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==[[Balto-Slavic languages]]==
==[[Balto-Slavic languages]]==
[[File:Balto-Slavic lng.png|thumb|right|Area of '''Balto-Slavic dialect continuum''' (''purple'') with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age (''white''). ''Red'' dots= archaic Slavic hydronyms.]]
[[File:Balto-Slavic lng.png|thumb|right|Area of '''Balto-Slavic dialect continuum''' with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age . ''Red'' dots= archaic Slavic hydronyms.]]
[[File:Balto Slavic countries.svg|thumb|Political map of Europe with countries where a '''[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]''' language is a national language marked in shades of green and where a '''[[Baltic languages|Baltic]]''' language is a national language marked in light orange. Wood green represents '''[[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]''' languages, pale green represents '''[[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]''' languages, and sea green represents '''[[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]''' languages. Contemporary Baltic languages are all from the same group: '''[[Eastern Baltic languages|Eastern Baltic]]''']]
[[File:Balto Slavic countries.svg|thumb|Political map of Europe with countries where a '''[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]''' language is a national language marked in shades of green and where a '''[[Baltic languages|Baltic]]''' language is a national language marked in light orange. Wood green represents '''[[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]''' languages, pale green represents '''[[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]''' languages, and sea green represents '''[[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]''' languages. Contemporary Baltic languages are all from the same group: '''[[Eastern Baltic languages|Eastern Baltic]]''']]
[[File:Baltic languages.png|thumb|'''Baltic languages''' (extinct languages shown in stripes).]]
[[File:Baltic languages.png|thumb|'''Baltic languages''' (extinct languages shown in stripes).]]
[[File:Slavic languages map en.svg|thumb|'''Slavic languages''' in Europe (2008). Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.]]
[[File:Slavic languages map en.svg|thumb|'''Slavic languages''' in Europe . Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.]]
[[File:Idioma ruso.PNG|thumb|'''Russian Language''' – Map of all the areas where the [[Russian language]] is the language spoken by the majority of the population. Russian is the biggest [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] language both in number of [[first language]] speakers and in geographical area where the language is spoken (a vast land area of [[Eastern Europe]] and [[North Asia]] – [[Siberia]], i.e. most of Northern [[Eurasia]]).]]
[[File:Idioma ruso.PNG|thumb|'''Russian Language''' – Map of all the areas where the [[Russian language]] is the language spoken by the majority of the population. Russian is the biggest [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] language both in number of [[first language]] speakers and in geographical area where the language is spoken .]]
*[[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|Proto-Balto-Slavic]] (extinct)
*[[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|Proto-Balto-Slavic]] (extinct)
===[[Baltic languages]]===
===[[Baltic languages]]===
<nowiki>{{tree list}}</nowiki>
<nowiki>{{tree list}}</nowiki>
*[[Proto-Baltic]] (extinct)
*[[Proto-Baltic]] (extinct)
**[[Eastern Baltic languages|Eastern Baltic]] (Dnieper Basin Baltic) ([[dialect continuum]])
**[[Eastern Baltic languages|Eastern Baltic]]
***[[Galindian language|East Galindian]] (extinct)
***[[Galindian language|East Galindian]] (extinct)
***[[Latvian language|Old Latvian]] (extinct)
***[[Latvian language|Old Latvian]] (extinct)
****'''[[Latvian language|Latvian]]''' (Modern Latvian) ('''''Latviešu''''')
****'''[[Latvian language|Latvian]]'''
*****'''[[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]'''
*****'''[[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]''' (Upper Latgalian) (Upper Latvian) ('''''Latgalīšu''''') (''Augšzemnieku dialekts'') (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from Latvian but closely related to it) (initially Latvian developed from the language of the [[Latgalians]])
*****'''[[Latvian language|Latvian]]''' (Low Latvian) ('''''Latviešu''''' / '''''Latviešu Valoda''''')
*****'''[[Latvian language|Latvian]]'''
******''[[Kursenieki language|Kursenieki]]'' ({{lang|mis|kursisk valuod}}) ''(Curonian substrate) (not to be confused with [[Curonian language]]) (dialect or language spoken by the [[Kursenieki]])''
******''[[Kursenieki language|Kursenieki]]'' '' ''
****[[Selonian language|Selonian]] (extinct)
****[[Selonian language|Selonian]] (extinct)
****[[Semigallian language|Semigallian]] (extinct)
****[[Semigallian language|Semigallian]] (extinct)
***[[Old Lithuanian]] (extinct)
***[[Old Lithuanian]] (extinct)
****'''[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]''' (Modern Lithuanian) ('''''Lietuvių Kalba''''')
****'''[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]'''
*****'''[[Aukštaitian dialect|Highland Lithuanian]]''' / '''Aukštaitian''' ('''''Aukštaičių''''') (basis of [[Standard Lithuanian]] but not identical)
*****'''[[Aukštaitian dialect|Highland Lithuanian]]''' / '''Aukštaitian'''
*****'''[[Samogitian dialect|Lowland Lithuanian]]''' / '''Samogitian''' ('''''Žemaičių / Žemaitiu''''') ([[Curonian language|Curonian]] substrate)
*****'''[[Samogitian dialect|Lowland Lithuanian]]''' / '''Samogitian'''
***[[Curonian language|Curonian]] (extinct)
**[[Western Baltic language|Western Baltic]]
***[[Curonian language|Curonian]] (disputed; see [[Curonian language#Origin|Origin of Curonian]]) (extinct)
**[[Western Baltic language|Western Baltic]] (Baltic Sea Coast Baltic) ([[dialect continuum]])
***[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] / [[Baltic Prussian]] (extinct)
***[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] / [[Baltic Prussian]] (''Prūsiskan / Prūsiska Billā'') (extinct)
****[[Old Prussian language#Revitalization|New Prussian]]
****[[Old Prussian language#Revitalization|New Prussian]] (Neo-Prussian, Revived Prussian) (''Prūsiskan / Prūsiska Billā'') ([[revived language]]) (not to be confused with Germanic Prussian – [[Low Prussian]] and [[High Prussian]])
***[[Skalvians|Skalvian]] (extinct)
***[[Skalvians|Skalvian]] (extinct)
***[[Galindian language|West Galindian]] (extinct)
***[[Galindian language|West Galindian]] (extinct)
***[[Sudovian language|Sudovian]] (Yotvingian) (extinct)
***[[Sudovian language|Sudovian]] (extinct)
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list/end}}
===[[Slavic languages]]===
===[[Slavic languages]]===
<nowiki>{{tree list}}</nowiki>
<nowiki>{{tree list}}</nowiki>
*[[Proto-Slavic]] (extinct)
*[[Proto-Slavic]] (extinct)
**[[North Slavic languages|North Slavic]] ([[dialect continuum]])
**[[North Slavic languages|North Slavic]]
***[[East Slavic languages]]/Northeast Slavic ([[dialect continuum]])
***[[East Slavic languages]]/Northeast Slavic
****[[Old Novgorod dialect|Old Novgorodian]] (extinct)
****[[Old Novgorod dialect|Old Novgorodian]] (extinct)
*****[[Old East Slavic]] ([[Old Russian]], [[Ruthenian language|Old Rusyn]], [[Old Ukrainian]] and [[Old Belarusian]]) (extinct)
*****[[Old East Slavic]] (extinct)
******[[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] (Old Rusyn, [[Old Ukrainian]] and [[Old Belarusian]]) (extinct)
******[[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] (extinct)
*******'''[[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]''' / '''Carpathian Rusyn'''
*******'''[[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]''' / '''Carpathian Rusyn''' (also known as Ruthenian, Rusinian) ('''Pусиньскый язык / Pуски язи''' – '''''Rusîn'skyj Jazyk / Ruski Jazik''''' / '''Pуснацькый язык – Rusnac'kyj jazyk / Πо-Hашому – Po Nashomu''') (spoken by the [[Rusyns]] mainly in [[Carpathian Ruthenia]], most in [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Transcarpathia]], far southeastern Poland and far northeastern Slovakia and also in enclaves in [[Bačka]], [[Vojvodina]], northern Serbia; [[Slavonia]], eastern Croatia; the [[Banat]], southwestern Romania; and northern [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]) (divergent enough to be considered its own language, not a simple [[Ukrainian dialects|Ukrainian dialect]], although it has some [[mutual intelligibility]] with Ukrainian)
********''[[Pannonian Rusyn language|Pannonian Rusyn]]'' / ''Bačka Rusyn'' (''Ruski jazik'')
********''[[Pannonian Rusyn language|Pannonian Rusyn]]'' / ''Bačka Rusyn''
*********''[[Canadian Ukrainian]]'' (''Kанадсько-українська мова'' – ''Kanadsko-Ukraїnska Mova'') ''(more closely related to [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]])''
*********''[[Canadian Ukrainian]]'' ''''
********'''[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]'''
********'''[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]''' ('''Українська мова''' – '''''Ukrayins'ka Mova''''') (an older name was Little Russian – Малоросійський - ''Malorosiys'kyy'' or Малорусский - ''Malorusskyy'')
*********''[[Ukrainian dialects|Southern]]''
*********''[[Ukrainian dialects|Southern]]''
**********''[[Ukrainian dialects|South-Western]] (Western South)''
**********''[[Ukrainian dialects|South-Western]] ''
**********''[[Ukrainian dialects|South-Eastern]] (Eastern South)''
**********''[[Ukrainian dialects|South-Eastern]] (Eastern South)''
***********''[[Don Cossack]]''
***********''[[Don Cossack]]''
Line 1,284: Line 1,284:
**********''[[West Polesian microlanguage|West Polesian]]''
**********''[[West Polesian microlanguage|West Polesian]]''
***********''[[Motolian dialect|Motolian]]''
***********''[[Motolian dialect|Motolian]]''
********'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]''' ('''Беларуская мова''' – '''''Biełaruskaja Mova''''')
********'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]'''
*********''[[Belarusian dialects|South-Western]]''
*********''[[Belarusian dialects|South-Western]]''
*********''[[Belarusian dialects|Middle]]'' (basis of [[Belarusian language|Modern Standard Belarusian]] but not identical)
*********''[[Belarusian dialects|Middle]]''
*********''[[Belarusian dialects|North-Eastern]]''
*********''[[Belarusian dialects|North-Eastern]]''
*******'''[[Russian language|Russian]]'''
*******'''[[Russian language|Russian]]''' ('''Pусский язык''' – '''''Russkij / Russkiy Yazyk''''') (an older name was великорусский - ''Velikorusskiy'' - [[Great Russian language|Great Russian]] or Great Russian language) (distinction between russian dialects of primary formation and russian dialects of second formation is mainly chronological and geographical not genealogical) (dialects of primary formation correspond to Old Russia, mainly settled before 16th century, the Russian Core dialects in the central area of [[European Russia]]) (dialects of secondary formation correspond to the new territories where [[Russians]] expanded, mainly and especially after the [[Territorial evolution of Russia|Russian expansion]] and conquests from the 16th century until 19th centuries and the formation of a [[Russian diaspora]] outside Russia proper)
********''[[Southern Russian]]''
********''[[Southern Russian]]''
*********''[[Central Russian]]'' / ''Middle Russian ''
*********''[[Central Russian]]'' / ''Middle Russian (Transitional Northern-Southern Russian, has characteristics with both southern and northern dialects) (this dialectal area forms a big arc strip or bow-shaped strip, from northwest towards southeast, between southern and northern dialects, including both dialects of primary and second formation, from [[Saint Petersburg]], passing by [[Veliky Novgorod]], [[Tver]], [[Moscow]], [[Penza]], [[Saratov]] and [[Volgograd]], to [[Astrakhan]])''
**********''[[Lake Peipus dialect]]'' (''[[Lake Peipus dialect|Prichudskiy Govor]]'')
**********''[[Lake Peipus dialect]]''
***********''[[Astrakhan Russian]] (in [[Astrakhan]] city and region)''
***********''[[Astrakhan Russian]] ''
*********''[[Northern Russian]]''
*********''[[Northern Russian]]''
**********''[[Pomor dialects]] ''
**********''[[Pomor dialects]] (traditionally they were spoken by the [[Pomors]] in the northern coastal regions of the [[White Sea]] and [[Barents Sea]], and also more inland, in the arctic regions of [[European Russia]]) (includes [[Arkhangelsk]] and [[Murmansk]])''
***********''[[Alaskan Russian]] ''
***********''[[Alaskan Russian]] (still spoken in some scattered villages in [[Alaska]], in [[Kodiak Island|Kodiak island]] and [[Ninilchik, Alaska|Ninilchik]], by the [[Alaskan Creole people|Alaskan Creoles]], they are distinct from the [[Russian Americans]])''
*********''[[Russian diaspora]] dialects ''
*********''[[Russian diaspora]] dialects (spoken by ethnic [[Russians]] [[Ethnic Russians in post-Soviet states|outside Russia]], they have several dialectal group affiliations, a geographical grouping of dialects)''
**********''[[Eastern Europe]]''
**********''[[Eastern Europe]]''
***********''[[Russian language in Belarus|Belarusian Russian]] (spoken by a significant number of [[Belarusians]] throughout Belarus) ([[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] influence and substrate)''
***********''[[Russian language in Belarus|Belarusian Russian]] ''
***********''[[Russian language in Ukraine|Ukrainian Russian]] (spoken by a significant number of [[Ukrainians]], mainly in [[Eastern Ukraine|Eastern]] and [[Southern Ukraine|Southern]] Ukraine) ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] influence and substrate)''
***********''[[Russian language in Ukraine|Ukrainian Russian]] ''
************''[[Russian language in Latvia|Latvian Russian]] (spoken by [[Russians in Latvia]])''
************''[[Russian language in Latvia|Latvian Russian]] ''
**********''[[Central Asia]]''
**********''[[Central Asia]]''
**********''[[Northern America]]''
**********''[[Northern America]]''
***********''[[Doukhobor Russian|Doukhobor]]'' '' ''
***********''[[Doukhobor Russian|Doukhobor]]'' ([[Doukhobor Russian|Диалект духоборов Канады]] – ''Dialekt Duchoborov Kanady'') ''(traditionally it was spoken by the [[Doukhobors]], later, at the end of the 19th century, they migrated to the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provinces]] of [[Saskatchewan]], [[Alberta]] and [[British Columbia]], western [[Canada]]) (heterogeneous dialectal origin, has features both with [[Southern Russian dialects|Southern Russian]] dialects as well as with Central or [[Central Russian dialects|Middle Russian]] ones)''
***********''[[Dagestani Russian]] (Russian spoken by the many ethnic groups of [[Dagestan]])''
***********''[[Dagestani Russian]] ''
***********''[[Russian language in Israel|Israeli Russian]] (Russian spoken by [[History of the Jews in Russia|Russian Empire Jews]] and Ethnic [[Jews]] that came from former [[Soviet Union]] Republics to Israel before but mainly after the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]])''
***********''[[Russian language in Israel|Israeli Russian]] ''
********'''[[Goryun language|Goryun]]''' / '''[[Goryun language|Horyun]]'''
********'''[[Goryun language|Goryun]]''' / '''[[Goryun language|Horyun]]'''
***[[West Slavic languages]] / Northwest Slavic ([[dialect continuum]])
***[[West Slavic languages]] / Northwest Slavic
****[[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
****[[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
*****[[Old Polish language|Old Polish]] (extinct)
*****[[Old Polish language|Old Polish]] (extinct)
******[[Middle Polish]] (extinct)
******[[Middle Polish]] (extinct)
*******'''[[Polish language|Polish]]''' ('''''Polski / Język Polski / Polszczyzna''''')
*******'''[[Polish language|Polish]]'''
********''[[Lesser Polish dialect|Lesser Polish]]'' (''Dialekt Małopolski'') (derived from the language of the [[Vistulans]])
********''[[Lesser Polish dialect|Lesser Polish]]''
*********''[[Holy Cross Mountains]] dialects'' (''gwary świętokrzyskie''), often associated with the ancient tribe of the [[Lendians]] (''Lędzianie'')
*********''[[Holy Cross Mountains]] dialects'' , often associated with the ancient tribe of the [[Lendians]]
*********''[[Lasovians|Lasowian]] dialect'' (''gwara Lasowska'')
*********''[[Lasovians|Lasowian]] dialect''
*********''[[Łowicz]] dialect'' (''gwara łowicka'')
*********''[[Łowicz]] dialect''
********''[[Southern Borderlands dialect]]'' (''Southern Kresy'') / ''Podolian-Volhynian Polish (has affinities with [[Lesser Polish dialect|Lesser Polish]]) (spoken in isolated pockets or enclaves in Ukraine in the southern [[Kresy]], the Borderland regions) (Eastern Polish dialect in the former East Poland territories lost to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945)''
********''[[Southern Borderlands dialect]]'' / ''Podolian-Volhynian Polish (Eastern Polish dialect in the former East Poland territories lost to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945)''
********''[[Gorals|Goralian]]'' (''Highlander Polish dialects'') ''(has several affinities with [[Lesser Polish dialect]] but it's not a simple subdialect of it)''
********''[[Gorals|Goralian]]'' ''''
*********''[[Podhale dialect|Podhale]]'' (''gwara podhalańska'')
*********''[[Podhale dialect|Podhale]]''
*********''[[Żywiec]] dialect'' (''gwary żywieckie'')
*********''[[Żywiec]] dialect''
*********''[[Sieradz]]-[[Łęczyca]] dialect'' (''gwara sieradzko-łęczycka'')
*********''[[Sieradz]]-[[Łęczyca]] dialect''
*********''[[Chojnów|Chojno]] (Southern Greater Poland) dialect'' (''gwara Chazacka'')
*********''[[Chojnów|Chojno]] dialect''
*********''[[Krajna]] dialect'' (''gwara krajniacka'')
*********''[[Krajna]] dialect''
*********''[[Tuchola]] / Bory dialect'' (''gwara tucholska'')
*********''[[Tuchola]] / Bory dialect''
*********''[[Kociewie]] dialect'' (''gwara kociewska'')
*********''[[Kociewie]] dialect''
*********''[[Chełmno]]-[[Dobrzyń nad Wisłą|Dobrzyń]]'' (''gwara chełmińsko-dobrzyńska'')
*********''[[Chełmno]]-[[Dobrzyń nad Wisłą|Dobrzyń]]''
********''[[Masovian dialect|Masovian]]'' / ''Mazovian (basis of [[Polish language|Modern Standard Polish]] but not identical)'' (derived from the language of the [[Masovians|Mazovians]])
********''[[Masovian dialect|Masovian]]'' / ''Mazovian ''
*********''[[Warsaw dialect]] (Old Warsaw dialect) (nearly extinct) (modern Warsaw dialect is close to standard Polish)''
*********''[[Warsaw dialect]] ''
********''[[Northern Borderlands dialect]]'' (''Northern Kresy'') / ''Northern Borderlands dialect (Belarusian Polish) (has affinities with [[Mazovian dialect|Mazovian]]) (spoken along the border between [[Lithuania]] and [[Belarus]], in the Northern [[Kresy]], the Borderland regions) (spoken mainly by the [[Polish minority in lithuania|Polish minorities in Lithuania]] and [[Polish minority in Belarus|in Belarus]]) (Eastern Polish dialect in the former East Poland territories lost to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945)''
********''[[Northern Borderlands dialect]]'' / ''Northern Borderlands dialect (Eastern Polish dialect in the former East Poland territories lost to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945)''
********''[[New mixed dialects|New Mixed Dialects]] ''
********''[[New mixed dialects|New Mixed Dialects]] (in what is called [[Recovered Territories]] of western and far northern Poland, former ethnic and linguistic German majority territories of [[Silesia]], [[Pomerania]], [[East Brandenburg]] and most of [[East Prussia]] annexed in 1945 to Poland; several speakers of eastern Polish dialects settled in these regions and mixed with other polish dialect speakers)''
*******'''[[Masurian dialects|Masurian]]''' / '''Mazurian''' ('''''Mazurská gádkä''''') (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from [[Polish language|Polish]]{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} although closely related to it)
*******'''[[Masurian dialects|Masurian]]''' / '''Mazurian'''
*****[[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]
*****[[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]
******'''[[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]''' ('''''Kaszëbsczi jãzëk / Kaszëbsczi''''')
******'''[[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]'''
******[[Slovincian language|Slovincian]] (''Słowińskô Mòwa'') (extinct)
******[[Slovincian language|Slovincian]] (extinct)
*****[[Polabian language|Polabian]] (extinct)
*****[[Polabian language|Polabian]] (extinct)
*****[[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]] (Lusatian) (in [[Lusatia]])
*****[[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]
******'''[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]''' ('''''Dolnoserbšćina / Dolnoserbski''''')
******'''[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]'''
******'''[[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]''' ('''''Hornjoserbšćina / Hornjoserbsce''''')
******'''[[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]'''
*****'''[[Silesian language|Upper Silesian]]''' ('''Slavic Silesian''') ('''''Ślōnskŏ gŏdka / Ślůnsko godka''''') (disputed as separate language from [[Polish language|Polish]])
*****'''[[Silesian language|Upper Silesian]]'''
******''[[Cieszyn Silesian dialect|Cieszyn Silesian]] (Teschin Silesian)'' (''[[Cieszyn Silesian dialect|Po Naszymu]]'')
******''[[Cieszyn Silesian dialect|Cieszyn Silesian]] ''
*******''[[Sulkovian dialect|Sulkovian]]''
*******''[[Sulkovian dialect|Sulkovian]]''
*******''[[Prudnik dialect|Prudnik]]''
*******''[[Prudnik dialect|Prudnik]]''
*******''[[Niemodlin dialect|Niemodlin]]''
*******''[[Niemodlin dialect|Niemodlin]]''
******''[[Lach dialects|Lachian]] (in parts of [[Moravian Silesia]])''
******''[[Lach dialects|Lachian]] ''
****[[Czech-Slovak languages|Czech-Slovak]]
****[[Czech-Slovak languages|Czech-Slovak]]
*****'''[[Czech language|Czech]]''' (Slavic Bohemian-Moravian) (Czech-Moravian) ('''''Čeština''''' / '''''Český jazyk''''')
*****'''[[Czech language|Czech]]'''
******''[[Czech language|Czech proper]]'' (''Čeština'' / ''Český jazyk'')
******''[[Czech language|Czech proper]]''
*******''[[Czech language|Standard Czech]]''
*******''[[Czech language|Standard Czech]]''
*******''[[Common Czech]] (spoken primarily in and around [[Prague]])''
*******''[[Common Czech]] ''
********''[[Giant Mountains]] subgroup''
********''[[Giant Mountains]] subgroup''
*********''[[Doudleby]] subgroup''
*********''[[Doudleby]] subgroup''
**********''[[Chod dialect|Chod]] subgroup''
**********''[[Chod dialect|Chod]] subgroup''
******''[[Moravian dialects|Moravian]]'' (''Moravská nářečí/Moravština'')
******''[[Moravian dialects|Moravian]]''
*******''[[Tišnov]] subgroup (Podskupina tišnovská)''
*******''[[Tišnov]] subgroup ''
******''[[Moravian Slovakia|Moravian-Slovak]] (Podskupina slovácká)''
******''[[Moravian Slovakia|Moravian-Slovak]] ''
******''[[Moravian Wallachian dialect|Moravian Wallachian]] ''
******''[[Moravian Wallachian dialect|Moravian Wallachian]] (Podskupina valašská) (dialect of the [[Moravian Vlachs]] – at first a [[Romance languages|Romance-speaking]] and [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox Christian]] transhumant [[pastoral farming|pastoralist]] people, they were originally [[Vlachs]], i.e. [[Romanians]], originating in [[Transylvania]], central Romania, and migrated along the [[Carpathian Mountains]] towards northwest, they were [[Slavicized]] over time) ([[Romanian language|Romanian]] substrate)''
*****'''[[Slovak language|Slovak]]'''/'''[[Slovakian language|Slovakian]]''' ('''''Slovenčina''''' / '''''Slovenský jazyk''''')
*****'''[[Slovak language|Slovak]]'''/'''[[Slovakian language|Slovakian]]'''
******''[[Eastern Slovak dialects|Eastern Slovak]] (in [[Spiš]], Šariš, [[Zemplín (region)|Zemplín]] and [[Abov]])''
******''[[Eastern Slovak dialects|Eastern Slovak]] (in [[Spiš]], Šariš, [[Zemplín |Zemplín]] and [[Abov]])''
*****[[Knaanic language|Knaanic]] ([[Judaeo-Czech]]) (from ''Knaan'' – Canaan, "language of Canaan") (extinct)
*****[[Knaanic language|Knaanic]] (extinct)
**[[South Slavic languages]] ([[dialect continuum]])
**[[South Slavic languages]]
***[[Western South Slavic]] / Southwest South Slavic ([[dialect continuum]])
***[[Western South Slavic]] / Southwest South Slavic
****'''[[Slovene language|Slovene]]''' ('''''Slovenski jezik / Slovenščina''''')
****'''[[Slovene language|Slovene]]'''
*****''[[Pannonian dialect group|Pannonian]] (Pannonian Slovene)''
*****''[[Pannonian dialect group|Pannonian]] ''
******''[[Prekmurje Slovene]] (Wendisch)''
******''[[Prekmurje Slovene]] ''
*****''[[Styrian dialect group|Styrian]] (Styrian Slovene) (includes [[Maribor]])''
*****''[[Styrian dialect group|Styrian]] ''
*****''[[Carinthian dialect group|Carinthian]] (Carinthian Slovene)''
*****''[[Carinthian dialect group|Carinthian]] ''
*****''[[Resian dialect|Resian]]''
*****''[[Resian dialect|Resian]]''
*****''[[Littoral dialect group|Littoral]] (includes [[Koper]] and [[Piran]])''
*****''[[Littoral dialect group|Littoral]] ''
*****''[[Upper Carniolan dialect group|Upper Carniolan]] (includes [[Ljubljana]])''
*****''[[Upper Carniolan dialect group|Upper Carniolan]] ''
*****''[[Lower Carniolan dialect group|Lower Carniolan]]''
*****''[[Lower Carniolan dialect group|Lower Carniolan]]''
*****''[[Rovte dialect group|Rovte]]''
*****''[[Rovte dialect group|Rovte]]''
*****'''[[Kajkavian dialect|Kajkavian]]''' ('''''Kajkavica / Kajkavština''''') (divergent enough from [[Standard Croatian]], which is Shtokavian based, to be considered its own language)
*****'''[[Kajkavian dialect|Kajkavian]]'''
******''[[Burgenland Croatian|Kajkavian Burgenland Croatian]] (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in [[Burgenland]] state, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Una]] valley)''
******''[[Burgenland Croatian|Kajkavian Burgenland Croatian]] (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River |Una]] valley)''
*****'''[[Chakavian dialect|Chakavian]]''' ('''''Čakavica / Čakavština''''') (divergent enough from Standard Croatian, which is Shtokavian based, to be considered its language)
*****'''[[Chakavian dialect|Chakavian]]'''
******''[[Central Chakavian]]'' / ''[[Middle Chakavian]] (Ikavian-Ekavian)''
******''[[Central Chakavian]]'' / ''[[Middle Chakavian]] ''
*******''[[Burgenland Croatian|Chakavian Burgenland Croatian]] Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in [[Burgenland]] state, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border [[Croatia]] directly) (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Una]] valley)''
*******''[[Burgenland Croatian|Chakavian Burgenland Croatian]] Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River |Una]] valley)''
*******''[[Southern Chakavian]] (Ikavian) (includes the traditional [[Split, Croatia|Split]] dialect)''
*******''[[Southern Chakavian]] ''
*******''[[Southeastern Chakavian]]'' / ''Lastovian (Ijekavian) (in [[Lastovo|Lastovo island]])''
*******''[[Southeastern Chakavian]]'' / ''Lastovian ''
*******''[[Southwestern Istrian]] (Ikavian, Transitional to Shtokavian) (in Southwest [[Istria]] Peninsula)''
*******''[[Southwestern Istrian]] ''
*******''[[Northern Chakavian]] (Ekavian) (includes the traditional [[Rijeka]] dialect)''
*******''[[Northern Chakavian]] (Ekavian) ''
*******''[[Buzet dialect|Buzet]] (Closed Ekavian)''
*******''[[Buzet dialect|Buzet]] ''
*****''[[Burgenland Croatian|Shtokavian–(south)Chakavian Burgenland Croatian]]'' (''Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik'') ''("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in [[Burgenland]] state, [[Burgenland|Gradišće]] in Croatian, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Una]] valley)''
*****''[[Burgenland Croatian|Shtokavian–Chakavian Burgenland Croatian]]'' '' (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River |Una]] valley)''
****'''[[Shtokavian dialect|Shtokavian]]'''
****'''[[Shtokavian dialect|Shtokavian]]''' ('''''Štokavski''''') (basis of [[Serbo-Croatian Language|Serbo-Croatian]] but not identical) (dialects do not follow a border defined by ethnic groups, people from the same ethnic group could speak different dialects with different dialect group affiliation)
*****'''[[Serbo-Croatian]]'''
*****'''[[Serbo-Croatian]]''' ('''''Srpskohrvatski / Hrvatskosrpski''''' – '''Cрпскохрватски / Xрватскосрпски''') ([[standard language]] mainly based on [[Shtokavian]], in modern time it has different standardization for [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]] and [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] as [[national language]]s, however they belong to the same [[dialect continuum]] and are mostly [[Mutual intelligibility|mutual intelligible]])
*****''[[Old-Shtokavian]] (older group of Shtokavian dialects, they are divided in west and east dialectal groups)''
*****''[[Old-Shtokavian]] ''
******''[[Šokac dialect|Šokac]] ([[Šokac dialect|Šokački jezik]])''
******''[[Šokac dialect|Šokac]] ''
*******''[[East-Bosnian dialect|East Bosnian]]'' / ''Jekavian-Šćakavian (Ijekavian-Ikavian) (spoken by many [[Bosniaks]]) (includes most part of [[Sarajevo]] and [[Tuzla]])''
*******''[[East-Bosnian dialect|East Bosnian]]'' / ''Jekavian-Šćakavian ''
*******''[[Zeta–Raška dialect|Zeta–Raška]]'' / ''[[Zeta–Raška dialect|Đekavian-Ijekavian]] (Zeta–South Sandžak) (East Montenegro and a corner of Southwest Serbia)''
*******''[[Zeta–Raška dialect|Zeta–Raška]]'' / ''[[Zeta–Raška dialect|Đekavian-Ijekavian]] (East Montenegro and a corner of Southwest Serbia)''
*******''[[Smederevo–Vršac dialect|Smederevo-Vršac]] (Ekavian) (mainly in [[Smederevo]] region)''
*******''[[Smederevo–Vršac dialect|Smederevo-Vršac]] (Ekavian) ''
*****''[[Neo-Shtokavian|New Shtokavian]] / [[Neo-Shtokavian]] (younger group of Shtokavian dialects, they are divided in west, south and east dialectal groups)''
*****''[[Neo-Shtokavian|New Shtokavian]] / [[Neo-Shtokavian]] ''
******''[[Younger Ikavian dialect|Bosnian-Dalmatian]]'' / ''[[Younger Ikavian dialect|Western Ikavian]]'' / ''[[Younger Ikavian dialect|Younger Ikavian]]''
******''[[Younger Ikavian dialect|Bosnian-Dalmatian]]'' / ''[[Younger Ikavian dialect|Western Ikavian]]'' / ''[[Younger Ikavian dialect|Younger Ikavian]]''
*******''[[Bosnian dialects|Bosnian]] (a specific dialect of [[Bosna (river)|Bosna]] river valley, not to be confused with [[Bosnian language|Standard Bosnian]]) (includes [[Zenica]])''
*******''[[Bosnian dialects|Bosnian]] (a specific dialect of [[Bosna |Bosna]] river valley, not to be confused with [[Bosnian language|Standard Bosnian]]) ''
********''[[Burgenland Croatian|Schakavian Burgenland Croatian]] (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in [[Burgenland]] state, [[Burgenland|Gradišće]] in Croatian, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Una]] valley)''
********''[[Burgenland Croatian|Schakavian Burgenland Croatian]] (spoken by the [[Burgenland Croats]], which originally came from the river [[Una River |Una]] valley)''
*********''[[Slavomolisano dialect|Slavomolisano]] '' '' ''
*********''[[Slavomolisano dialect|Slavomolisano]] ([[Molise Croatian]])'' (''[[Slavomolisano dialect|Na-Našu]]'' / ''[[Slavomolisano dialect|Na-Našo]]'') ''(spoken by the [[Molise Croats]] in enclaves in the [[Molise]] region of [[Southern Italy]]) (the southernmost old [[Croatian diaspora]] in Europe)''
********''[[Bunjevac dialect|Bunjevac]] (Shtakavian, Ikavian) (in far northwestern [[Vojvodina]]) (an enclave of New Western Shtokavian)''
********''[[Bunjevac dialect|Bunjevac]] ''
********''[[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|Eastern Herzegovinian]]'' '' ''
********''[[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|Eastern Herzegovinian]]'' (''[[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|Istočnohercegovački]]'' / [[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect|источнохерцеговачки]]) ''(in a broad sense) (Ijekavian) (it is the most widespread subdialect of the [[Shtokavian]] dialect of [[Serbo-Croatian]], both by territory and the number of speakers) (it is the dialectal basis for all modern literary '''Serbo-Croatian standards''': '''Bosnian''', '''Croatian''', '''Serbian''', and '''Montenegrin''', the latter only partially codified) (originated roughly in Eastern [[Herzegovina]], has spread over a large area out of its initial home region)''
*********''[[Užican dialect|Užice]]'' / ''[[Užican dialect|Užican]]'' / ''[[Užican dialect|Zlatibor]] (Ijekavian, transitional to [[Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect]]) (in southwestern Serbia, [[Zlatibor]] Mountains, includes [[Čačak]])''
*********''[[Užican dialect|Užice]]'' / ''[[Užican dialect|Užican]]'' / ''[[Užican dialect|Zlatibor]] ''
**********''[[Dubrovnik subdialect]] (Ijekavian-Ikavian, transitional to Chakavian)''
**********''[[Dubrovnik subdialect]] ''
*********[[Serbo-Croatian|Serbo-Croatian standards]]
*********[[Serbo-Croatian|Serbo-Croatian standards]]
**********''[[Serbian language|Serbian]] (official language of [[Serbia]] called '''[[Serbian language|Serbian]]''', accurately it is a [[Shtokavian]] standardised dialect part of its [[dialect continuum]])''
**********''[[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''
**********''[[Croatian language|Croatian]] ''
**********''[[Croatian language|Croatian]] (official language of [[Croatia]] called '''[[Croatian language|Croatian]]''', except for [[Kajkavian]] and [[Chakavian]], accurately it is a standardised [[Shtokavian]] dialect part of its [[dialect continuum]])''
**********''[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] ''
**********''[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (official language of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] called '''[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]''', accurately it is a Standardised [[Shtokavian]] dialect part of its [[dialect continuum]])''
**********''[[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]] (official language of [[Montenegro]] called '''[[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]''', accurately it is a Standardised [[Shtokavian]] dialect part of its [[dialect continuum]])''
**********''[[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]] ''
*******''[[Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect|Šumadija–Vojvodina]] / Younger Ekavian (Ekavian) (in Northern [[Serbia]]) (includes most part of [[Belgrade]], Serbia's capital, [[Novi Sad]] and [[Kragujevac]]) ([[Standard Serbian]] is not based on its capital dialect)''
*******''[[Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect|Šumadija–Vojvodina]] / Younger Ekavian (Ekavian) ''
****'''[[Torlakian dialect|Torlakian]]''' (also belong to [[Old Shtokavian]]) ('''Торлачки''' / '''Торлашки''' – '''''Torlački''''' / '''''Torlashki''''')
****'''[[Torlakian dialect|Torlakian]]'''
*****''[[Prizren–Timok dialect|Timok-Prizren]]''
*****''[[Prizren–Timok dialect|Timok-Prizren]]''
******''[[Timok-Lužnica dialect|Timok-Lužnica]]'' / ''[[Timok-Luznica dialect|Eastern Torlakian]]''
******''[[Timok-Lužnica dialect|Timok-Lužnica]]'' / ''[[Timok-Luznica dialect|Eastern Torlakian]]''
*****''[[Macedonian dialects|Macedonian Torlakian]]'' / ''[[Macedonian dialects|Northern Slavic Macedonian dialects]] (in [[Kumanovo]], [[Kratovo, North Macedonia|Kratovo]], [[Kriva Palanka]]) (are closer to [[Torlakian]] and not to [[Standard Macedonian|Standard Slavic Macedonian]])''
*****''[[Macedonian dialects|Macedonian Torlakian]]'' / ''[[Macedonian dialects|Northern Slavic Macedonian dialects]] ''
******''[[Kumanovo dialect]]''
******''[[Kumanovo dialect]]''
*******''[[Kriva Palanka dialect]]''
*******''[[Kriva Palanka dialect]]''
*******''[[Skopska Crna Gora dialect]]''
*******''[[Skopska Crna Gora dialect]]''
*******''[[Tetovo dialect]] (Lower Polog) (overlaps with [[Albanian language|Albanian]] language area)''
*******''[[Tetovo dialect]] ''
*******''[[Gora dialect]] ([[Gora dialect|Našinski jezik]]) (spoken by the [[Gorani people]] in [[Gora (region)|Gora]] region, an ethnic and linguistic Slavic majority region in far southern [[Kosovo]])''
*******''[[Gora dialect]] (spoken by the [[Gorani people]] in [[Gora |Gora]] region, an ethnic and linguistic Slavic majority region in far southern [[Kosovo]])''
*****''[[Transitional Bulgarian dialects]] ''
*****''[[Transitional Bulgarian dialects]] (transitional between Torlakian and Slavic Bulgarian but are considered closer to Torlakian) (in [[Belogradchik]]; [[Dimitrovgrad, Serbia]]; [[Godech]]; [[Tran, Bulgaria|Tran]]; [[Bosilegrad]])''
******''[[Tran dialect]]''
******''[[Tran dialect]]''
******''[[Breznik dialect]]''
******''[[Breznik dialect]]''
******''[[Belogradchik dialect]]''
******''[[Belogradchik dialect]]''
***[[Eastern South Slavic]] / Southeast South Slavic ([[dialect continuum]])
***[[Eastern South Slavic]] / Southeast South Slavic
****[[Old Church Slavonic|Old Eastern South Slavic]] / Old Slavonic / Old Slavic / [[Old Bulgarian]] (extinct)
****[[Old Church Slavonic|Old Eastern South Slavic]] / Old Slavonic / Old Slavic / [[Old Bulgarian]] (ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ ⰧⰈⰟⰊⰍⰟ]] – Cловѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ – ''Slověnĭskŭ Językŭ'') (extinct) (the language that is inaccurately called [[Church Slavonic]] was not only or not exclusively a [[Liturgical language|liturgical]] or [[sacred language]] as it was the Old Eastern South Slavic language, common ancestor of [[Bulgarian language|Slavic Bulgarian]] and [[Slavic Macedonian]] languages) (it was the neighbouring Slavic language of Greek to the North and was chosen by the [[Greeks|Greek]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christian Orthodox]] brothers from [[Thessaloniki]], [[apostles]] [[Cyril and Methodius]], to be the [[liturgical language]] used in their [[Christianity|Christian]] [[preaching]] to the [[Christianization of Slavs|Slavs]])
*****''[[Old Church Slavonic]]'' (''Црькъвьнословѣньскъ ѩзыкъ'' – ''Tsrĭkŭvĭnoslověnĭskŭ Językŭ'') ''(the specific liturgical variant of [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Eastern South Slavic]], it had several [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Borrowing (linguistics)|language borrowings]] for several theological [[Christianity|Christian]] concepts and ideas that were passed to other [[Slavic languages]], especially those [[Slavic languages]] that were spoken by [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christian Orthodox]] [[Slavs]])'' (extinct)
*****''[[Old Church Slavonic]]'' ''(the specific liturgical variant of [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Eastern South Slavic]], it had several [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Borrowing |language borrowings]] for several theological [[Christianity|Christian]] concepts and ideas that were passed to other [[Slavic languages]], especially those [[Slavic languages]] that were spoken by [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christian Orthodox]] [[Slavs]])'' (extinct)
******'''[[Church Slavonic]]''' ('''Црькъвьнословѣньскъ ѩзыкъ''' – '''''Tsrĭkŭvĭnoslověnĭskŭ Językŭ''''') ([[Conservative (language)|conservative]] [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] [[Liturgical language|liturgical]] or [[sacred language]] used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] in several [[Slavic countries]] that descends from [[Old Church Slavonic]]) (contrary to the language called inaccurately [[Old Church Slavonic]], accurately it is Old Eastern South Slavic, it is a specific [[Liturgical language|liturgical]] or [[sacred language]])
******'''[[Church Slavonic]]''' ([[Conservative |conservative]] [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] [[Liturgical language|liturgical]] or [[sacred language]] used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] in several [[Slavic countries]] that descends from [[Old Church Slavonic]])
*****[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]-[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] (Bulgarian and Macedonian belong to the same [[Eastern South Slavic]] [[dialect continuum]] with the difference that they are [[standardized language]]s based on specific dialects of the continuum, they are not simple dialects of one or the other)
*****[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]-[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
******'''[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]'''
******'''[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]''' ('''Slavic Bulgarian''' / '''Seven Tribes Slavic''') ('''български''' – '''''Bălgarski''''' / '''языкъ словяньскъ''' – '''''Jazykŭ Slovyanĭskŭ''''') (old east south Slavic people, the [[Seven Slavic tribes]] and other Slavic tribes, who called their own language simply as "Slavic", later adopted the adjective "Bulgarian" for the language based on the name of most of their [[ruling elite]] – the [[Bulgars]], which were of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] non-[[Indo-European peoples|Indo-European]] origin and founded the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]])
*******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Western Bulgarian]]''
*******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Western Bulgarian]]''
********''[[Northwestern Bulgarian dialects|Northwestern]]''
********''[[Northwestern Bulgarian dialects|Northwestern]]''
Line 1,433: Line 1,433:
*********''[[Samokov dialect]]''
*********''[[Samokov dialect]]''
*********''[[Elin Pelin dialect]]''
*********''[[Elin Pelin dialect]]''
*********''[[Sofia dialect]] (in [[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]'s capital)''
*********''[[Sofia dialect]] ''
*********''[[Dupnitsa dialect]]''
*********''[[Dupnitsa dialect]]''
*********''[[Kyustendil dialect]]''
*********''[[Kyustendil dialect]]''
********'''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]''' ('''Slavic Macedonian''' / '''Vardar Slavic''') ('''македонски''' / '''македонски Jазик''' – '''''Makedonski''''' / '''''Makedonski Jazik''''') (often included in the Western Bulgarian dialects of the [[Eastern South Slavic]] [[dialect continuum]]) (old east south Slavic people, composed of several Slavic tribes, who called their own language simply as "Slavic", later adopted the adjective "Macedonian" for the language based on the name of the former [[East Roman Empire]] Province called [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] that had this name by reference of the ancient Hellenic people – the [[Macedonians (ancient people)|Macedonians]], although most of the territory of Modern [[North Macedonia]] was [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]]) (not to be confused with the Macedonian Greek dialect spoken by the [[Macedonians (Greeks)|Macedonian]] Greeks)
********'''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]''' (old east south Slavic people, composed of several Slavic tribes, who called their own language simply as "Slavic", later adopted the adjective "Macedonian" for the language based on the name of the former [[East Roman Empire]] Province called [[Macedonia |Macedonia]] that had this name by reference of the ancient Hellenic people – the [[Macedonians |Macedonians]], although most of the territory of Modern [[North Macedonia]] was [[Paeonia |Paeonia]]) (not to be confused with the Macedonian Greek dialect spoken by the [[Macedonians |Macedonian]] Greeks)
*********''[[Macedonian dialects|Eastern and Southern dialects]]''
*********''[[Macedonian dialects|Eastern and Southern dialects]]''
**********''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect]]'' / ''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect|Pirin-Maleševo dialect]]'' / ''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect|Blagoevgrad-Petrich dialect]] (Maleševo is in far eastern [[North Macedonia]], [[Pirin]] is in far southwestern Bulgaria and corresponds to [[Blagoevgrad]] and [[Petrich]] areas)''
**********''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect]]'' / ''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect|Pirin-Maleševo dialect]]'' / ''[[Maleševo-Pirin dialect|Blagoevgrad-Petrich dialect]] ''
***********''[[Štip-Kočani dialect]]''
***********''[[Štip-Kočani dialect]]''
***********''[[Strumica dialect]]''
***********''[[Strumica dialect]]''
************''[[Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect]] (includes Slavic speakers in [[Serres]], [[Drama, Greece|Drama]], [[Lagkadas|Langada]] and [[Gotse Delchev, Blagoevgrad Province|Gotse Delchev]])''
************''[[Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect]] ''
************''[[Solun-Voden dialect]]'' / ''[[Solun-Voden dialect|Kukush-Voden dialect]]'' / ''[[Solun-Voden dialect|Lower Vardar dialect]] (includes Slavic speakers in [[Edessa, Greece|Edessa]] / Voden and [[Thessaloniki]] / Solun, [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]]'s capital) (lower [[Vardar]] or [[Vardar|Axios]] river region)''
************''[[Solun-Voden dialect]]'' / ''[[Solun-Voden dialect|Kukush-Voden dialect]]'' / ''[[Solun-Voden dialect|Lower Vardar dialect]] (includes Slavic speakers in [[Edessa, Greece|Edessa]] / Voden and [[Thessaloniki]] / Solun, [[Macedonia |Greek Macedonia]]'s capital) ''
************''[[Kostur dialect]] (in [[Kastoria]] region, far northwestern [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]])''
************''[[Kostur dialect]] (in [[Kastoria]] region, far northwestern [[Macedonia |Greek Macedonia]])''
************''[[Nestram-Kostenar dialect]] (in [[Nestorio]] area, far northwestern [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]])''
************''[[Nestram-Kostenar dialect]] (in [[Nestorio]] area, far northwestern [[Macedonia |Greek Macedonia]])''
*********''[[Macedonian dialects|Western dialects]]''
*********''[[Macedonian dialects|Western dialects]]''
**********''[[Prilep-Bitola dialect]]''
**********''[[Prilep-Bitola dialect]]''
***********''[[Kičevo-Poreče dialect]]''
***********''[[Kičevo-Poreče dialect]]''
***********''[[Skopje-Veles dialect]] (includes [[Skopje]], [[North Macedonia]]'s capital)''
***********''[[Skopje-Veles dialect]] ''
************''[[Lower Prespa dialect]]''
************''[[Lower Prespa dialect]]''
************''[[Upper Prespa dialect]]''
************''[[Upper Prespa dialect]]''
************''[[Ohrid dialect]]''
************''[[Ohrid dialect]]''
************''[[Struga dialect]]''
************''[[Struga dialect]]''
************''[[Vevčani-Radožda dialect]] (overlaps with Albanian language area)''
************''[[Vevčani-Radožda dialect]] ''
************''[[Debar dialect]] (partially overlaps with Albanian in northwestern areas)''
************''[[Debar dialect]] ''
************''[[Galičnik dialect|Galičnik (Mala Reka) dialect]] (overlaps with Albanian language area)''
************''[[Galičnik dialect|Galičnik dialect]] ''
************''[[Reka dialect]] (overlaps with Albanian language area)''
************''[[Reka dialect]] ''
************''[[Gostivar dialect]]'' / ''[[Upper Polog dialect|Upper Polog]] (overlaps with Albanian language area)''
************''[[Gostivar dialect]]'' / ''[[Upper Polog dialect|Upper Polog]] ''
**********''[[Spoken Macedonian|Macedonian Interdialect variety]]'' / ''[[Spoken Macedonian]] (based on the Western Slavic Macedonian dialects)''
**********''[[Spoken Macedonian|Macedonian Interdialect variety]]'' / ''[[Spoken Macedonian]] ''
***********''[[Standard Macedonian]] ([[Standard Macedonian|Standard Slavic Macedonian]]) (based on the Western Slavic Macedonian dialects)''
***********''[[Standard Macedonian]] ''
*******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Eastern Bulgarian]]''
*******''[[Bulgarian dialects|Eastern Bulgarian]]''
********''[[Moesian dialects|Moesian]] (Northern / Northwestern) (in some areas it overlaps with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] language enclaves)''
********''[[Moesian dialects|Moesian]] ''
*********''[[Shumen dialect]]''
*********''[[Shumen dialect]]''
********''[[Balkan dialects of Bulgarian|Balkan (Stara Planina)]] (Central)''
********''[[Balkan dialects of Bulgarian|Balkan ]] ''
*********''[[Central Balkan dialect]]''
*********''[[Central Balkan dialect]]''
*********''[[Kotel-Elena-Dryanovo dialect]]''
*********''[[Kotel-Elena-Dryanovo dialect]]''
Line 1,471: Line 1,471:
*********''[[Erkech dialect]]''
*********''[[Erkech dialect]]''
*********''[[Subbalkan dialect]]''
*********''[[Subbalkan dialect]]''
********''[[Rup dialects|Rup]] (Southern / Southeastern) (in some areas it overlaps with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] language enclaves)''
********''[[Rup dialects|Rup]] ''
*********''[[Strandzha dialect]]''
*********''[[Strandzha dialect]]''
*********''[[Thracian dialect]]''
*********''[[Thracian dialect]]''
*********''[[Hvoyna dialect]]''
*********''[[Hvoyna dialect]]''
*********''[[Smolyan dialect]]'' / ''Central Rhodope dialect''
*********''[[Smolyan dialect]]'' / ''Central Rhodope dialect''
**********''[[Pomak language|Pomak dialect]] (spoken by most [[Pomaks]])''
**********''[[Pomak language|Pomak dialect]] ''
*********''[[Chepino dialect]]''
*********''[[Chepino dialect]]''
*********''[[Paulician dialect]] (in the region of [[Rakovski (town)|Rakovski]] in southern Bulgaria and [[Svishtov]] in northern Bulgaria) (speakers of this dialect are mainly Catholic Christian Bulgarians)''
*********''[[Paulician dialect]] (in the region of [[Rakovski |Rakovski]] in southern Bulgaria and [[Svishtov]] in northern Bulgaria) ''
**********''[[Banat Bulgarian dialect|Banat Bulgarian]] (a Slavic Bulgarian language enclave in the [[Banat]], a region of southwestern [[Romania]])''
**********''[[Banat Bulgarian dialect|Banat Bulgarian]] ''
*********''[[Zlatograd dialect]]''
*********''[[Zlatograd dialect]]''
*********''[[Babyak dialect]]''
*********''[[Babyak dialect]]''

Revision as of 12:04, 3 November 2024

Indo-European languages worldwide by country
  Official or primary language
  Secondary official language
  Recognized
  Significant
  No use
The approximate present-day distribution of the Indo-European branches within their homelands of Europe and Asia:
  Albanian
  Armenian
  Balto-Slavic (Baltic)
  Balto-Slavic (Slavic)
  Celtic
  Germanic
  Hellenic (Greek)
  Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and Nuristani)
  Italic (Romance)
  Non-Indo-European languages
Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.
The approximate present-day distribution of Indo-European languages within the Americas by country:
Romance:
  Spanish
  Portuguese
  French
Germanic:
  English
  Dutch
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Bronze Age
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Indo-Aryans

Iranians

East Asia

Europe

Middle Ages

East Asia

Europe

Indo-Aryan

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Religion and mythology
Reconstructed
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This is a list of languages in the Indo-European language family. It contains a large number of individual languages, together spoken by roughly half the world's population.

Numbers of languages and language groups

The Indo-European languages include some 449 (SIL estimate, 2018 edition[1]) languages spoken by about 3.5 billion people or more (roughly half of the world population). Most of the major languages belonging to language branches and groups in Europe, and western and southern Asia, belong to the Indo-European language family. This is thus the biggest language family in the world by number of mother tongue speakers (but not by number of languages: by this measure it is only the 3rd or 5th biggest). Eight of the top ten biggest languages, by number of native speakers, are Indo-European. One of these languages, English, is the de facto world lingua franca, with an estimate of over one billion second language speakers.

Indo-European language family has 10 known branches or subfamilies, of which eight are living and two are extinct. Most of the subfamilies or linguistic branches in this list contain many subgroups and individual languages. The relationships between these branches (how they are related to one another and branched from the ancestral proto-language) are a matter of further research and not yet fully known. There are some individual Indo-European languages that are unclassified within the language family; they are not yet classified in a branch and could constitute a separate branch.

The 449 Indo-European languages identified in the SIL estimate, 2018 edition,[1] are mostly living languages. If all the known extinct Indo-European languages are added, they number more than 800 or close to one thousand. This list includes all known Indo-European languages, living and extinct.

Definition of language

The distinction between a language and a dialect is not clear-cut and simple: in many areas there is a dialect continuum, with transitional dialects and languages. Further, there is no agreed standard criterion for what amount of differences in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and prosody are required to constitute a separate language, as opposed to a mere dialect. Mutual intelligibility can be considered, but there are closely related languages that are also mutual intelligible to some degree, even if it is an asymmetric intelligibility. Or there may be cases where between three dialects, A, B, and C, A and B are mutually intelligible, B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not. In such circumstances grouping the three dielects becomes impossible. Because of this, in this list, several dialect groups and some individual dialects of languages are shown (in italics), especially if a language is or was spoken by a large number of people and over a large land area, but also if it has or had divergent dialects.

Summary of historical development

The ancestral population and language, Proto-Indo-Europeans that spoke Proto-Indo-European, are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through migration and cultural influence. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, acculturation and language change of peoples in many regions of western and southern Eurasia.[2] This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family.

By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern Eurasia (including western Central Asia).

In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further.

Indo-European languages continued to be spoken in large land areas, although most of western Central Asia and Asia Minor were lost to other language families (mainly Turkic) due to Turkic expansion, conquests and settlement (after the middle of the first millennium AD and the beginning and middle of the second millennium AD respectively) and also to Mongol invasions and conquests (which changed Central Asia ethnolinguistic composition). Another land area lost to non-Indo-European languages was today's Hungary, due to Magyar/Hungarian (Uralic language speakers) conquest and settlement.

However, from about AD 1500 onwards, Indo-European languages expanded their territories to North Asia (Siberia), through Russian expansion, and North America, South America, Australia and New Zealand as the result of the age of European discoveries and European conquests through the expansions of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English and the Dutch. (These peoples had the biggest continental or maritime empires in the world and their countries were major powers.)

The contact between different peoples and languages, especially as a result of European colonization, also gave origin to the many pidgins, creoles and mixed languages that are mainly based in Indo-European languages (many of which are spoken in island groups and coastal regions).

Proto-Indo-European

Dating the split-offs of the main branches

Indo-European migrations as described in The Horse, the Wheel, and Language by David W. Anthony

Although all Indo-European languages descend from a common ancestor called Proto-Indo-European, the kinship between the subfamilies or branches (large groups of more closely related languages within the language family), that descend from other more recent proto-languages, is not the same because there are subfamilies that are closer or further, and they did not split-off at the same time, the affinity or kinship of Indo-European subfamilies or branches between themselves is still an unresolved and controversial issue and being investigated.

However, there is some consensus that Anatolian was the first group of Indo-European (branch) to split-off from all the others and Tocharian was the second in which that happened.[3]

Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following tree of Indo-European branches:[4]

David W. Anthony, following the methodology of Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow, proposes the following sequence:[4]

The list below follows Donald Ringe, Tandy Warnow and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.[5] quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press.

Anatolian languages (all extinct)

Anatolian languages in 2nd millennium BC; Blue: Luwian, Yellow: Hittite, Red: Palaic.

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Tocharian languages (Agni-Kuči languages) (all extinct)

Tocharian languages: A (blue), B (red) and C (green) in the Tarim Basin.[10] Tarim oasis towns are given as listed in the Book of Han (c. 2nd century BC). The areas of the squares are proportional to population.

{{tree list}}

Albanian language

See also: Albanoid
Distribution of modern Albanian dialects.

{{tree list}}

Italic languages

Iron Age Italy (c.500 B.C.). Italic languages in green colours.
Length of the Roman rule and the Romance Languages[15]
Romance languages in Europe (major dialect groups are also shown).
European extent of Romance languages in the 20th century
Eastern and Western Romance areas split by the La Spezia–Rimini Line; Southern Romance is represented by Sardinian as an outlier.
Romance languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Romance languages are spoken. Dark colours: First language, Light colours: Official or Co-Official language; Very Light colours: Spoken by a significant minority as first or second language. Blue: French; Green: Spanish; Orange: Portuguese; Yellow: Italian; Red: Romanian.

{{tree list}}

Celtic languages

Diachronic distribution of Celtic language speakers:
  core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BCE
  maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BCE
  Lusitanian and Vettonian area of Iberian Peninsula where Celtic presence is uncertain, Para-Celtic?
  the six Celtic nations which retained significant numbers of Celtic speakers into the Early Modern period
  areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today
Britain and Ireland in the first few centuries of the 1st millennium, before the founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
  Mainly Goidelic areas.
  Mainly Pictish areas.
  Mainly Brittonic areas.
Goidelic language and culture would eventually become dominant in the Pictish area and far northern Brittonic area.
A map of the modern distribution of the Celtic languages. Red: Welsh; Purple: Cornish; Black: Breton; Green: Irish; Blue: Scottish Gaelic: Yellow: Manx. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.
Map of the Gaelic-speaking world. The red area shows the maximum extent of Old Irish (common ancestor of Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx); the orange area shows places with Ogham inscriptions; and the green area are modern Gaelic-speaking areas. Orkney and Shetland islands were never majority Scots Gaelic or Scottish Gaelic speaking.
Linguistic division in early twelfth century Scotland:
  Gaelic speaking ("Scots" here refers to Scots Gaelic not to Germanic Scots)
  Norse-Gaelic zone, characterized by the use of both languages
  English-speaking zone
  Cumbric may have survived in this zone; more realistically a mixture of Cumbric, Gaelic (west) and English (east)

{{tree list}}

Hellenic languages

Distribution of Greek dialects in Greece in the classical period.[20]
Distribution of Greek dialects in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily) in the classical period.
The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas.
Anatolian Greek until 1923. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian in green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian-Greek-speaking villages in 1910.[21]

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Armenian language

Armenian dialects, according to Adjarian (1909) (before 1st World War and Armenian Genocide). In many regions of the contiguous area shown in the map, Armenian speakers were the majority or a significant minority.
Modern geographical distribution of the Armenian language.

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Germanic languages

One proposed theory for approximate distribution of the primary Germanic dialect groups in Europe around the year 1 AD. East Germanic
  East Germanic
Northwest Germanic West Germanic
  Elbe Germanic
  Weser–Rhine Germanic
  North Sea Germanic
North Germanic
  North Germanic
Germanic languages and main dialect groups in Europe after 1945.
Germanic languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Germanic languages are spoken. Dark Red: First language; Red: Official or Co-Official language, Pink: Spoken by a significant minority as second language.

{{tree list}}

Balto-Slavic languages

Area of Balto-Slavic dialect continuum with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age . Red dots= archaic Slavic hydronyms.
Political map of Europe with countries where a Slavic language is a national language marked in shades of green and where a Baltic language is a national language marked in light orange. Wood green represents East Slavic languages, pale green represents West Slavic languages, and sea green represents South Slavic languages. Contemporary Baltic languages are all from the same group: Eastern Baltic
Baltic languages (extinct languages shown in stripes).
Slavic languages in Europe . Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.
Russian Language – Map of all the areas where the Russian language is the language spoken by the majority of the population. Russian is the biggest Slavic language both in number of first language speakers and in geographical area where the language is spoken .

Baltic languages

{{tree list}}

Slavic languages

{{tree list}}

Indo-Iranian languages

Geographic distribution of modern Indo-Iranian languages. Blue, dark purple and green colour shades: Iranic languages. Dark pink: Nuristani languages. Red, light purple and orange colour shades: Indo-Aryan languages. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.

Iranian languages

Map of Attested and Hypothetical Old Indo-Iranian Dialects. Indo-Iranian languages descend from the language spoken by the Sintashta Culture people that lived in the plains beyond the southeast Ural Mountains, between the upper Ural and Tobol rivers basins. Old Iranian languages , were spoken in a large Eurasian landmass area that included most of south Eastern Europe, south west Siberia, Central Asia, including parts of western China, and the Iranian Plateau. The Scythian languages , that belonged to the Northern Eastern Iranian languages subgroup, were the ones with the biggest geographical distribution, they were spoken in most of the steppe and desert areas of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, matching most of the western half of the Eurasian steppe, which corresponds to modern southern European Russia and south Russian west Siberia and parts of southern central Siberia, modern southern Ukraine, an enclave in the east Pannonian Basin, in modern Hungary, all of modern Kazakhstan, parts of modern Xinjiang, in Western China, modern Kyrgyzstan, and parts of modern Uzbekistan and modern Turkmenistan.[36] Later Scythian languages were also present in northern India by migration of part of the ancient Iranian peoples forming the Indo-Scythians. This was the geographical distribution until the first centuries A.D., after that time, Turkic migration and conquests along with Turkification, made many ancient Iranian languages go extinct.
File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin .png
Approximate distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age.
Distribution of modern Iranian Languages . .

{{tree list}}

Nuristani languages

Nuristan Province in Afghanistan, where most speakers live.

Transitional Iranian-Indo-Aryan[47][48]

Nuristani languages.

{{tree list}}

Indo-Aryan languages

Present-day geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan language groups. Romani, Domari, Kholosi and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map. Colours indicate the branches – yellow is Eastern, purple is Dardic, blue is Northwestern, red is Southern, green is Western, brown is Northern and orange is Central. Data is from "The Indo Aryan Languages" as well as census data and previous linguistic maps.Dardic
  Pashai
  Chitrali
  Shina
  Kohistani
  Kashmiri
Northwestern
  Punjabi
  Sindhi
Western
  Rajasthani
  Gujarati
  Bhili
  Khandeshi
Northern
  Himachali-Dogri
  Garhwali-Kumaoni
  Nepali
Central
  Western Hindi
  Eastern Hindi
Eastern
  Bihari (Eastern)
  Bengali-Assamese (Eastern)
  Odia (Eastern)
  Halbi (Eastern)
Southern
  Marathi-Konkani
  Sinhala-Maldivian
.
Distribution of major Indo-Aryan languages. Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.) Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.
  Dardic
  Northwestern
  Northern
  Western
  Central
  Eastern
  Southern
Romani languages and dialects in Europe. Romani languages are part of the Indo-Aryan branch of Indo-European languages but are spoken out of the Indian Subcontinent. They are related to the Domari languages and are scattered and minority languages in all regions, overlapping with other peoples and their languages in Europe. The Domari and Romani languages are spoken in a vast geographical area from Southwest Asia to Europe and North Africa but are minoritary and scattered in all the regions in part because Domari and Romani speakers, the Doma and the Roma, were traditionally nomadic peoples.

{{tree list}}

Unclassified Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Indo-European languages whose relationship to other languages in the family is unclear

Possible Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Unclassified languages that may have been Indo-European or members of other language families (?)

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Ethnologue report for Indo-European". Ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-06. Retrieved 2012-12-07.
  2. ^ Allentoft, Morten E.; Sikora, Martin; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Rasmussen, Simon; Rasmussen, Morten; Stenderup, Jesper; Damgaard, Peter B.; Schroeder, Hannes; Ahlström, Torbjörn; Vinner, Lasse; Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Margaryan, Ashot; Higham, Tom; Chivall, David; Lynnerup, Niels; Harvig, Lise; Baron, Justyna; Casa, Philippe Della; Dąbrowski, Paweł; Duffy, Paul R.; Ebel, Alexander V.; Epimakhov, Andrey; Frei, Karin; Furmanek, Mirosław; Gralak, Tomasz; Gromov, Andrey; Gronkiewicz, Stanisław; Grupe, Gisela; Hajdu, Tamás; et al. (2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. 522 (7555): 167–172. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103. Archived from the original on 2019-03-29. Retrieved 2018-11-04.
  3. ^ KAPOVIĆ, Mate. (ed.) (2017). The Indo-European Languages. ISBN 978-0-367-86902-1
  4. ^ a b Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press
  5. ^ Ringe, Don; Warnow, Tandy.; Taylor, Ann. (2002). 'Indo-European and Computational Cladistics', Transactions of the Philological Society, n.º 100/1, 59-129.
  6. ^ "New Indo-European Language Discovered". Archived from the original on 2023-09-26. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  7. ^ "Kalasmaic, a New IE Language". Archived from the original on 2023-09-26. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  8. ^ "A new Indo-European Language discovered in the Hittite capital Hattusa". Archived from the original on 2023-09-26. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  9. ^ "New Indo-European Language Discovered in Ancient City of Hattusa". Archived from the original on 2023-09-26. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  10. ^ Mallory, J.P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies, London: Thames & Hudson, pp. 67, 68, 274, ISBN 0-500-05101-1.
  11. ^ Krause, Todd B.; Slocum, Jonathan. "Tocharian Online: Series Introduction". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  12. ^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-15034-5.
  13. ^ Voynikov, Zhivko. (?). Some ancient Chinese names in East Turkestan and Central Asia and the Tocharian question.
  14. ^ a b "Niya Tocharian: language contact and prehistory on the Silk Road". cordis.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2023-01-27. Retrieved 2023-01-05.
  15. ^ Bereznay, András (2011). Erdély történetének atlasza [Atlas of the History of Transylvania] (in Hungarian). Méry Ratio. p. 63. ISBN 978-80-89286-45-4.
  16. ^ Pellegrini G., Carta dei dialetti d'Italia, CNR – Pacini ed., Pisa, 1977
  17. ^ a b Vignuzzi 1997: 312, 317; Loporcaro & Panciani 2016: 229, 233
  18. ^ a b Menéndez Pidal, Ramón. (2005). Historia de la Lengua Española (2 Vols.). Madrid: Fundación Ramón Menendez Pidal. ISBN 84-89934-11-8
  19. ^ Marcos Marín, Francisco. (1998). "Romance andalusí y mozárabe: dos términos no sinónimos", Estudios de Lingüística y Filología Españolas. Homenaje a Germán Colón. Madrid: Gredos, 335–341. https://www.academia.edu/5101871/Romance_andalusi_y_mozarabe_dos_terminos_no_sinonimos_ Archived 2022-01-07 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
  21. ^ Dawkins, R.M. 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  22. ^ "Ancient Macedonian". MultiTree: A Digital Library of Language Relationships. Archived from the original on November 22, 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
  23. ^ a b "Gothic language | Origins, History & Vocabulary | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 25 September 2023. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
  24. ^ "East Germanic languages | History, Characteristics & Dialects | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2023-08-18. Retrieved 2023-08-18.
  25. ^ a b MacDonald Stearns, Das Krimgotische. In: Heinrich Beck (ed.), Germanische Rest- und Trümmersprachen, Berlin/New York 1989, p. 175–194, here the chapter Die Dialektzugehörigkeit des Krimgotischen on p. 181–185
  26. ^ Harm, Volker , "Elbgermanisch", "Weser-Rhein-Germanisch" und die Grundlagen des Althochdeutschen, in Nielsen; Stiles (eds.), Unity and Diversity in West Germanic and the Emergence of English, German, Frisian and Dutch, North-Western European Language Evolution, vol. 66, pp. 79–99
  27. ^ C. A. M. Noble: Modern German Dialects. Peter Lang, New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, p. 131
  28. ^ a b Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal: De Geïntegreerde Taal-Bank:
    Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal , entry VlamingI Archived 2023-10-05 at the Wayback Machine;
    cp.: Oudnederlands Woordenboek , entry flāmink Archived 2023-10-05 at the Wayback Machine: "Morfologie: afleiding, basiswoord : flāma ‘overstroomd gebied’; suffix: ink ‘vormt afstammingsnamen’"; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek , entry Vlaendren Archived 2023-10-05 at the Wayback Machine: "Etymologie: Dat.pl. van flandr- 'overstroomd gebied' met het suffix -dr-.".
    Cognate to Middle English flēm 'current of a stream': Middle English Compendium → Middle English Dictionary : flēm n.(2) Archived 2023-12-09 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, "Holland, n. 1," etymology.
  30. ^ a b c d e f Dyers, Charlyn . "The Conceptual Evolution in Linguistics: implications for the study of Kaaps". Multilingual Margins. 3 (2): 61–72 – via Research Gate.
  31. ^ "Oostelike Afrikaans". May 10, 2018. Archived from the original on August 11, 2023. Retrieved August 11, 2023.
  32. ^ Hamans, Camiel . [1] Archived 2023-10-01 at the Wayback Machine. ciplnet.com. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
  33. ^ Coetzee, Olivia M. . [2] Archived 2023-09-22 at the Wayback Machine. Words Without Borders. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
  34. ^ Hendricks, Frank . "The nature and context of Kaaps: a contemporary, past and future perspective".[3] Archived 2022-10-23 at the Wayback Machine Multilingual Margins: A Journal of Multilingualism from the Periphery. 3 (2): 6–39. doi:10.14426/mm.v3i2.38. ISSN 2221-4216. S2CID 197552885.
  35. ^ "The medieval 'New England': A forgotten Anglo-Saxon colony on the north-eastern Black Sea coast" https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/05/medieval-new-england-black-sea.html Archived 2023-08-18 at the Wayback Machine
  36. ^ Simpson, St John . "The Scythians. Discovering the Nomad-Warriors of Siberia". Current World Archaeology. 84: 16–21. "nomadic people made up of many different tribes thrived across a vast region that stretched from the borders of northern China and Mongolia, through southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, as far as the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Collectively they were known by their Greek name: the Scythians. They spoke Iranian languages..."
  37. ^ Bonmann, Svenja; Halfmann, Jakob; Korobzow, Natalie; Bobomulloev, Bobomullo (January 2023). "A Partial Decipherment of the Unknown Kushan Script". Transactions of the Philological Society. 121 (2): 293. doi:10.1111/1467-968X.12269. S2CID 259851498.
  38. ^ "Research group deciphers enigmatic ancient script". 13 July 2023. Archived from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  39. ^ "The so-called Unknown Kushan Script partially deciphered, language named Eteo-Tocharian". 13 July 2023. Archived from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  40. ^ ""Unknown Kushan Script" Partially Deciphered - Archaeology Magazine". Archived from the original on 2023-09-26. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  41. ^ "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". Archived from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
  42. ^ "The Avestan texts contain no historical allusions and can therefore not be dated exactly, but Old Avestan is a language closely akin to the oldest Indic language, used in the oldest parts of the Rigveda, and should therefore probably be dated to about the same time. This date is also somewhat debated, though within a relatively small time span, and it seems probable that the oldest Vedic poems were composed over several centuries around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. ", quoted in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Archived 2023-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
  43. ^ "Young Avestan is grammatically close to Old Persian, which ceased being spoken in the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. These two languages were therefore probably spoken throughout the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. ." in https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence Archived 2023-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
  44. ^ The Young Avesta contains a few geographical names, all belonging to roughly the area between Chorasmia and the Helmand, that is, the modern Central Asian republics and Afghanistan . We are therefore entitled to conclude that Young Avestan reflects the language spoken primarily by tribes from that area. The dialect position of the language also indicates that the language of the Avesta must have belonged to, or at least have been transmitted by, tribes from northeastern Iran .
  45. ^ It was long thought that Avestan represented "Old Bactrian", but this notion had "rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century", in Gershevitch, Ilya , "Bactrian Literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 1250–1258, ISBN 0-511-46773-7.
  46. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Antje Wendtland 2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  47. ^ "There are three possible hypotheses, each of which has found supporters: (i) the Nuristani languages are part of the Iranian family, but separated at a very early stage from the main stream of Iranian languages; they are part of the Indo-Aryan family, but separated from Indo-Aryan in pre-Vedic times; and they are neither Indian nor Iranian but represent a third branch of the Aryan family" in Almuth Degener – Indo-Iranian Languages and Peoples .
  48. ^ "Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristân". nuristan.info. Archived from the original on 2021-08-06. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  49. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ancient Kamboja 1981, p 278 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  50. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sir Thomas H p 102-03 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  51. ^ Burrow, T. (1936). "The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London. 8 (2/3): 419–435. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141060. JSTOR 608051. S2CID 170991822. Archived from the original on 2023-07-19. Retrieved 2021-04-25.

{{Countries and languages lists}} [[Category:Indo-European languages| ]] [[Category:Lists of Indo-European languages| ]] [[Category:Lists of languages|Indo-European]]

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