearing the slide near Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park when the bulldozer he was operating fell down the slide into the ocean. His body was never recovered.[39]: 157 

Ongoing closures

During the summer of 2016, the road was closed on several occasions due to the Soberanes Fire. During the following winter, Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park received more than 60 inches of rain,[50] and in early February 2017, several mudslides blocked the road in more than half a dozen locations.

Crews demolish the Pfeiffer Canyon Bridge on Highway 1 in Big Sur after erosion weakened one of its piers.

Just south of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park, shifting earth damaged a pier supporting a bridge over the 320 feet (98 m) deep Pfeiffer Canyon. CalTrans immediately closed the highway and announced the next day that the Pfeiffer Canyon Bridge was damaged beyond repair and would have to be replaced.[51] Highway 1 remained closed.[52][53] CalTrans immediately began planning to replace the bridge and contracted with XKT Engineering on Mare Island to construct a replacement single-span steel girder bridge. The new roadway was designed without support piers. The rebuilt bridge opened on October 13, 2017 at a cost of $24 million.[54][55]

To the south, a slide totalling about 2,000,000 cubic yards (1,500,000 m3) million closed Highway 1 in February at a perennial problem point known as Paul's Slide, north of the Nacimiento-Ferguson Road. Businesses and residents were isolated between the Pfeiffer Canyon Bridge and Paul's Slide. For about two weeks supplies and residents were ferried in and out by helicopter.[56][57] CalTrans contractors finally opened the road for residents and delivery trucks to limited one-way controlled traffic.

The May 22, 2017, mud slide at Mud Creek covered Highway 1 for more than a quarter-mile.

On May 20, the largest slide in the highway's history at Mud Creek blocked the road 1 mile (1.6 km) southeast of Gorda or about 60 miles (97 km) south of Monterey. The slide began 1,100 feet (340 m) up the side of the mountain and dumped more than eight million tons of dirt on the road and more than 250 feet (76 m) into the ocean. The slide was national and worldwide news.[58][59][60] Larger than the slide that blocked the highway in 1983 at Julia Pfeiffer Burns State park, it covered one-quarter-mile (.40 km) of the highway and buried it up to 80 feet (24 m) deep in some places.[61][62][63][64][65] On August 2, 2017, CalTrans decided to rebuild the highway over the slide instead of clearing it.[66] The road was reopened on July 18, 2018 at a cost of $54 million.[61][67]

CalTrans announced in December 2019 that they would preemptively close the highway in advance of forecasts of significant rain.[68]

Popularity

The drive along Highway 1 has been described as "one of the best drives on Earth", and is considered one of the top 10 motorcycle rides in the United States.[69] Highway 1 was named the most popular drive in California in 2014 by the American Automobile Association.[70]Most of the nearly 7 million tourists who currently visit Big Sur each year never leave Highway 1, because the adjacent Santa Lucia Range is one of the largest roadless coastal areas in the entire United States; Highway 1 and the Nacimiento-Fergusson Road offer the only paved access into and out of the region.

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