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Census Total Tamil Telugu Urdu Malayalam Hindi Gujarati Kannada Marathi English Other
1901 318,993 (61.2) 108,496 (21.3) 51,577 (10.1) 804 (0.2) 518 (0.1) 1,749 (0.3) 1,947 (0.4) 6,031 (1.2) 15,644 (3.1) 3,607 (0.71)
1911 323,360 (62.3) 107,561 (20.7) 53,573 (10.3) 1,807 (0.3) 0 (0) 2,346 (0.5) 2,913 (0.6) 6,886 (1.3) 14,866 (2.9) 5,348 (1.03)
1921 336,553 (63.9) 104,117 (19.8) 46,528 (8.8) 4,093 (0.8) 0 (0) 3,080 (0.6) 3,272 (0.6) 6,678 (1.3) 14,213 (2.7) 8,377 (1.59)
1931 411,823 (63.6) 124,649 (19.3) 62,651 (9.7) 9,229 (1.4) 2,496 (0.4) 3,313 (0.5) 4,539 (0.7) 7,539 (1.2) 13,847 (2.1) 7,144 (1.10)
1941 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
1951 961,743 (67.9) 234,379 (19.3) 89,505 (6.3) 40,041 (2.8) 23,144 (1.6) 8,698 (0.6) 15,668 (1.1) 11,307 (0.8) 18,848 (1.3) 7,144 (1.1)
1961 1,226,621 (70.9) 244,632 (14.1) 102,208 (5.9) 57,925 (3.3) 16,195 (0.9) 11,662 (0.7) 15,059 (0.9) 14,025 (0.8) 17,540 (1.0) 23,314 (1.33)
1971 1,820,274 (73.7) 297,881 (12.0) 141,868 (5.7) 92,081 (3.7) 31,252 (1.3) 19,913 (0.8) 17,703 (0.7) 16,794 (0.7) 15,432 (0.6) 16,816 (0.68)
1981 2,439,828 (74.5) 392,381 (12.0) 163,308 (5.0) 105,912 (3.2) 52,931 (1.6) 24,597 (0.7) 21,507 (0.7) 19,586 (0.6) 17,703 (0.7) 16,794 (0.7) 16,047 (0.5) 40,533 (1.24)
1991 2,946,745 (76.7) 404,787 (10.5) 183,577 (4.8) 124,022 (3.2) 81,099 (2.1) 25,985 (0.7) 23,281 (0.6) 19,361 (0.5) 12,359 (0.3) 19,982 (0.58)

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Demographics

As of 2001 India census, Kanchipuram had a population of 153,140 at a density of 13,428 persons per km2.[1] Males constitute 50.37% of the population and females 49.63%.[2] Kanchipuram has an average literacy rate of 74.8%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 81%, and female literacy is 69%.[1] 10% of the city population is under 6 years of age. According to the 2011 provisional totals b, Kanchipuram had a population of 164,265, constituting 81,987 males and 82,275 females covering an area of 36.14 km2.[1][3]During the British census of 1901, Kanchipuram had a population of 46,164 constituting 44,684 Hindus, 1,313 Muslims, 49 Christians and 118 Jains.[4]

Art and architecture

During the rule of king Narasimha Varma in the 7th century, the city had an area of four square miles and a population of 10,000.[5] With the population increasing to 13,000 in subsequent years, the city developed cross patterned links with rectangular streets.[6] The settlements in the city were largely caste based.[6] During the period of Nandivarma Pallavan II, houses were built on raised platforms and burned bricks.[6] The concept of verandah in the front yard, garden in the backyard, ventilation facilities and drainage of rainwater were all introduced for the first time.[6] The heart of the city was occupied by Brahmins, while the Tiruvekka temple and houses of agricultural labourers were situated outside the city.[7] There were provisions in the outskirts of the city for training the cavalry and infantry.[7]

Ekambareswarar Temple is the largest temple in the city, dedicated to Hindu god Shiva. It is located in the northern part of the city.[8] The temple gopuram, the gateway tower, is 59 m tall, making it one the tallest temple towers in India.[9] The temple is one of the Pancha Bhoota Stalams, the five temples each representing the manifestation of the five prime elements of nature namely land, water, air, sky, and fire.[10] Ekambareswarar temple temple represents the element Earth.[10] Kailasanathar Temple, dedicated to Shiva and built by the Pallavas, is the oldest temple still in existence and is declared an archeological monument by Archaeological Survey of India. The temple has a series of cells with sculptures inside.[11] In the Kamakshi Amman Temple, goddess Parvati is depicted in the form of an yantra, Chakra or peetam (basement). In this temple, the yantra is placed in front of the deity.[12] Adi Sankara is closely associated with this temple and believed to have established the Kanchi matha after this temple.

Two pillars with hanging stone chain
Sculpted pillars and stone chain in Varadarajar temple

Kumarakottam is a temple dedicated to the Hindu god Muruga, the son of Shiva and Parvathi. It is located between the Ekambareswarar temple and Kamakshi Amman temple, leading to the cult of Somaskanda (Skanda, the child between Shiva and Parvati). Kandapuranam, the Tamil religious work on Muruga, translated from Sanskrit Skandapurana, was composed in 1625 CE by Kachiappa Shivacharya in the temple.[13]

Muktheeswarar Temple, built by Nandivarman Pallava II (720–796 CE)[14] and Iravatanesvara Temple built by Narasimhavarman Pallava II (720–728 CE) are the other Shiva temples from the Pallava period. Kachi Metrali – Karchapeswarar Temple,[11] Onakanthan Tali,[14] Kachi Anekatangapadam,[14] Kuranganilmuttam,[15] and Karaithirunathar Temple in Tirukalimedu are the Shiva temples in the city reverred in Tevaram, the Tamil Saiva canonical work of the 7th-8th century.

Varadharaja Perumal Temple, a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu, covering an area of 23-acre (93,000 m2), is the largest Vishnu temple in Kanchipuram. It was originally built by the Cholas in 1053 CE and was expanded during the reigns of the Kulottunga Chola I (1079–1120 CE) and Vikrama Chola (1118–1135 CE). It is an ancient temple and one of the divyadesams, the 108 holy abodes of Vishnu. The temple has carved lizards, one platted with gold and another with silver, over the sanctum.[16]Clive, who played a major role in the establishment of British rule in India is said to have presented an emerald necklace to the temple. It is called the Clive Makarakandi and is still used to decorate the deity on ceremonial occasions.[17]

Tiruparamechura Vinnagaram – Sri Vaikunda Perumal Temple is the birthplace of the azhwar saint, Poigai Alvar.[18] The central shrine has a 3 tier shrine, one over the other, with Vishnu depicted in each of them.[18] The corridor round the sanctum has a series of sculptures depicting the Pallava rule and conquer.[18] The temple is the oldest Vishnu temple in the city built by the Pallava king Paramesvaravarman II (728–731 CE).[18] Ashtabujakaram, Tiruvekkaa, Tiruththanka, Tiruvelukkai, Ulagalantha Perumal Temple, Tiru pavla vannam, Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple are among the divyadesam, the 108 famous temples of Vishnu in the city.[19] There are a five other divyadesams, 3 inside the Ulagalantha Perumal temple, one each in Kamakshi Amman Temple and Ekambareswarar Temple.[20]

The mosque near Ekambareswarar temple was built during the rule of Nawab of Arcot in the 17th century. There is another mosque near the Vaikunta Perumal temple that shares a common tank with the Hindu temple. Muslims take part in the festivals of the Varadarajaswamy temple.[21] Christ Church is the oldest church in the city built by a Britisher named Mclean in 1921. The church is built in Scottish style brick structure with arches and pillars.[21]

Society and culture

Kanchipuram is considered to be one of the seven holiest cities for Hindus in India. According to Hinduism, a kṣetra is a sacred ground, a field of active power, a place where moksha, final attainment, can be obtained. The Garuda Purana enumerates seven cities as providers of moksha, namely Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Varanasi, Avantikā, Dvārakā and Kanchipuram.[7] The city is considered a pilgrimage site for both Saivites and Vaishnavites.[7]About 8 lakh pilgrims visit the city every year as of 2001.[22]

Drawing depicting a saint in a background of trees
Bodhidharma is believed to have spread Zen school of Buddhism from India to China

Buddhism is believed to have flourished in Kanchipuram between the 1st and 5th centuries CE.[23] Some notable Buddhists associated with Kanchipuram are Arya Deva (2–3rd century CE) – a successor of Nagarjuna of Nalanda University, Dignaga and the Pali commentators Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala.[24] According to a popular tradition, the 5th-6th century CE Buddhist monk and founder of Shaolin Kung Fu, Bodhidharma, was the third son of a Pallava king from Kanchipuram.[25] However, other traditions ascribe his origins to other places in Asia.[26] Jainism is believed to have been initiated into Kanchipuram by Kunda Kundacharya (1st century CE).[24] Jainism spread in Kanchipuram after the defeat of Buddhists at the hands of Akalanka (3rd Century CE) after prolonged debates. Kalbhras, the rulers of Kanchipuram before Pallavas followed Jainism and with royal patronage, Jainism grew in the region.[24] The Pallava kings, Simhavishnu, Mahendra Varman and Simhavarman (550–60 CE) followed Jainism, until the advent of Nayanmars and Azhwars during the 6th −7th century.[24] Conversion of Mahendravarman I from Jainism to Hinduism under the influence of the Naynamar, Appar, was the turning point in the religious geography.[24] The two sects of Hinduism, namely Saivism and Vaishnavism revived under the influence of Adi Sankara and Ramanuja respectively.[7][27] Later Cholas and Vijayanagara kings were tolerant towards Jainism, leaving traces of Jainism in Kanchi.[24] Trilokyanatha/Chandraprabha temple is a twin Jain temple having inscriptions from Pallava king, Narasimhavarman II and the Chola kings Rajendra Chola I, Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, and the Kanarese inscriptions of Krishnadevaraya. The temple is maintained by Tamil Nadu archaeological department.[28]

Kanchipuram is a traditional centre of silk weaving and handloom industries for producing Kanchipuram Sari. According to Hindu legend, Kanchipuram weavers are descendants of Sage Markanda, the celestial weaver for Hindu gods.[29] While cotton is the favourite for Hindu god Shiva, silk is favoured by Vishnu.[29] The existence of all the silk weavers around Vishnu Kanchi where most of the Vishnu temples are located, is attributed to the legend.[29] Historically, the Chola king, Raja Raja Chola I (985–1014 CE) invited the weavers to migrate to Kanchi.[29] The craft picked up with the mass migration from Andhra Pradesh in the 15th century during the Vijayanagara rule.[29] During the French siege of 1757 CE, the city was burnt with the art, but the art reemerged in the late 18th century.[29]

The Kanchi Matha is a Hindu monastic institution, whose official history states that it was founded by Adi Sankara of Kaladi, tracing its history back to the fifth century BCE.[30][31][32] A related claim is that Adi Sankara came to Kanchipuram, and that he established the Kanchi mutt named "Dakshina Moolamnaya Sarvagnya Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam" in a position of supremacy, namely Sarvagnya Peetha, over the other mathas (religious institutions) of the subcontinent, before his death there.[32][33] Other historical accounts state that the mutt was established probably in the 18th century in Kumbakonam, as a branch of the Sringeri Matha, and that it declared itself independent.[31]

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Kanchipuram population 2012.
  2. ^ Kanchipuram : Census 2011.
  3. ^ Kanchipuram about municipality 2011.
  4. ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908, pp. 544–546.
  5. ^ Rao 2008, p. 142.
  6. ^ a b c d Rao 2008, p. 143.
  7. ^ a b c d e Ayyar 1991, p. 69.
  8. ^ Let's Go 2004, p. 584.
  9. ^ Sajnani 2001, pp. 305.
  10. ^ a b Ramaswamy 2007, pp. 301–302.
  11. ^ a b Ayyar 1991, p. 73.
  12. ^ Ayyar 1991, pp. 70–71.
  13. ^ Rao 2008, p. 110.
  14. ^ a b c Ayyar 1991, p. 86.
  15. ^ Soundara Rajan 2001, p. 27.
  16. ^ Gateway to Kanchipuram district – Varadaraja Temple 2011.
  17. ^ K.V. 1975, pp. 26–39.
  18. ^ a b c d Ayyar 1991, p. 80.
  19. ^ Ayyar 1991, p. 539.
  20. ^ Rao 2008, p. 109.
  21. ^ a b Religious places in Kanchipuram 2011.
  22. ^ Rao 2008, p. 145.
  23. ^ Trainor 2001, p. 13.
  24. ^ a b c d e f Rao 2008, p. 20.
  25. ^ Zvelebil 1987, p. 125-126.
  26. ^ McRae 2000, p. 26.
  27. ^ Smith 1914, p. 468.
  28. ^ The Hindu & 23 June 2011.
  29. ^ a b c d e f Rao 2008, pp. 134–135.
  30. ^ Saraswati 2001, p. 492.
  31. ^ a b Dalal 2006, p. 186.
  32. ^ a b Kuttan 2009, pp. 244–245.
  33. ^ Sharma 1987, pp. 44–46.

Ramanathapuram 174,079 14.65 Vellore 350,771 10.08 The Nilgiris 72,766 9.54 Tirunelveli 252,235 9.25 Chennai 379,206 9.02 Nagapattinam 112,753 7.57 Thanjavur 163,286 7.36 Thiruvarur 83,243 7.11 Pudukkottai 97,723 6.69 Tiruchirappalli 156,345 6.46 Coimbatore 227,734 5.33 Madurai 137,443 5.33 Sivaganga 59,642 5.16 Perambalur 24,778 5.01 Dindigul 89,680 4.66 Thoothukudi 72,975 4.63 Cuddalore 102,508 4.48 Theni 48,066 4.39 Dharmapuri 123,469 4.32 Kanyakumari 70,360 4.19 Karur 37,272 3.98 Kanchipuram 113,666 3.95 Viluppuram 110,120 3.71 Tiruvannamalai 78,506 3.59 Erode 77,211 2.99 Salem 77,648 2.57 Virudhunagar 43,309 2.47 Namakkal 26,907 1.80 Ariyalur 7,638 1.015

Paleolithic stone age implements discovered at Pallavaram, a suburb of Chennai, have established that the region has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Iron age artifacts have been unearthed near the Adyar River. According to a popular belief, the neighbourhood of Mylapore was the residence of the 1st century Tamil poet-saint Thiruvalluvar.

The presence of Stone Age implements at Pallavaram on the outskirts of Chennai, first discovered by British archaeologist Robert Bruce Foote in 1863 confirms the existence of a Paleolithic settlement in the region.[1][2]The neighbourhood of Mylapore dates to the Sangam period and is associated with the Tamil poet and philosopher Thiruvalluvar who, according to a popular belief, was a native of Mylapore.[3]

The Wednesday Review, founded in 1905, is the first notable journal to be published from Tiruchirappalli.[4]

The Bengal Presidency, officially the Presidency of Fort William and also known as Province of Bengal, was an administrative subdivision of British India. The administrative headquarters was Calcutta.

The origins of the Presidency date to the founding of a factory at Pipili in northern Orissa in 1634. Calcutta was founded in 1690. Following the British East India Company's victory over the Mughal Empire in 1757, the British acquired administrative rights over Bengal. The British eventually annexed the whole of Bengal after the Nawab's defeat in 1765. The British acquired diwani rights over Bihar, Bengal and Orissa in 1760. The Governor of Bengal was made the Governor-General of India by the Pitt's India Act of 1785. From 1785 till 1836, when the North-Western Provinces were created, the Presidency of Bengal included much of North India. In 1854, the administration of Bengal was transferred to a Lieutenant-Governor from the direct control of the Governor-General of India. In 1905, the province was split into two- West Bengal and East Bengal and Assam but the two provinces were reunited in 1911 due to popular resentment.



Largest cities of Tamil Nadu
2001
Rank City Name Pop. Rank [[List of cities in {{{country}}}|City Name]] Pop.
Chennai
Chennai

Coimbatore
Coimbatore

1 Chennai 4,343,645 11 Thanjavur 215,314
2 Coimbatore 930,882 12 Tiruvottiyur 212,281
3 Madurai 928,869 13 Nagercoil 208,179
4 Tiruchirappalli 752,066 14 Dindigul 196,155
5 Salem, Tamil Nadu 696,760 15 Vellore 177,230
6 Tirunelveli 411,331 16 Cuddalore 158,634
7 Tiruppur 344,543 17 Kanchipuram 153,140
8 Ambattur 310,967 18 Pallavaram 144,623
9 Avadi 229,403 19 Kumbakonam 139,954
10 Thoothukudi 216,054 20 Tambaram 137,933



References

These references will appear in the article, but this list appears only on this page.
  1. ^ Muthiah 2004, p 129
  2. ^ Harinarayana, N. (January 18–31, 2003). "Congealed history". Frontline. 20 (2). Retrieved 2012-03-25.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  3. ^ Muthiah 2004, p 201
  4. ^ The Feudatory and zemindari India, Volumes 13-14. 1933. p. 50.


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Subrahmanya Temple, Saluvankuppam


Gough [married names Miller, Aberle], (Eleanor) Kathleen (1925–1990), social anthropologist and feminist, was born on 16 August 1925 at Hunsingore, near Wetherby, Yorkshire, daughter and youngest child of Albert Gough (1888–1970) and his second wife, Eleanor, née Umpleby (1892–1965), a devout Methodist who sang and recited in local chapels. Her father became village blacksmith in 1914 and played a major role in introducing combines to west Yorkshire after the Second World War. Her brother, Clifford Arthur (b. 1920) subsequently joined the business; she also had an older half-sister, Laura Margery Howe (1915–1998).

Kathleen Gough attended the church school in Hunsingore (population 100, no piped water, no electricity). She gained scholarships to King James's Grammar School, Knaresborough, and in 1943 to Girton College, Cambridge, where she gained a 2.1 in English (1945) and a first in archaeology and anthropology (1946). She was awarded the Barrington prize, became Girton research scholar for 1946–7, and held two university-awarded social anthropology studentships. On 5 July 1947 she married her fellow student Eric John Miller in St John the Baptist Church, Hunsingore, and they did fieldwork together in Kerala, south India. She was supervised by Professor J. H. Hutton, an old-style anthropologist, and after he retired, by Meyer Fortes. With Evans-Pritchard and Gluckman he introduced her to twentieth-century British social anthropology. Both Eric and Kathleen obtained doctorates, but the strains of fieldwork ended their marriage and they divorced with minimal bitterness in 1950.

Gough, as she was now again called, had abandoned Christianity and declared herself socialist and anti-imperialist as a student of eighteen, but she later said that she found peace in church services and that her socialism arose from the deep sense of moral justice gained from her mother and school. Having returned alone to India in 1951 to continue her work there, she compared the extreme patriarchy of Tamil Brahmans with the ‘more free-wheeling [polyandrous and matrilineal] Nayars’. She sought to make the villagers historically intelligible and meticulously collected information on contemporary social change. Ahead of her time, she backed observation and insights from psychology with modern quantitative methods. She situated the local, political and present within national and international frameworks, in political economy and in the historical past and, unusually, in the desirable future. Her identification with oppressed landless villagers and her perceptions of Congress Party corruption led her to support Indian communists. Her doctoral thesis was long, but she published immediately only two short papers in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, one of which was the Curl bequest prize essay in 1953. She spent a year at Harvard (with a Wenner-Gren fellowship), and on Audrey Richards's recommendation David Schneider invited her to help them to produce their massive Matrilineal Kinship (1961), of which she wrote more than half. It remains an indispensable introduction to the subject, even though some reviewers disliked the editors' controversial comparative and historical materialist approach. Gough's Nayar chapter breaks new ground in the understanding of the past and possible future of matriliny and polyandry. She lectured in Gluckman's department at Manchester in 1954–5 and 1960.

Gough married David Friend Aberle (b. 1918), whom she had met at Harvard, at Manchester All Saints registrar's office on 5 September 1955. An esteemed American anthropologist, he shared the rest of her life as comrade-in-arms, companion, and constructive critic. They had one son, Stephen (b. 1956). After Manchester there followed a series of short but sometimes prestigious university appointments held by Kathleen or David at Stanford, Berkeley, Wayne State, Michigan, and again at Manchester. While David was working at Wayne State University in Detroit, Kathleen began to work with the group running the newspaper Correspondence, including Grace Lee, James Boggs, and C. L. R. James, the Caribbean Marxist historian, revolutionary, and cricket authority. She became both politically sophisticated and a self-styled ‘agitator’, a term she proudly traced back to Cromwell's army. While back in Manchester in 1960, she quietly informed colleagues on her return from an anti-Polaris demonstration at Holy Loch that she had been arrested, held overnight, and released with a caution.

In 1961 David and Kathleen planned to settle at Brandeis University in Massachusetts, where they were both appointed to tenured posts. As a result of their involvement in anti-nuclear protest, their support for Cuba, and exaggerated accounts of her criticism of J. F. Kennedy to students, complicated by the fact that David was her head of department, they were both forced to resign in 1963. They moved to the University of Oregon, where they played a major part in organizing protests and sit-ins against the Vietnam war. David's actual (and Kathleen's intended) refusal to grade papers that would have caused students to be drafted into the army forced his resignation four years later. They went next to Vancouver, where David took Canadian citizenship. He remained at the University of British Columbia until his retirement in 1984. Kathleen, who retained her UK nationality, joined Simon Fraser University at Burnaby, British Columbia, where her participation in an attempt to democratize the department and the university led to her being manoeuvred out. This led to a worldwide boycott of the university in 1971. In the same year she published a celebrated article on Engels's The Origin of the Family in the Journal of Marriage and the Family. She obtained grants enabling her to continue her work on India and, additionally, south-east Asia. She published two books on imperialism in south-east Asia and Vietnam (1973, 1978) and, after work in British libraries (1974) and fieldwork in India (1976), two major books on south-east India (1981, 1989). She was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1988. In her last days she saw the first copies of her Political Economy in Vietnam (1990), with a preface by Ved Prakash Vatuk in which he described her as ‘soft as a lotus, firm as a rock’—a true Indian whose life had combined the activities of all four Hindu castes: seeking and imparting knowledge, struggle, speaking for the voiceless, and service to others. She was still studying Vietnamese to facilitate the long-term studies in Vietnam she was planning. The Economic and Political Weekly in Delhi (a favourite vehicle) published, during her last weeks, her self-critical article on imperialism acknowledging Soviet and Chinese depredations. But she never abandoned socialism or her hopes for a better future for poor villagers.

After four months' illness with cancer, Kathleen Gough died in Vancouver on 8 September 1990, and was buried on 13 September in Capilano View cemetery, Vancouver, after a service which she has herself devised, including psalms and the Hebrew kaddish. She loved India and enjoyed and admired Canada but she was proud of her roots in Yorkshire and maintained ties with her family and former teachers there, and a devotion to the quiet beauty of its countryside.

Ronald Frankenberg Sources K. Gough, autobiographical notes, 1990, Girton Cam. · curriculum vitae for University of British Columbia, 1990, Girton Cam. · R. Frankenberg, ‘Kathleen Gough Aberle’, Anthropology Today, 7/2 (1991), 23–5 · The Independent (3 Oct 1990) [see also comment by R. Frankenberg, 8 Oct 1990, and correction by D. Aberle, 21 Nov 1990] · G. Berreman, letter to colleagues and students, 11 Sept 1990, U. Cal., department of anthropology · D. Aberle and S. Aberle, ‘Kathleen Gough Aberle’, 1990 [obit.] · K. T. Butler and H. I. McMorran, eds., Girton College register, 1869–1946 (1948) · V. P. Vatuk, ‘Soft as a lotus, firm as a rock’, in K. Gough, Political economy in Vietnam (Berkeley, CA, 1990) · personal knowledge (2004) · private information (2004) [Clifford Gough, brother]

Archives Girton Cam. · University of British Columbia Library, textual material, maps, and charts



Likenesses group portrait, photograph, 1943, Girton Cam.


© Oxford University Press 2004–10 All rights reserved: see legal notice

Ronald Frankenberg, ‘Gough , (Eleanor) Kathleen (1925–1990)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004 accessed 11 July 2010

(Eleanor) Kathleen Gough (1925–1990): doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/60257


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Chennai pop

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Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant-Duff

Works

  • Notes from a diary, kept chiefly in Southern India, 1881-1886. J. Murray. 1899.
  • A Political Survey.
  • Ernest Renan: In Memoriam. Macmillan. 1893.
  • Elgin Speeches.


Tamil Renaissance

Lawley

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M. E. Watts - Pg 165 V. S. Subramanya Iyer - Pg 398


1871 - 1901: Imperial Gazetter of India 1911-1961: India. Office of the Registrar General (1969). Census of India, 1961, Volume 9. Managaer of Publications.

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