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Pharsalia
Taranis and Esus were famously associated with the deity Toutatis in the poem Pharsalia by the Roman poet Lucan.
Themes
Barbaric nature of the Celts
Triad of Gaulish deities
..."And those who pacify with blood accursed
Savage Teutates, Hesus' horrid shrines,
And Taranis' altars, cruel as were those
Loved by Diana,[a] goddess of the north;
Lucan alludes to the barbaric nature of the Celts, while describing the call-out of troops from Gaul, at the beginning of Caesar's civil war. [c]
..."Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro
Teutates, horrensque feris altaribus Hesus,
Et Taranis Scythicae non mitior ara Dianae.
– Lucan, Pharsalia, book 1, lines 444-446.[d][1]
The Celts were accused of the propitiation of their gods by acts of human sacrifice:
- Teutates favoured death by drowning.[e]
- Hesus favoured death by hanging.[f]
- Taranis favoured death by burning.[g]
List of deities
List of deities mentioned in book 1:
| Name | Other names | Associations | Etymology |
|---|---|---|---|
| Teutates | Toutatis, Tūtatus. |
God of the tribe. | PIE
*tewtéh₂ ("tribe"). Proto-Celtic *toutā ("tribe"). Old Irish túath ("tribe"). |
| Hesus | Esus, Æsus, Aisus. |
God of the river. |
PIE *eis ("energy, passion"). Old Irish ess (" cataract, rapid") Proto-Celtic *is ("river").[h][i] |
| Taranis | Tanarus, Taramus.[5] |
God of thunder. God of the wheel. |
Proto-Celtic
*toranos ("thunder"). Old Irish torann ("thunder"). Welsh taran; Breton taran. Gaulish taram ("thunder"). |
| Dianae.[a][g][j] | Diana, goddess of the north.[k][l] |
Mother goddess of the Celt's, from whom the river Danube derives its name.[m] |
PIE
deywós ("sky god"). Old Irish dé ("god"). Celtic anawes ("wealth, abundance"). Old Irish anai ("wealth, riches"). |
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Lucan's sources
The source of Lucan's information is not known – Pharsalia was written about 100 years after the Battle of Pharsalus (9 August 48 BC). It is possible that oral tradition's about the pagan practices of the Celts were well known in Roman society before Lucan wrote Pharsalia, and that variants arose that were a mix of fact and fiction, designed to entertain and thrill an audience.[n][o]
Some historians consider the possibility that Roman commentators exaggerated the barbaric nature of the Celts, perhaps in order to justify the Roman annexation of their lands, and attempts to subjugate and Romanise them.[p]
Votive offerings
Although it is true that the Celts did practice human sacrifice, it is unlikely that it was as barbaric as Lucan suggested, it is more likely to have taken the form of a votive offering to the Celtic gods – possibly in response to a natural or man made disaster, such as a famine or war. During the Iron Age, votive offerings became increasingly more precious and labour-intensive, for example the Battersea Shield found at an ancient crossing point of the Thames,[q] or the Gundestrup cauldron, found in Denmark.
The druid's had extraordinary power and influence, and were able to arrange the most ultimate votive offering – the sacrifice of a person of importance – for example, a tribal leader.[r]
Gundestrup cauldron
The Gundestrup cauldron, found in Denmark, is an outstanding example of Iron Age art and craftsmanship. Experts consider the possibility that the cauldron was made in the the lower Danube basin, due to its Thracian-style of metalworking. [s][t]
The internal plates C and E possibly depict the Gaulish deities Taranis and Teutates:
Interior plate A – The horned god Cernunnos is known primarily from Pillar of the Boatmen, which also includes a dedication to the Gaulish deity Esus, god of the river. [u]
Interior plate C – The bust of a bearded man, holding a wheel, is possibly Taranis, god of the wheel.[v] The feminine figure beside him is possibly "Diana, goddess of the north". [j][s]
..."Et Taranis Scythicae non mitior ara Dianae.
– Lucan, Pharsalia, book 1, line 446.[1]
A more literal translation might be:
..."And Taranis' Scythian non-placid altar Diana.
Interior plate E – It has been conjectured that the giant figure on the left might be the Gaulish deity Teutates. [w][e] The iconography was possibly influenced by the same sources that Lucan used for Pharsalia.
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References
Citations
- ^ a b c d "M. Annaeus Lucanus, Pharsalia, book 1, lines 396-552". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
- ^ MacKillop 2004, p. 404.
- ^ MacKillop 2004, pp. 194–195.
- ^ MacKillop 2004, p. 402.
- ^ Koch 2006, p. 1659.
- ^ Roberts 2015, p. 65.
- ^ Roberts 2015, p. 159.
- ^ Roberts 2015, p. 187.
- ^ Roberts 2015, p. 142.
- ^ Oliver 2020, p. 148.
- ^ Roberts 2015, p. 19.
- ^ a b Roberts 2015, pp. 180–182.
- ^ MacKillop 2004, pp. 260–261.
Notes for citations
- ^ a b Perseus – Pharsalia, book 1, line 447.
..."This Diana was worshipped by the Tauri, a people who dwelt in the Crimea; and, according to legend, was propitiated by human sacrifices.[1] - ^ English translation by Sir Edward Ridley, 1905.
- ^ ..."When Caesar saw them welcome thus the war
And Fortune leading on, and favouring fates,
He seized the moment, called his troops from Gaul,
And breaking up his camp set on for Rome.
– Pharsalia, book 1, lines 392-395. - ^ Carolus Hermannus Weise, 1835.
- ^ a b MacKillop – Dictionary of Celtic Mythology
Teutates ..."As Lucan reports, each divinity was propitiated with human sacrifice; and a 9th century commentary on Lucan claims that Teutates favoured drowning, especially on 1st November (Samhain) ...[2] - ^ MacKillop – Dictionary of Celtic Mythology
Esus, Hesus ..."Human sacrifices are suspended from trees and ritually wounded ...[3] - ^ a b MacKillop – Dictionary of Celtic Mythology
Taranis..."While each of the deities was propitiated with human sacrifice, according to Lucan, the cult of Taranis was crueler than that of the Scythian Diana; victims could be burned alive in wooden vessels ...[4] - ^ The upper part of the Thames was previously known as the Isa or Ise.
- ^ The Danube was previously known as the Ister or Istros.
- ^ a b The Scythian Diana was presumably worshipped in the Scythian kingdom, to the north and west of the Black Sea, including the lower Danube basin.
- ^ The 1905 English translation, by Sir Edward Ridley, equated the "Scythian Diana" with the Celtic mother goddess worshipped by the Celts who lived north of the Alps. The Romans considered the Celts (north of the Alps) to be uncivilized barbarians.
- ^
Alice Roberts – The Celts...
..."It's been all too easy to buy that classical propaganda and distinguish between the civilized Mediterranean societies to the south and the barbarians north of the Alps ...[6] - ^ See also: Danube
- ^ Alice Roberts – The Celts...
..."It's the Roman literature in particular which perhaps gives us the best insight into Celtic beliefs and practices ...telling a good tale about barbarians and their bizarre beliefs might have been more important to the writer than objectivity ...[7] - ^ Alice Roberts – The Celts...
..."The Roman accounts of gruesome practices among their barbarian neighbours north of the Alps may well have been deliberate anti-Celtic propaganda...The accounts of human sacrifices, in particular, could be malicious fictions ...[8] - ^ Alice Roberts – The Celts...
..."classical historians may not have been entirely objective when they described the practices of the barbarians living beyond the frontiers of their civilised world. They had a vested interest in portraying the Celts as uncivilised ...[9] - ^ Neil Oliver – Wisdom of the Ancients
Battersea Shield..."It shows no signs of having being used in any fight and was, in all likelihood, made only as a votive offering by a warlord intent on giving thanks, or else asking for help...perhaps soon after some or other triumph, or in the face of disaster ...[10] - ^ Alice Roberts – The Celts...
..."Its a world shrouded in mystery, where watery places held sacred significance – where swords and shields were thrown into rivers, huge cauldrons thrown into lakes, and the bodies of kings, slain as sacrifices, were consigned to bogs ...[11] - ^ a b Alice Roberts – The Celts...
Gundestrup cauldron ..."experts have looked further south for its origin, suggesting the lower Danube Valley, where Celtic and Thracian tribes came into contact. ...[12] - ^ See also: Thracian treasure.
- ^ Alice Roberts – The Celts...
..."One of the internal plates of the cauldron shows a god with antlers, perhaps the horned god Cernunnos, or Hern the Hunter. He sits cross-legged, and wears a torc around his neck ...[12] - ^
See also: Gundestrup cauldron
- Celtic archaeology ..."The figure
- ^ MacKillop – Dictionary of Celtic Mythology
Gundestrup cauldron ..."A tall divine figure holding a man over a vat of water is thought to be Teutates accepting human sacrifice ...[13]
Sources
- Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia [5 volumes]. ABC-Clio. ISBN 978-1851094400.
- MacKillop, James (2004). Oxford Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198609674.
- Oliver, Neil (2020). Wisdom of the Ancients: Life lessons from our distant past. Bantam Press. ISBN 978-1787633094.
- Roberts, Alice (2015). The Celts: Search for a Civilisation. Heron Books. ISBN 978-1784293321.
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