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Samkhya karika, in verse 9 introduces its theory of ''Satkaryavada'' (causation), asserting that "the effect is pre-existent in the cause".<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 10</ref> That which exists, states ''Karika'', has a cause; that which exists not, lacks a cause; and when there exists a cause, in it is the seed and longing for the effect; that, a potent cause produces that which it is capable of.<ref name=colebrookesk33>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-39</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br>'''Original Sanskrit:''' असदकरणादुपादानग्रहणात्सर्वसम्भवाभावात् । शक्तस्य शक्यग्रहणात् कारणभावाच्च सत्कार्यम् ॥ ९ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref> Hence, it is nature of existence that "perceptible principles exist in nature", and effects are manisfestation of the perceptible principles.<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-34</ref> The Samkhya theory of causation, ''Satkāryavāda'', is also referred to as the theory of existent effect.<ref>Amita Chatterjee, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism-india/ Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University (2012)</ref>
Samkhya karika, in verse 9 introduces its theory of ''Satkaryavada'' (causation), asserting that "the effect is pre-existent in the cause".<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 10</ref> That which exists, states ''Karika'', has a cause; that which exists not, lacks a cause; and when there exists a cause, in it is the seed and longing for the effect; that, a potent cause produces that which it is capable of.<ref name=colebrookesk33>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-39</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br>'''Original Sanskrit:''' असदकरणादुपादानग्रहणात्सर्वसम्भवाभावात् । शक्तस्य शक्यग्रहणात् कारणभावाच्च सत्कार्यम् ॥ ९ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref> Hence, it is nature of existence that "perceptible principles exist in nature", and effects are manisfestation of the perceptible principles.<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-34</ref> The Samkhya theory of causation, ''Satkāryavāda'', is also referred to as the theory of existent effect.<ref>Amita Chatterjee, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism-india/ Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University (2012)</ref>


Verse 10 asserts that there are two kinds of principles operating in the universe: discrete, un-discrete. The discrete is inconstant, isolated and unpervading, mutable, supporting, mergent, conjunct and with an agent. The un-discrete is constant, field-like, pervasive, immutable, non-supporting, non-mergent, separable and independent of an agent.<ref name=colebrookesk39>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 39-44</ref><ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> Both these discrete and un-discrete, describes ''Karika'' in verse 11, are simultaneously imbued with three qualities, and these qualities ([[Guṇa]]) are objective, common, prolific, do not discriminate and are innate. It is in these respects, asserts ''Karika'', that they are the reverse of the nature of Soul (Self, [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]).<ref name=colebrookesk45>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 45-48</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br>'''Original Sanskrit:''' त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषयः सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि । व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref>
Verse 10 asserts that there are two kinds of principles operating in the universe: discrete, un-discrete. The discrete is inconstant, isolated and unpervading, mutable, supporting, mergent, conjunct and with an agent. The un-discrete is constant, field-like, pervasive, immutable, non-supporting, non-mergent, separable and independent of an agent.<ref name=colebrookesk39>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 39-44</ref><ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> Both discrete and un-discrete, describes ''Karika'' in verse 11, are simultaneously imbued with three qualities, and these qualities ([[Guṇa]]) are objective, common, prolific, do not discriminate and are innate. It is in these respects, asserts ''Karika'', that they are the reverse of the nature of Soul (Self, [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) because Soul is devoid of these qualities.<ref name=colebrookesk45>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 45-48</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br>'''Original Sanskrit:''' त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषयः सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि । व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref>

The text in verse 12 states that the three Guṇa (qualities), that is [[sattva]], [[rajas]] and [[tamas (philosophy)|tamas]], respectively correspond to pleasure, pain and dulness, mutually domineer, produce each other, rest on each other, always reciprocally present and work together.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref name=colebrookesk49>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 49-53</ref> This Samkhya theory of qualities have been widely adopted by various schools of Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenomena.<ref name=aw>Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237</ref><ref name=khp>Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803091, page 112</ref><ref>Ian Whicher (1998), ''The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana'', SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791438169, pages 109-110</ref>


===Nature of Prakrti: verses 15 to 16===
===Nature of Prakrti: verses 15 to 16===

Revision as of 03:28, 10 December 2015

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The Samkhyakarika (Sanskrit: सांख्यकारिका, Sāṁkhyakārikā) is the earliest surviving text of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.[1] The text's original composition date is unknown, but its terminus ad quem (completed before) date has been established through its Chinese translation that became available by 569 CE.[2] It is attributed to Ishvara Krishna (Iśvarakṛṣṇa, 350 CE).[3]

In the text, the author described himself as a successor of the disciples from the great sage Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha. His Sāṁkhya Kārikā consists of 72 ślokas written in the Ārya metre, with the last verse asserting that the original Samkhya Karika had only 70 verses.[4]

The earliest important commentary on his Kārikā was written by Gaudapada.[1] Yuktidipika, whose medieval era manuscript editions were discovered and published about mid 20th century, is among the most significant extant review and commentary on Samkhyakarika.[1][5]

The Sāṁkhya Kārikā was translated into Chinese in 6th-century CE.[6] In 1832, Christian Lassen translated the text in Latin. H.T. Colebrooke first translated this text into English. Windischmann and Lorinser translated it into German, and Pautier and St. Hilaire translated it into French.

Authorship and chronology

Samkhya is an important pillar of Indian philosophical tradition, called shad-darshana, however, of the standard works of Samkhya only three are available at present. These are: Samkhya Sutras attributed to the founder of Samkhya, Kapila; Tattva Samasa, which some authors (Max Muller) consider prior to Samkhya Sutras,[7] and Samkhya Karika authored by Ishvara Krishna. Ishvara Krishna follows several earlier teachers of Samkhya and is said to come from Kausika family.[8] He taught before Vasubandhu and is placed following Kapila, Asuri, Panca Shikha, Vindhyavasa, Varsaganya, Jaigisavia, Vodhu, Devala and Sanaka.[9]

Samkhya karika was probably composed sometime in the Gupta Empire period, between 320-540 CE.[4] The translation of Paramartha into Chinese together with a commentary[10] was composed over 557-569 CE, has survived in China, and it constitutes the oldest surviving version of Samkhya karika.[4] Several manuscripts, with slightly variant verses are known, but these do not challenge the basic thesis or the overall meaning of the text.[4]

While the Samkhya ideas developed in second half of 1st millennium BCE through the Gupta period, the analysis of evidence shows, states Gerald Larson, that Samkhya is rooted in the speculations of the Vedic era Brahmanas and the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism on the nature of man, and that it is generally agreed that Samkhya's formulation took place at the earliest after the oldest Upanishads had been composed (~800 BCE).[11]

In terms of comparative textual chronology, states Larson, the final redaction of Yogasutra and the writing of Samkhya-karika were probably contemporaneous.[12] The Samkhya literature grew with later developments such as through Bhashya on Samkhya karika in the 9th-century Samkhya Tattva Kaumudi of Vacaspati Mishra.[13]

Structure

Number of verses

The Karika, wrote ancient Hindu scholars Gaudapada and Vacaspati Misra, contains seventy two verses.[4] However, Gaudapada commented on the first sixty nine, leading 19th-century colonial era scholars to suggest that the last three may have been added later. With the discovery of 6th-century manuscripts of translations of the Indian text into Chinese language, it became clear that by the 6th-century, the Karika had seventy two verses. The Chinese version includes commentary on the Karika, but for unknown reasons, skips or misses the commentary on verse sixty three.[4]

In mid 20th-century, the first manuscript of Yuktidipika was discovered in India, which is a review and commentary on the Karika.[5] Yuktidipika, for unknown reasons, skipped commenting on verses sixty through sixty three, verse sixty five and sixty six, but reviews and analyzes the remaining 66 of 72 verses.[4]

The medieval era Matharavrtti text states that the Karika has seventy three verses.[4] In contrast, verse seventy two of the surviving 6th-century CE Karika declares that its original had just seventy verses, implying that a more ancient version of Samkhya-karika once existed.[4][5] Scholars have attempted to produce a critical edition, by identifying the most ancient original set of seventy verses, but this effort has not produced a consensus among scholars.[4] In terms of content, importance and meaning, the text is essentially the same regardless of which version of the manuscript is referred to.[4][5]

Meter

Each verse of the philosophical Samkhya-karika text is composed in a precise mathematical meter, that repeats in a musical rhythm of an Arya meter (also called the Gatha, or song, meter).[14] Every verse is set in two half stanza with the following rule: both halves have exactly repeating total instants and repeating sub-total pattern in the manner of many ancient Sanskrit compositions.[14] The stanza is divided into feet, each feet has four instants, with its short syllable counting as one instant (matra), while the long syllable prosodically counts are two instants.[14][15]

Each verse of Karika are presented in four quarters (two quarters making one half), the first quarter has exactly three feet (12 beats), the second quarter four and half feet (18 beats), the third quarter of every verse has three feet (12 beats again), while the fourth quarter has three and a half plus an extra short syllable at its end (15 beats).[14] Thus, metrically, the first half stanza of every verse of this philosophical text has thirty instants, the second has twenty seven.[14]

Contents

Samkhya emerged in the Vedic tradition, states Gerald Larson, and the Karika is an important text that was the fruit of those efforts.[16]

Goal of the text: verses 1 to 3

The Samkhya karika opens by stating that the pursuit of happiness is a basic need of all human beings.[17] Yet, one is afflicted by three forms of suffering, a truth that motivates this text to study means of counteracting suffering:[18]

दुःखत्रयाभिघाताज्जिज्ञासा तदभिघातके हेतौ ।
दृष्टे सापार्था चेन्नैकान्तात्यन्ततोऽभावात् ॥ १ ॥

Because of the torment of the three-fold suffering, arises this inquiry to know the means of counteracting it. If it is said that such inquiry is useless because perceptible means of removal exist, we say no because these means are neither lasting nor effective. (1)

— Samkhya karika, Verse 1[19][20]

The three causes of unhappiness are adhyatmika that is caused by self; adhibhautika that is caused by others and external influences; and, adhidaivika that is caused by nature and supernatural agencies.[18][21] The suffering are two types, of body and of mind. The perceptible means of treatment include physicians, remedies, magic, incantations, expert knowledge of moral and political science, while avoidance through residence in safe places are also perceptible means available.[18] These obvious means, state scholars, are considered by Samkhya karika, as temporary as they do not provide absolute or final removal of suffering.[18][21]

Verse 2 asserts that scriptures too are visible means available, yet they too are ultimately ineffective in relieving sorrow and giving spiritual contentment, because scriptures deal with impurity, decay and inequality.[22][23] The verse then posits its thesis, states Larson, that "a superior method different from both" exists, and this is the path of knowledge and understanding. More specifically, liberation from suffering comes from discriminative knowledge of Vyakta (evolving, manifest world), Avyakta (unevolving, unmanifest empirical world, Prakrti), and Jna (knower, self, Purusha).[23] Verse 3 adds that primordial nature is uncreated, seven starting with Mahat (intellect) is both created and creative, sixteen[24] are created and evolve (but not creative), while Purusha is neither created nor creative nor evolves (and simply exists).[22][23]

Means of knowledge: verses 4 to 8

Verse 4 introduces the epistemology of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, and states that there are three pramana, that is reliable paths to reliable knowledge: perception, inference and the testimony of reliable person.[25] All other paths to knowing anything is derived from these three, states the Karika. It then adds that these three paths can enable one to know twenty five Tattvas that exist.[26] Verse 5 of Samkhya-karika defines perception as the immediate knowledge one gains by the interaction of sense organ with anything; inference, it defines as the knowledge one gains based on meditation on one's perception; and testimony as that knowledge one gains from the efforts of those one considers as a reliable source; it then succinctly asserts that there are three types of inferences for the epistemic quest of man, without explaining what these three types of inferences are.[25][27][28]

Verse 6 asserts that objects can be known either through sensory organs or through super-sense (inner derivation from observations).[29][30] Verse 7 of the Karika states that perception alone is not sufficient means to know objects and principles behind observed reality, certain existent things are not perceived and are derived.[30][31] The text in verse 8 asserts that the existence of Prakriti (empirical nature, substances) is proven by perception but its subtle principles are non-perceptible.[30] Human mind, among others emerge from Prakriti, states the text, but are not directly perceptible, rather inferred and self derived. The reality of mind and such differ and resemble Prakriti in different aspects.[31][32][33]

The theory of causation and the doctrine of Gunas: verses 9 to 14

Samkhya karika, in verse 9 introduces its theory of Satkaryavada (causation), asserting that "the effect is pre-existent in the cause".[34] That which exists, states Karika, has a cause; that which exists not, lacks a cause; and when there exists a cause, in it is the seed and longing for the effect; that, a potent cause produces that which it is capable of.[35][36] Hence, it is nature of existence that "perceptible principles exist in nature", and effects are manisfestation of the perceptible principles.[37] The Samkhya theory of causation, Satkāryavāda, is also referred to as the theory of existent effect.[38]

Verse 10 asserts that there are two kinds of principles operating in the universe: discrete, un-discrete. The discrete is inconstant, isolated and unpervading, mutable, supporting, mergent, conjunct and with an agent. The un-discrete is constant, field-like, pervasive, immutable, non-supporting, non-mergent, separable and independent of an agent.[39][33] Both discrete and un-discrete, describes Karika in verse 11, are simultaneously imbued with three qualities, and these qualities (Guṇa) are objective, common, prolific, do not discriminate and are innate. It is in these respects, asserts Karika, that they are the reverse of the nature of Soul (Self, Atman) because Soul is devoid of these qualities.[40][41]

The text in verse 12 states that the three Guṇa (qualities), that is sattva, rajas and tamas, respectively correspond to pleasure, pain and dulness, mutually domineer, produce each other, rest on each other, always reciprocally present and work together.[33][42] This Samkhya theory of qualities have been widely adopted by various schools of Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenomena.[43][44][45]

Nature of Prakrti: verses 15 to 16

The Karika defines Prakriti as "that nature which evolves", and asserts to be the material cause of the empirically observed world. Prakriti, according to the text, is both physical and psychical, that which is manifested as the matrix of all modifications. Prakriti is not primal matter, nor the metaphysical universal, rather it is the basis of all objective existence, matter, life and mind.

Nature of Purusha: verses 17 to 19

The connection between Prakriti and Purusha: verses 20 to 21

The theory of emergence of principles: verses 22 to 38

The theory of reality: verses 39 to 59

The theory of understanding and freedom: verses 60 to 69

Transmission of Samkhya tradition: verses 70 to 72

Summary

The Samkhyakarika's implied premise is that "Every being in the world without exception seeks happiness" (Introduction by Swami Virupakshananda). Therefore, the existence of duhkha-traya is the reason for the inquiry about the means of permanent removal of pain.[46]

The means of removing pain is based in the Discriminate Knowledge, which Samkhyakarika considers superior to the ritualistic Vedic rules, because Vedic means are linked to "impurity, decay and excess" and do not remove pain permanently (Karika 2). Discriminate Knowledge arises from the right knowledge and discriminating of what is the Manifest, the Unmanifest and the Cogniser.[47]

The Unanifest Prakriti (avyakta), also called Mulaprakriti, or Primal Matter, is uncreated. Vyakta, the manifest world arising out of Prakriti has two categories. The seven: mahat (intelligence), ahamkara (self-awerness, or ego), five subtle elements (tanmatras) are created and creative. The second category of the sixteen includes: manas (mind), five buddhindriyas (organs of sense), five karmendriyas (organs of action), and five mahabhutas (gross elements).[48]

Prakriti, exists for the sake of Purusha. Purusha is neither created nor creative. The task of the Cogniser is to distinguish between the two. This method is further refined in following Karikas with the reference to 24 tattvas. The end effect, is "the practice of Truth", which produces the wisdom in the form of "I am not, naught is mine, and not 'I' (Karika 64), which is pure on account of the absence of error and which is absolute."[49]

Commentaries

The well known and widely studied medieval era reviews and commentaries on Samkhya-karika include the Gaudapada Samkhya Karika Bhasya (unclear date, certainly before 11th-century),[50] the Paramartha's Chinese translation (6th-century), the Matharavrtti, the Samkhya tattva kaumudi (9th-century), the Jayamangala (likely before 9th-century), and the more recently discovered Yuktidipika.[15]

Vacaspati Mishra's Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī is well studied commentary, in addition to his well-known commentary to Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[51]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, pages 146-153
  2. ^ Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, page 4
  3. ^ Feuerstein, Georg (2008). Yoga Tradition. Prescott, Arizona: Hohm Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-890772-18-5.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 146-147
  5. ^ a b c d Albrecht Wezler and Shujun Motegi (1998), Yuktidipika - The Most Significant Commentary on the Såmkhyakårikå, Critically Edited, Vol. I. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-06132-0
  6. ^ 佛子天空藏經閣T54 No. 2137《金七十論》
  7. ^ The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Friedrich Max Müller, p.296, 2013, ASIN: B00F1M1B1Y
  8. ^ Swami, Virupakshananada, (1995), vi
  9. ^ Swami, Virupakshananada, (1995), vi
  10. ^ Larson, Gerald J. (1979). Classical Samkhya. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 252–3. ISBN 0-915520-27-3.
  11. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 42
  12. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 149
  13. ^ Larson, 1979, p. 253
  14. ^ a b c d e Arthur Basham (Original 1954, Reprint 2014), The Wonder That Was India, Picador, ISBN 978-0330439091, pages 511-512
  15. ^ a b Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 147
  16. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 7, 15-21
  17. ^ Krishna, Ishvara; (translated by: Swami, Virupakshananada), (1995). Samkhya Karika. Sri Vacaspati Misra. Mylapore, Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Matt. pp. iv. ISBN 81-7120-711-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ a b c d S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 426-427
  19. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 7
  20. ^ Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;
    Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press
  21. ^ a b The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 1-2 (90 of Sutram)
  22. ^ a b S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 427-428 with footnotes;
    Original Sanskrit: दृष्टवदानुश्रविकः स ह्यविशुद्धिक्षयातिशययुक्तः । तद्विपरीतः श्रेयान् व्यक्ताव्यक्तज्ञविज्ञानात् ॥ २ ॥ Source
  23. ^ a b c Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 7-8
  24. ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore list these 16 as five sense organs, five organs of action, the human mind, and five gross elements
  25. ^ a b Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 9-10, also see Chapter 3
  26. ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 427-429 with footnotes;
    Original Sanskrit: दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनञ्च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धिः प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ Source
  27. ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
    Original Sanskrit: प्रतिविषयाध्यवसायो दृष्टं त्रिविधमनुमानमाख्यातम् । तल्लिङ्गलिङ्गिपूर्वकमाप्तश्रुतिराप्तवचनन्तु ॥ ५ ॥ Source
  28. ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 21-25
  29. ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
    Original Sanskrit: सामान्यतस्तु दृष्टादतीन्द्रियाणां प्रतीतिरनुमानात् । तस्मादपि चासिद्धं परोक्षमाप्तागमात्सिद्धम् ॥ ६ ॥ Source
  30. ^ a b c The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 6-8
  31. ^ a b Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 27-32
  32. ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
    Original Sanskrit: सौक्ष्म्यात्तदनुपलब्धिर्नाभावात्कार्यतस्तदुपलब्धिः । महदादि तच्च कार्यं प्रकृतिविरूपं सरूपञ्च ॥ ८ ॥ Source
  33. ^ a b c Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 255-277
  34. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 10
  35. ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-39
  36. ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
    Original Sanskrit: असदकरणादुपादानग्रहणात्सर्वसम्भवाभावात् । शक्तस्य शक्यग्रहणात् कारणभावाच्च सत्कार्यम् ॥ ९ ॥ Source
  37. ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-34
  38. ^ Amita Chatterjee, Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University (2012)
  39. ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 39-44
  40. ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 45-48
  41. ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
    Original Sanskrit: त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषयः सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि । व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥ Source
  42. ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 49-53
  43. ^ Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237
  44. ^ Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803091, page 112
  45. ^ Ian Whicher (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791438169, pages 109-110
  46. ^ Swami, Virupakshananada, (1995), p.1
  47. ^ Virupakshananada, 1995, p.9
  48. ^ Larson, 1979, p. 8
  49. ^ Virupakshananada, 1995, p.9
  50. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 148
  51. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 149

Further reading

  • Daniel P. Sheridan, Īshvarakrishna, in Great Thinkers of the Eastern World, Ian McGreal, ed., New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 194–197.

Texts

Papers

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