Parent: Difference between revisions
Content deleted Content added
m Reverted edits by 75.107.233.141 to last version by J.delanoy (HG) |
not gonna let the internet push me around |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
nope! |
|||
{{otheruses}} |
|||
{{Expand|date=July 2007}} |
|||
<!-- A note to editors: Please remember 'parent' isn't a term that applies only to humans --> |
|||
[[Image:Mother,Child,ReliefSculpture,SoldierField,Chicago.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Faces of mother and child; detail of sculpture at [[Soldier Field]], [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[USA]].]] |
|||
A '''parent''' is a [[mother]] or [[father]]; one who [[sexual reproduction|sires]] or gives [[birth]] to and/or nurtures and raises an [[offspring]]. The different role of parents varies throughout the tree of life, and is especially complex in [[human]] culture. |
|||
== Mother == |
|||
{{main|Mother}} |
|||
[[Image:NestlingMourningDoveNestlingsAndMourningDoveMother.jpg|thumb|right|Nestlings and mother [[Mourning Dove]]]] |
|||
A mother is always the biological or social [[female]] parent of a [[child]] or [[offspring]]. The [[maternal bond]] describes the feelings the mother has for her (or another's) child. In the case of a [[mammal]] such as a [[human]], the mother [[gestation|gestates]] her child (called first an [[embryo]], then a [[fetus]]) in the [[uterus]] from [[fertilisation|conception]] or [[implantation]] until the fetus is sufficiently well-developed to be born. The mother then goes into labour and gives [[childbirth|birth]]. Once the child is born, the mother [[lactation|produces milk]] to feed the child. In most situations, due to the fact that the mother was the one to carry the child for nine months, she is closer to the child. The mother is also usually the one to stay home and care for the child. However, if the mother is working and the father stays home to care for the child, the child would have more time to bond with the father regardless of the fact that the mother was the one pregnant with the child. |
|||
== Father == |
|||
{{main|Father}} |
|||
Like mothers, fathers may be categorised according to their biological, [[Sociology of fatherhood|social]] or legal [[personal relationship|relationship]] with the child. Historically, the biological relationship [[paternity]] has been determinative of fatherhood. However, [[Evidence (law)|proof]] of paternity has been intrinsically problematic and so social rules often determined who would be regarded as a father e.g. the husband of the mother. |
|||
<!-- |
|||
==Parenting== |
|||
{{Main|parenting}} |
|||
--> |
|||
== Biological parents and parental testing == |
|||
The term '''biological parent''' refers to a parent who is the [[reproduction|biological]] mother or father of an individual. While an individual's parents are often also their biological parents, it is seldom used unless there is an explicit difference between who acted as a parent for that individual and the person from whom they inherit half of their [[gene]]s. For example, a person whose father has remarried may call his new wife their [[stepmother]] and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their [[foster parent]] as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name. |
|||
===Parental testing=== |
|||
{{Main|Parental testing}} |
|||
A paternity test is conducted to prove [[paternity]], that is, whether a man is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of [[Fathers' rights movement|rights]] and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during [[childbirth]] and [[pregnancy]], except in the case of a pregnancy involving [[embryo transfer]] or [[egg donation]], it is obvious who the [[mother]] is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified. |
|||
Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several [[List of Mendelian traits in humans|congenital traits]] such as attached [[earlobe]]s, the [[widow's peak]], or the [[cleft chin]], may serve as tentative indicators of (non-)parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via [[Dominance relationship|autosomal-dominant]] genes. |
|||
A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as [[genetic fingerprinting]] of individuals, although older methods have included [[blood type|ABO blood group typing]], analysis of various other [[protein]]s and [[enzyme]]s, or using [[HLA]] [[antigen]]s. The current techniques for paternity testing are using [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) and [[restriction fragment length polymorphism]] (RFLP). For the most part however, DNA has all but taken over all the other forms of testing. |
|||
<!-- Please make these sections visible as they are written; |
|||
===Sperm/egg donation and surrogate mothers== |
|||
==Foster care and adoption== |
|||
==Stepparents== |
|||
{{Main|Stepfamily}} |
|||
==Child abuse and infanticide== |
|||
==Parental investment and parent-offspring conflict== |
|||
===Parental investment=== |
|||
{{Main|Parental investment}} |
|||
--> |
|||
==Parent-offspring conflict== |
|||
{{Main|Parent-offspring conflict}} |
|||
Parent-offspring conflict describes the [[evolutionary conflict]] arising from differences in optimal [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of parents and their [[offspring]]. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of [[parental investment]] often by competing with their [[sibling]]s. The theory was proposed by [[Robert Trivers]] in 1974 and extends the more general [[Gene-centered view of evolution|selfish gene theory]] and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.<ref>[[Robert Trivers|Trivers, R.L.]] (1974). ''Parent-offspring conflict.'' American Zoologist, 14, 249-264.</ref> For example, in some [[bird]] species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as [[siblicide]]. |
|||
David Haig has argued that human [[fetus|fetal]] genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, an hypothesis that has received empirical support. The [[placenta]], for example, secretes allocrine [[hormone]]s that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to [[insulin]] and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading [[enzyme]]s which counteract this effect.<ref>[[David Haig (biologist)|Haig, D.]] (1993). ''Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy.'' Quarterly Review of Biology, 68, 495-532.</ref> |
|||
== See also == |
|||
{{wiktionarypar|parent}} |
|||
{{commonscat|Childbirth}} |
|||
<!-- Please order alphabetically --> |
|||
* [[Bateman's principle]] - the theory that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and that therefore in most species females are a [[limiting resource]] over which the other sex will compete. |
|||
* [[Child abuse]] |
|||
* [[Egg donation|Egg]] and [[sperm donation]]. |
|||
* [[Paternal bond]] |
|||
* [[Parental investment]] |
|||
* [[Reciprocal socialization]] |
|||
* [[Surrogate mother]] |
|||
==References== |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
==External links== |
|||
* [http://www.neni.us National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI)] - free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, afterschool, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc. |
|||
* [http://www.discoveryhealth.com/centers/kids/kids.html Discovery Health's Parenting Center] Tools, information, video, expert advice, simulation games... Everything you need to bring up healthy children. |
|||
* [http://project-science-fair.com/blog/ Parents blog] |
|||
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Parents}} - A [[Roman Catholic]] view of the position of parents. |
|||
[[Category:Family]] |
|||
[[Category:Women]] |
|||
[[Category:Divorce]] |
|||
[[Category:Human development]] |
|||
[[Category:Marriage]] |
|||
[[Category:Men]] |
|||
[[de:Elternschaft]] |
|||
[[el:Γονέας]] |
|||
[[es:Parental]] |
|||
[[fr:Parent (famille)]] |
|||
[[gd:Pàrant]] |
|||
[[ko:부모]] |
|||
[[it:Genitore]] |
|||
[[jbo:rirni]] |
|||
[[mk:Родител]] |
|||
[[nl:Ouders]] |
|||
[[ja:親]] |
|||
[[no:Foreldre]] |
|||
[[pl:Rodzice]] |
|||
[[simple:Parent]] |
|||
[[sk:Rodič]] |
|||
[[sr:Биолошки родитељ]] |
|||
[[sv:Förälder]] |
|||
[[tl:Magulang]] |
|||
[[th:พ่อแม่]] |
|||
[[ur:والدین]] |
|||
Revision as of 22:17, 14 November 2008
nope!