Koryo-saram: Difference between revisions

Koryo-saram
Koryo-saram
Korean name
Hangul	고려사람
Hanja	高麗사람
Revised Romanization
Transcriptions
Revised Romanization	Goryeosaram
McCune–Reischauer	Koryŏsaram
South Korean name
Hangul	고려인
Hanja	高麗人
Revised Romanization
Transcriptions
Revised Romanization	Goryeoin
McCune–Reischauer	Koryŏin
Russian name
Russian	Корё сарам
Romanization	Koryo saram

Koryo-saram
Total population
	About 500,000
Regions with significant populations
Uzbekistan	174,200
Russia	153,156
Kazakhstan	102,804
South Korea	40,000
Kyrgyzstan	17,094
Ukraine	12,711
Turkmenistan	2,500
Tajikistan	634
Belarus	400
Estonia	208
Languages
	Russian, Koryo-mar
Religion
	Orthodox Christianity along with Buddhism, Protestantism, Catholicism, Islam and others
Related ethnic groups
	Koreans, Sakhalin Koreans

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Koryo-saram (Template:Lang-ko; Russian: Корё сарам) or Koryoin (Template:Lang-ko) are ethnic Koreans of the former Soviet Union, who descend from Koreans that were living in the Russian Far East.

Koreans first began settling in the Russian Far East in the late 19th century. Their numbers increased as Koreans fled the Japanese colonization of Korea beginning in 1910. A number of Koryo-saram became significant Korean independence activists, such as Hong Beom-do and Chŏng Sang-jin. In 1937, they were all deported to Central Asia. They have since dispersed throughout the former Soviet Union, with significant populations in Siberia, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan.

Approximately 500,000 Koryo-saram reside in the former Soviet Union, primarily in the now-independent states of Central Asia. There are also large Korean communities in Southern Russia (around Volgograd), the Russian Far East (around Vladivostok), the Caucasus, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and southern Ukraine. While the ability to speak Korean has become increasingly rare amongst modern Koryo-saram, they have retained some elements of Korean culture, including Korean names. Koryo-saram cuisine has become popular throughout the former Soviet Union, with the dish morkovcha now widely available in grocery stores there. A significant number of Koryo-saram have either moved temporarily or permanently to South Korea for economic or cultural reasons. The Russo-Ukrainian War, especially the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, has motivated several thousand Korean Ukrainians to move to South Korea for safety.^[12]^[13]

Sakhalin Koreans also exist on the island of Sakhalin in Russia, but they are often considered a separate ethnic group. They arrived when Sakhalin was partially under Japanese rule, and were never subjected to the forced deportation to Central Asia. Some of them identify as Koryo-saram, but many do not. This has led to the term materikovye (материковые) for Koryo-saram, meaning "continentals".^[14]

Autonym

The term by which they refer to themselves is composed of two Korean words: "Koryo", a historical name for Korea, and "saram", meaning "person" or "people".^[a]

The word Koryo in "Koryo-saram" originated from the name of the Goryeo (Koryŏ) Dynasty from which "Korea" was also derived. The name Soviet Korean was also used, more frequently before the collapse of the Soviet Union.^[15] Russians may also lump Koryo-saram under the general label koreytsy (корейцы); however, this usage makes no distinctions between ethnic Koreans of the local nationality and the Korean nationals (citizens of North Korea or South Korea).

In Standard Korean, the term "Koryo-saram" is typically used to refer to historical figures from the Goryeo dynasty;^[16] to avoid ambiguity, Korean speakers use a word Goryeoin (고려인; 高麗人, meaning the same as "Koryo-saram") to refer to ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet states.^[17] However, the Sino-Korean morpheme "-in" (인; 人) is not productive in Koryo-mal, the dialect spoken by Koryo-saram and as a result, only a few (mainly those who have studied Standard Korean) refer to themselves by this name; instead, "Koryo-saram" has come to be the preferred term.^[18]

History

Immigration to the Russian Far East and Siberia

The early 19th century saw the decline of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. A small population of wealthy elite owned the farmlands in the country, and poor peasants found it difficult to survive. Koreans leaving the country in this period were obliged to move toward Russia, as the border with China was sealed by the Qing Dynasty.^[19] However, the first Koreans in the Russian Empire, 761 families totalling 5,310 people, had actually migrated to Qing territory; the land they had settled on was ceded to Russia by the Convention of Peking in 1860.^[20] Many peasants considered Siberia to be a land where they could lead better lives, and so they subsequently migrated there. According to Russian sources early as 1863, 13 Korean households were recorded in Posyet, near Bay of Novgorod.^[b]^[21] These numbers rose dramatically, and by 1869 Koreans composed 20% of the population of the Primorsky Krai.^[19] Prior to the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, Koreans outnumbered Russians in the Russian Far East; the local governors encouraged them to naturalize.^[22] The village of Blagoslovennoe was founded in 1870 by Korean migrants.^[23] Another Korean village near Zolotoy Rog that Russians called Koreyskaya slabodka (Корейская слабодка, literally means Korean village) and what Koreans called "Gaecheok-ri" (開拓里,개척리) was officially recognized by the Vladivostok authorities.^[21]^[c] The 1897 Russian Empire Census found 26,005 Korean speakers (16,225 men and 9,780 women) in the whole of Russia.^[24]

In the early 20th century, both Russia and Korea came into conflict with Japan. Following the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1907, Russia enacted an anti-Korean law at the behest of Japan, under which the land of Korean farmers was confiscated and Korean labourers were laid off.^[25] However, Korean migration to Russia continued to grow; 1914 figures showed 64,309 Koreans (among whom 20,109 were Russian citizens). Even the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution did nothing to slow migration; after the repression of the 1919 March 1st Movement in Japanese-colonised Korea, migration actually intensified.^[23] Korean leaders in Vladivostok's Sinhanch'on (literally, "New Korean Village") neighbourhood also provided support to the independence movement, making it a centre for nationalist activities, including arms supply; the Japanese attacked it on April 4, 1920, leaving hundreds dead.^[26] By 1923, the Korean population in the Soviet Union had grown to 106,817. The following year, the Soviets began taking measures to control Korean population movement to their territory; however, they were not completely successful until 1931; after that date, they halted all migration from Korea and required existing migrants to naturalise as Soviet citizens.^[23]

The Soviet policy of korenizatsiya (indigenisation) resulted in the creation of 105 Korean village soviets (councils) in mixed-nationality raion, as well as an entire raion for the Korean nationality, the Pos'et Korean National Raion; these conducted their activities entirely in the Korean language. The Soviet Koreans had a large number of their own official institutions, including 380 Korean schools, two teachers' colleges, one pedagogical school, three hospitals, a theatre, six journals, and seven newspapers (the largest of which, Vanguard, had a circulation of 10,000). The 1937 Census showed 168,259 Koreans in the Soviet Union. However, officials in the Russian Far East viewed the Koreans' ethnic and family ties to the Japanese Empire with suspicion, which would soon set the stage for the deportation of the whole population.^[23]

Deportation to Central Asia

In 1937, facing reports from the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) that there were possibilities that Japanese would have infiltrate the Russian Far East by means of ethnic Korean spies, Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov signed Resolution 1428-326 ss, "On the Exile of the Korean Population from border Raions of the Far East Kray", on August 21.^[27] According to the report of Nikolai Yezhov, 36,442 Korean families totalling 171,781 persons were deported by October 25.^[28] The deported Koreans faced difficult conditions in Central Asia: monetary assistance promised by the government never materialised, and furthermore, most of the deported were rice farmers and fishermen, who had difficulty adapting to the arid climate of their new home. Estimates based on population statistics suggest that 40,000 deported Koreans died in 1937 and 1938 for these reasons.^[29] Nonetheless, the deportees cooperated to build irrigation works and start rice farms; within three years, they had recovered their original standard of living.^[30]

The events of this period led to the formation of a cohesive identity among the Korean deportees.^[30] However, in schools for Soviet Korean children, the government switched Korean language from being the medium of instruction to being taught merely as a second language in 1939, and from 1945 stopped it from being taught entirely; furthermore, the only publication in the Korean language was the Lenin Kichi (now called Koryo Ilbo). As a result, subsequent generations lost the use of the Korean language, which J. Otto Pohl described as "emasculat[ing] the expression of Korean culture in the Soviet Union.^[31] Up until the era of glasnost, it was not permitted to speak openly of the deportations.^[17]

Liberation and division of Korea

During the August to September 1945 Soviet military campaign to liberate Korea, Koryo-saram Chŏng Sang-jin was the only ethnic Korean who had a combat role on the Soviet side. He notably participated in the Seishin Operation.^[32]^[33] Chŏng and a number of other Koryo-saram joined North Korea after the division of Korea. Some Koryo-saram, including Pak Chang-ok, became key figures in that government, where they formed a faction of Soviet Koreans.^[33] However, in the mid-1950s, Kim Il Sung purged many Soviet-aligned Korean people, which led to the expulsion of a number of Koryo-saram from the North. Several of them, including Chŏng, returned to Central Asia and continued writing for the Lenin Kichi.^[33]

Current status

Scholars estimated^[when?] that roughly 470,000 Koryo-saram were living in the Commonwealth of Independent States.^{[citation needed]}

Russia

The 2002 census gave a population of 148,556 Koreans in Russia, of which 75,835 were male and 72,721 female.^[34] More than half were living in Asian Russia. Meanwhile, the 2010 census gave a population of 153,156 Koreans in Russia, this time more than half were living in European Russia instead, but Russian Far East remained the federal district with highest number of Koreans. The Korean population there trace their roots back to a variety of sources. Aside from roughly 33,000 CIS nationals, mostly migrants retracing in reverse the 1937 deportation of their ancestors, between 4,000 and 12,000 North Korean migrant labourers can be found in the region. Smaller numbers of South Koreans and ethnic Koreans from China have also come to the region to settle, invest, and/or engage in cross-border trade.^[35]

	2002 census^[36]	2010 census:^[37]
Russian Federation	148,556	153,156
Number by federal districts
Central Federal District	16,720	21,779
Northwestern Federal District	6,903	7,000
Southern Federal District	39,031	40,191
Volga Federal District	9,088	12,215
Ural Federal District	4,071	3,805
Siberian Federal District	10,797	11,193
Far Eastern Federal District	61,946	56,973

Ukraine

In the Ukrainian 2001 census, 12,711 people defined themselves as ethnic Koreans, up from 8,669 in 1989. Of these only 17.5% gave Korean as their native language. The majority (76%) named Russian as their native language, while 5.5% named Ukrainian.^[38] The largest concentrations can be found in Kharkiv, Kyiv, Odesa, Mykolaiv, Cherkasy, Lviv, Luhansk, Donetsk, Dnipro, Zaporizhia and Crimea. The largest ethnic representative body, the Association of Koreans in Ukraine, is located in Kharkiv, where roughly 150 Korean families reside; the first Korean language school was opened in 1996 under their direction.^[39]^[40] Some of the most famous Korean-Ukrainians are Vitalii Kim, current governor of Mykolaiv Oblast, Pavlo Lee, actor killed in Russo-Ukrainian war, and Oleksandr Sin, former mayor of Zaporizhzhia.^[41] After 2001, many Koreans migrated into Ukraine from Central Asia.^{[citation needed]}

Central Asia

The majority of Koryo-saram in Central Asia reside in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Korean culture in Kazakhstan is centered in Almaty, the former capital. For much of the 20th century, this was the only place in Central Asia where a Korean language newspaper (the Koryo Ilbo) and Korean language theater (Korean Theatre of Kazakhstan) were in operation.^[42] The censuses of Kazakhstan recorded 96,500 Koryo-saram in 1939, 74,000 in 1959, 81,600 in 1970, 92,000 in 1979, 100,700 in 1989, and 99,700 in 1999.^[43]

In Kyrgyzstan, the population has remained roughly stable over the past three censuses: 18,355 (1989), 19,784 (1999), and 17,299 (2009).^[44] This contrasts sharply with other non-indigenous groups such as Germans, many of whom migrated to Germany after the breakup of the Soviet Union. South Korea never had any programme to promote return migration of their diaspora in Central Asia, unlike Germany. However, they have established organisations to promote Korean language and culture, such as the Korean Centre of Education which opened in Bishkek in 2001. South Korean Christian missionaries are also active in the country.^[45]

The population in Uzbekistan is largely scattered in rural areas. This population has suffered in recent years from linguistic handicaps, as the Koryo-saram there spoke Russian but not Uzbek. After the independence of Uzbekistan, many lost their jobs due to being unable to speak the national language. Some emigrated to the Russian Far East, but found life difficult there as well.^[46]

There is also a small Korean community in Tajikistan. Mass settlement of Koreans in the country began during the late 1950s and early 1960s, after the loosening of restrictions on their freedom of movement which had previously kept them confined to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Pull factors for migration included rich natural resources and a relatively mild climate. Their population grew to 2,400 in 1959, 11,000 in 1979 and 13,000 in 1989; most lived in the capital Dushanbe, with smaller concentrations in Qurghonteppa and Khujand. Like Koreans in other parts of Central Asia, they generally possessed higher incomes compared to members of other ethnic groups. However, with the May 1992 onset of civil war in Tajikistan, many fled the country; by 1996, their population had fallen by over half to 6,300 people.^[47] Most are engaged in agriculture and retail business.^[48] Violence continued even after the end of the civil war; in 2000, suspected Hizb ut-Tahrir members exploded a bomb in a Korean Christian church in Dushanbe, killing 9 and wounding 30.^[49]

Return migration to Korea

Community centers for Gwangju Koryoin Village, which is one of the largest ethnic enclaves of Koryo-saram in South Korea.^[50] (2022)

There was some minor return migration of Soviet Koreans to Korea in the first half of the 20th century. They formed four main groups: those sent for intelligence work during the Japanese colonial period, the Red Army personnel who arrived in 1945–1946, civilian advisors and teachers who arrived in the northern half of the peninsula in 1946–1948 and individuals who repatriated from the Soviet Union to North Korea for personal reasons.^[51] Though it was common in most of the newly socialist countries of the Eastern Bloc to receive Soviet-educated personnel who were from the country or had ancestral ethnic connections there, in North Korea such returned members of national diaspora played a more important role than in other countries.^[52]

Later, labour migration to South Korea would grow to a large size. As of 2005^[update], as many as 10,000 Uzbekistani nationals worked in South Korea, with most of them being ethnic Koreans. It is estimated that remittances from South Korea to Uzbekistan exceed $100 million annually.^[53]

A number of Koryo-saram communities now exist in South Korea, including Ttaetgol Village,^[54] Gwangju Koryoin Village,^[55] Hambak Village,^[56] Texas Street,^[57] and Central Asia Street in Seoul.^[58] Several of these communities are also host to Russian speakers of other ethnicities.^[56]

Koryo-saram have consistently reported feeling social isolation or even employment discrimination^[59] when in Korea.^[60]^[61] The experience of returnees has been portrayed in media, such as the 2011 film Hanaan, by Koryo-saram director Ruslan Pak.^[60]

Culture

Religion of Koryo-saram

Christianity (49.35%)

Atheism (28.51%)

Buddhism (11.4%)

Islam (5.24%)

Judaism (0.21%)

Others (0.14%)

Not Answered (5.16%)

After their arrival in Central Asia, the Koryo-saram quickly established a way of life different from that of neighbouring peoples. They set up irrigation works and became known throughout the region as rice farmers.^[30] They interacted little with the nomadic peoples around them and focused on education. Although they soon ceased to wear traditional Korean clothing, they adopted Western-style dress rather than the clothing worn by the Central Asian peoples.^[62]

The ritual life of the Koryo-saram community has changed in various respects. Marriages have taken on the Russian style.^[63] At Korean traditional funerals, the coffin is taken out of the house either through the window or a single door threshold; however, if there is more than one door threshold on the way out (e.g. in modern multi-stories buildings), three notches are made on each threshold.^[64]^[65] The name of the dead is traditionally written in hanja; however, as hardly anyone is left among the Koryo-saram who can write in hanja, the name is generally written in hangul only. On the other hand, the rituals for the first birthday and sixtieth anniversary have been preserved in their traditional form.^[66]

In New York City, United States, there is the All Nations Baptist Church, a Russian-speaking Christian church for Koryo-saram.^[67]

Cuisine

The cuisine of the Koryo-saram is closest to that of the Hamgyong provinces in North Korea and is dominated by meat soups and salty side dishes.^[63] It uses similar cooking techniques but is adapted to local ingredients, which resulted in invention of new dishes. One well-known example is morkovcha, a variant of kimchi that uses carrots. It has become popular in many parts of the former Soviet Union.^[68]^[69]

Other examples of dishes include pyanse, kuksu, funchoza,^[70]^[71] timpeni, khe, chartagi, kadi che (가지채), kosari che, chirgym che, siryak-tyamuri,^[72] and kadyuri.^{[citation needed]}

Personal and family names

Korean surnames in
Romanization/Cyrillization
view
talk
edit
Korean (RR)			Russian (BGN)		Alterative English Spellings
안	安	An	Ан	An	Ahn
배	裵	Bae	Бя Пягай	Bya Pyagay	Pae
백	白	Baek	Пэк Пяк	P∙ek Pyak	Baik Paek
박	朴	Bak	Пак	Pak	Park
반	潘	Ban	Пан	Pan	Pahn
방	方房	Bang	Пан	Pan	Pang Phang
부	夫傅	Bu	Пу Пугай	Pu Pugay	Booh Pooh
변	卞邊	Byeon	Пён	Pyon	Pyoun
차	車	Cha	Ча Чагай	Cha Chagay	Char Tchah
채	蔡	Chae	Цай	Tsay	Chai
천	千	Cheon	Чен	Chen	Choun
최	崔	Choe	Цой Цхай Цхой	Tsoy Tskhay Tskhoy	Choi Chey Choy
엄	嚴	Eom	Эм	Em	Oum
강	姜康强彊剛	Gang	Кан	Kan	Kang
김	金	Gim	Ким	Kim	Kim
고	高	Go	Ко Когай	Ko Kogay	Koh
구	具	Gu	Ку	Ku	Koo
곽	郭	Gwak	Квак	Kvak	Kwak
권	權	Gwon	Кван Квон	Kvan Kvon	Kwon
한	韓	Han	Хан	Khan	Hahn
허	許	Heo	Хе Хегай	Khe Khegay Khegai	Huh Hur
홍	洪	Hong	Хон	Khon	Houng
황	黃	Hwang	Хван	Khvan	Hwang
현	玄	Hyeon	Хён	Khyon	Hyoun
이 리	李	I Ri	И Ли Лигай Ни Нигай	I Li Ligay Ni Nigay	Lee Rhee Yi
임 림	林	Im Rim	Им Лим	Im Lim	Rhim Yim
인	印	In	Ин	In	Yin
장	張	Jang	Тян Чан	Tyan Chan	Chang Jang
전	全田	Jeon	Тен	Ten	Chun Jun
정	鄭丁	Jeong	Тен Чжен	Ten Chzhen	Chung Tseung
지	池智	Ji	Ти Тигай	Ti Tigay	Chi Jee
진	陳	Jin	Чен	Chen	Chin
조	趙曺	Jo	Дё Тё	Dyo Tyo	Cho
주	朱周	Ju	Дю Дюгай Дзю Тюгай Цзю	Dyu Dyugay Dzyu Tyugay Tszyu	Chu
마	馬麻	Ma	Ма Магай	Ma Magay	Mar Mha
맹	孟	Maeng	Мян	Myan	Maeing
민	閔	Min	Мин	Min	Mhin
문	門文	Mun	Мун	Mun	Moon
명	明	Myeong	Мён	Myon	Myoung
나 라	羅	Na Ra	На Ра	Na Ra	La Rha
남	南	Nam	Нам	Nam	Nahm
노 로	盧魯路	No Ro	Но Ногай Ро	No Nogay Ro	Nho Noh Rho
오	伍吳	O	О Огай	O Ogay	Au Oe Oh
유	兪劉	Yu	Ю Югай	Yu Yugay	Yoo You
류	柳	Ryu	Ю Югай, Люгай	Yu Yugay, Lyugay	Ryoo Ryou
서	徐	Seo	Ше Шегай	She Shegay	So Sur
석	石昔	Seok	Шек	Shek	Suk
설	薛偰	Seol	Шер	Sher	Sol Sull
성	成	Seong	Сен	Sen	Song
심	沈	Sim	Сим Шим	Sim Shim	Seem Sheem
신	申辛愼	Sin	Син Шин	Sin Shin	Seen Sheen
손	孫	Son	Сон	Son	Sohn
송	宋	Song	Сон	Son	Sung
태	太	Tae	Тхай Тхя	Tkhay Tkhya	Tai Tay
우	禹	U	У Угай	U Ugay	Ou Woo
왕	王	Wang	Ван	Van	(none)
원	元	Won	Вон	Von	Woon
양 량	梁	Yang Ryang	Лян Рян Ян	Lyan Ryan Yan	Lyang Ryang Yaung
여 려	余呂汝	Yeo Ryeo	Ё Ёгай	Yo Yogay	Yea Yo Yu
염 렴	廉	Yeom Ryeom	Ём Лём	Yom Lyom	Yeoum
연 련	延燕連	Yeon Ryeon	Ён	Yon	Yeoun
윤	尹	Yun	Юн	Yun	Yoon

Many Korean surnames, when Cyrillized, are spelled and pronounced slightly differently from the romanisations used in the U.S. and the resulting common pronunciations, as can be seen in the table at right. Some surnames of Koryo-saram have a particle "gai" added to them, such as Kogai or Nogai. The origin of this is unclear.^[73] The introduction of international passports by newly independent CIS countries, resulted in further differences in pronunciation as Korean surnames had to be transliterated from Cyrillic into Latin. In addition to a surname, Koreans also use clan names (known as bon-gwan in Korea and pronounced as пой among Koryo-saram) denoting the place of origin.^[74]

Korean naming practices and Russian naming practices are different – Koryo-saram use Russian name practices, but Korean surnames and sometimes Korean names. But most often Christian names are used from the saints of the Russian Orthodox Church, typical for Russians.

Patronymics

Legislation of the Russian Empire in issuing documents required the father's name.

Koreans began with the use of patronymics that were formed from the Korean names of their fathers. Over time, as the proportion of Christians increased, Koreans were given, in accordance with the tradition of the Russian Orthodox Church, names from the general list of revered saints.

Currently, 80% of Koryo-saram have a record of their Korean names. This differs from the pattern typical in the US, where Korean American parents often register their children with a Korean given name as their legal middle name (e.g. Daniel Dae Kim, Harold Hongju Koh).

Surnames of married women

In Korea, until the 20th century, women were generally called by their family name. Nobles received as a pseudo-name the name of the estate in which they lived and this did not change when getting married.

The preservation of his wife's name has been preserved as a tradition among modern Koreans, after women began to be given names.

The Koreans began to migrate to the Russian Empire in 1864 long before women were allowed to be given names in modern Korean tradition in Korea.

Legislation of the Russian Empire required the mandatory presence of the surname of the name and patronymic name for everyone. Including poor serf wives. When they were married they were given the surname of the husband, a patronymic formed on behalf of the father and given a name from the Sviatcy (List of names of saints of the Orthodox Church).

Generation names

In Korea, it is common for siblings and cousins of the same generation to have one hanja syllable in common among all of their names; this is known as dollimja. Russians have no equivalent practice, although they do have patronyms which the Koryo-saram have for the most part adopted. Therefore, Koryo-saram do not use generation names. They use, depending on religion, either a name from Sviatcy or a name arbitrarily chosen from the hanja character used in Korea to form names.

Language

Languages among the Soviet Union's Korean population^[75]
	1970	1979	1989
Total population	357,507	388,926	438,650
Korean L1	245,076	215,504	216,811
Russian L1	111,949	172,710	219,953
Russian L2	179,776	185,357	189,929
Other L2	6,034	8,938	16,217

Due to deportation and the continuing urbanization of the population after 1952, the command of Korean among the Koryo-saram has continued to fall. This contrasts with other more rural minority groups such as the Dungan, who have maintained a higher level of proficiency in their ethnic language. In 1989, the most recent year for which data are available, the number of Russian mother tongue speakers among the Koryo-saram population overtook that of Korean mother tongue speakers.

Tourism

There are a number of places in multiple countries that can be visited to learn about Koryo-saram history and culture. Korean Cultural Centers throughout the former Soviet Union, such as the one in Ussuriysk, Russia, offer cultural experiences and sometimes museums on Koryo-saram and Korean history.^[76]^[77] In Kazakhstan there is a number of places. In Ushtobe, there is a Kazakhstan–Korea Friendship Park that marks where the Koryo-saram first settled in Kazakhstan. It has a Korean cemetery and memorials for Koryo-saram figures.^[78]^[79] Also in Ushtobe, the Karatal Korean History Center has a museum with authentic houses and historical materials on display.^[80] In Almaty, there is the Korean Theatre, where one can watch plays in Korean with Russian subtitles.^[81] In South Korea, one can visit the various enclaves they live in, as well as visit a history museum in Gwangju Koryoin Village.^[82]^[83] In New York City, United States, the restaurant Cafe Lily is operated by Koryo-saram, and serves Koryo-saram cuisine.^[84]

Notes

^ Nouns in Korean do not inflect for number unless it is needed to avoid ambiguity, therefore "saram" translates as either "person" or "people" depending on context.
^ Old name of Posyet at the date of foundation in 1860 was Novgorodsky Posyet. The korean source says it is Novgorod bay, however by context, it means Novgorodsky bay, which can be translated as bay of Novgorod by the Russian "-sky".
^ The region already had a Korean house in 1874, and was the biggest Korean village among the 7 villages recorded in the 1907 Russian census. The town was abandoned after the 1911 order by the Russian authorities due to cholera concerns. and the old town became the new base for the Russian Kazakh military.

References

^ "Опубликованы данные об этническом составе населения Узбекистана". August 20, 2021.
^ Всероссийская перепись населения 2010. Национальный состав населения РФ 2010
^ "Republic of Kazakhstan population by ethnic origin in 2020". Statistics Committee of Ministry of National Economy of Republic of Kazakhstan.
^ "Koryo Saram in South Korea: 'Korean' but Struggling to Fit in". Retrieved September 30, 2024.
^ "Total population by nationality - Open Data - Statistics of the Kyrgyz Republic". National Statistics Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic.
^ "сеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 - Результати - Національний склад населення, мовні ознаки, громадянство - Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою - корейці". www.2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua.
^ "今話題のニュース配信サービス". Archived from the original on June 24, 2016.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). stat.tj. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 16, 2013. Retrieved June 30, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ СТАТИСТИЧЕСКИЙ КОМИТЕТ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ" (PDF) (in Russian). p. 32.
^ "POPULATION, 31 DECEMBER 2021 by Year, Ethnic nationality, Place of residence and Sex".
^ Schlyter 2004, Footnote 10.
^ "Ukrainian Refugees of Korean Descent Seek Fresh Start in South Korea". Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. March 28, 2023. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ Rinna, Anthony (August 17, 2022). "A Land They Never Knew: Ethnic Koreans From Ukraine Seeking Help in the ROK". Sino-NK. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ Saveliev, Igor (2010). "Mobility Decision-Making and New Diasporic Spaces: Conceptualizing Korean Diasporas in the Post-Soviet Space". Pacific Affairs. 83 (3): 485. doi:10.5509/2010833481. ISSN 0030-851X. JSTOR 25766411.
^ Pohl 1999, p. 18.
^ See, for instance, the Koryo-saram category on the Korean wikipedia
^ ^a ^b Ban, Byung-yool (September 22, 2004). "Koreans in Russia: Historical Perspective". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on March 18, 2005. Retrieved November 20, 2006.
^ King, Ross; Kim, German N., Introduction, East Rock Institute, archived from the original (DOC) on October 30, 2003, retrieved November 20, 2006
^ ^a ^b Lee 2000, p. 7.
^ Pohl 1999, p. 9.
^ ^a ^b "블라디보스토크의 한인마을은 왜 신한촌이라고 불리게 되었을까?". Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture.
^ Lee 2000, p. 8.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Pohl 1999, p. 10.
^ Russian Census 1897.
^ Lee 2000, p. 14.
^ Lee 2000, p. 15.
^ Pohl 1999, p. 11.
^ Pohl 1999, p. 12.
^ Pohl 1999, pp. 13–14.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lee 2000, p. 141.
^ Pohl 1999, p. 15.
^ "정상진" [Chŏng Sang-jin], Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture (in Korean), retrieved April 18, 2023
^ ^a ^b ^c Bae, Jin-yeong (August 2007), "어진「양반」洪命熹, 가난한 인민들 안타까워한 崔承喜,「순수문학가」로 몰려 고민하던 李泰俊… 홍명희의 병간호 받다 숨진 李光洙" [The lost "Yangban" Hong Myeong-hui, Choe Seung-hui who felt sorry for poor civilians, Lee Tae-jun who worried about being remembered as a "pure writer"... Lee Gwang-soo, who died being nursed by Hong Myeong-hui], Monthly Chosun (in Korean), retrieved April 18, 2023
^ Russian Census 2002, Table 4.1.
^ Lee 2006.
^ Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года Национальный состав населения по федеральным округам
^ Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Официальные итоги с расширенными перечнями по национальному составу населения и по регионам.
^ Всеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 - Результати - Національний склад населення, мовні ознаки, громадянство - Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою - корейці [Population census 2001 - Results - National composition of population, language attributes, nationality - of the population distribution by nationality and native language - Koreans]. State Statistics Committee of Ukraine (in Ukrainian). 2003. Retrieved December 22, 2016.
^ Ki 2002.
^ Pavlenko 1999, p. 2.
^ "Why has Ukraine become disillusioned?". BBC News. Retrieved April 21, 2019.
^ Lee 2000, p. 122.
^ Alekseenko 2000.
^ Population and Housing Census 2009. Chapter 3.1. Resident population by nationality (PDF) (in Russian), Bishkek: National Committee on Statistics, 2010, retrieved December 14, 2021
^ Sparling, Evan (October 21, 2009), Kyrgyzstan: Ethnic Minority Expands Ties to South Korea, Eurasianet, retrieved December 23, 2016
^ Lee 2000, p. 143.
^ Back 2004.
^ Choe, Yeong-ha (December 13, 1998). 타지키스탄 내전과 한국교민 [Civil War in Tajikistan and Korean Ethnics]. Donga Ilbo (in Korean). Archived from the original on June 26, 2004. Retrieved March 26, 2007.
^ Dong & Su 2005.
^ "The long journey of Korejskij". Korea JoongAng Daily. October 13, 2020. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ Lankov 2002, p. 112.
^ Lankov 2002, p. 111.
^ Baek, Il-hyun (September 14, 2005), "Scattered Koreans turn homeward", Joongang Daily, archived from the original on November 27, 2005, retrieved November 27, 2006
^ "맛과 눈으로, 땟골마을에 녹아든 고려인 정착기". 고대신문 (in Korean). March 27, 2022. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ Jung-youn, Lee (February 24, 2023). "[Weekender] Koryoin from Ukraine find new home in ancestors' land". The Korea Herald. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ ^a ^b Jeon, Hai Ri (December 27, 2021). "Can Technology Solve Hambak Village's Littering Problem?". thediplomat.com. Retrieved October 2, 2023.
^ 임, 영상 (June 14, 2023). "[부산 고려인마을①] 초량 TCK 하우스 가면, 고려인삶이 온전히 보인다". 아시아엔 THE AsiaN. Retrieved September 29, 2023.
^ Kwak, Yeon-soo (June 28, 2018). "Seoul's Central Asian enclave undergoes demographic change". The Korea Times. Retrieved September 26, 2023.
^ Lee, Hyo-jin (April 1, 2022). "[SPECIAL REPORT] Koryoin feel at home in Gwangju". The Korea Times. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ ^a ^b "'Hanaan' probes the complex identities of Korean-Uzbeks". Korea JoongAng Daily. October 4, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2023.
^ ""마리우폴에 있는 집 폭격 피해 한국행… 고려인 밥심은 나물 반찬"[나를 살리는 밥심]". Seoul Shinmun (in Korean). May 22, 2022. Retrieved October 9, 2023.
^ Lee 2000, p. 40.
^ ^a ^b Lee 2000, p. 249.
^ Похоронные обряды [Funeral rites] (in Russian). korea.narod.ru. January 18, 2006. Archived from the original on April 19, 2011. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
^ Min, L. V. (April 2, 2011). Семейные Традиции И Обычаи Корейцев, Проживающих В Казахстане [Family Traditions and Customs of Koreans Living in Kazakhstan] (in Russian). world.lib.ru. Retrieved December 23, 2016.
^ Lee 2000, p. 250.
^ "In Brooklyn, a Korean pastor leads a Russian-speaking flock". NBC News. August 21, 2017. Retrieved March 31, 2024.
^ Moskin, Julia (January 18, 2006). "The Silk Road Leads to Queens". The New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2010.
^ Lankov, Andrei (August 21, 2012). "Korean carrot". Russia Beyond the Headlines. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved December 22, 2016.
^ 이, 명숙 (February 28, 2017). "한식 대중화의 일등 공신 고려인 동포, 그들을 위한 배려의 필요성". 한국국제문화교류진흥원. Retrieved December 25, 2018.
^ "Korean glass noodle salad "Funchosa" detailed photo and video recipe". Mix Markt. Retrieved October 6, 2023.
^ 이, 은주 (November 2, 2011). "우리 음식 지켜 온 중앙亞 고려인들". Seoul Shinmun. Retrieved January 22, 2024.
^ Kim 2003, p. 3.
^ Kim, Yong-un (June 2001). Корейские боны (пои) [Korean bons (poi)]. Ariran (in Russian). Retrieved December 23, 2016.
^ Trosterud 2000, Tables for 1970, 1979, and 1989.
^ "Ussuriysk, foothold of Korea's independence movement". The Korea Times. March 14, 2019. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ "우수리스크 고려인문화센터". Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
^ 권, 형석 (August 15, 2022). "고려인 최초 정착지에 세운 '추모의 벽'… 15人 독립영웅 우뚝". The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). Retrieved January 14, 2024.
^ Oh, Hyun Woo; Lee, Jihae (November 8, 2019). "Park in Kazakhstan honoring ethnic Koreans to be built". Korea.net. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
^ "Музей истории коре сарам в Уштобе". KOREANS.KZ (in Russian). Retrieved February 2, 2024.
^ Kwon, Mee-yoo (August 19, 2023). "Korean Theater of Kazakhstan carries legacy of independence fighter". The Korea Times. Retrieved October 12, 2023.
^ "광주고려인마을, 역사박물관 열었다". The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). June 25, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2024.
^ 강, 성철 (January 4, 2019). "광주 고려인마을에 고려인역사박물관 건립 추진". Yonhap News Agency (in Korean). Retrieved February 2, 2024.
^ Mishan, Ligaya (February 16, 2017). "At Cafe Lily, the Korean-Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 7, 2023.

External links

(in Russian) Association of Scientific and Technological Societies Koreans (ANTOK)
(in Russian) CIS Koreans Information Web-Site of ARIRANG.RU
(in Russian) Lib.Ru: the Koreans
(in Russian) Tashkent Representation of the Institute of Asian Culture and Development (TP IAKR) — an Association of Koreans in Karakalpakstan.
International Center for Korean Studies of Lomonosov Moscow State University
Koryo Saram: the Unreliable People (documentary film)
Koryo Saram Resource of the Central Asian Fulbright Project
Zheruiyk - Promised land (also known as "Atazhurt") - film about Kazakhstani Koreans
Sen-bong (Vanguard: Korean Kolkhoz) on YouTube – A 1946 Soviet documentary about a Korean kolkhoz named "Sŏnbong" (Template:Lang-ru) now in Shieli District, Kyzylorda
[20분 요약] 100년 전 우리나라의 모습을 담은 영상 발굴! "김씨네 이야기" | 현대사 아카이브 발굴 프로젝트 (KBS 200904 방송) on YouTube – footage from a Soviet film entitled Arctic Star (NARA 242-MID-5153) of Koryo-saram in Uzbekistan in the 1940s

[15] Nouns in Korean do not inflect for number unless it is needed to avoid ambiguity, therefore "saram" translates as either "person" or "people" depending on context.

[22] Old name of Posyet at the date of foundation in 1860 was Novgorodsky Posyet. The korean source says it is Novgorod bay, however by context, it means Novgorodsky bay, which can be translated as bay of Novgorod by the Russian "-sky".

[26] The region already had a Korean house in 1874, and was the biggest Korean village among the 7 villages recorded in the 1907 Russian census. The town was abandoned after the 1911 order by the Russian authorities due to cholera concerns. and the old town became the new base for the Russian Kazakh military.

[1] "Опубликованы данные об этническом составе населения Узбекистана". August 20, 2021.

[2] Всероссийская перепись населения 2010. Национальный состав населения РФ 2010

[https://stat.gov.kz/upload/iblock/107/5zkn34tqn5atonvbhoob28p7ebnrbc19/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2,%20%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%20%D0%B8%20%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%20%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%20%D0%B2%20%D0%A0%D0%9A.pdf-3] "Republic of Kazakhstan population by ethnic origin in 2020". Statistics Committee of Ministry of National Economy of Republic of Kazakhstan.

[4] "Koryo Saram in South Korea: 'Korean' but Struggling to Fit in". Retrieved September 30, 2024.

[5] "Total population by nationality - Open Data - Statistics of the Kyrgyz Republic". National Statistics Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic.

[6] "сеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 - Результати - Національний склад населення, мовні ознаки, громадянство - Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою - корейці". www.2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua.

[7] "今話題のニュース配信サービス". Archived from the original on June 24, 2016.

[8] "Archived copy" (PDF). stat.tj. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 16, 2013. Retrieved June 30, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[9] "НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ СТАТИСТИЧЕСКИЙ КОМИТЕТ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ" (PDF) (in Russian). p. 32.

[10] "POPULATION, 31 DECEMBER 2021 by Year, Ethnic nationality, Place of residence and Sex".

[FOOTNOTESchlyter2004Footnote_10-11] Schlyter 2004, Footnote 10.

[12] "Ukrainian Refugees of Korean Descent Seek Fresh Start in South Korea". Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. March 28, 2023. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[13] Rinna, Anthony (August 17, 2022). "A Land They Never Knew: Ethnic Koreans From Ukraine Seeking Help in the ROK". Sino-NK. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[14] Saveliev, Igor (2010). "Mobility Decision-Making and New Diasporic Spaces: Conceptualizing Korean Diasporas in the Post-Soviet Space". Pacific Affairs. 83 (3): 485. doi:10.5509/2010833481. ISSN 0030-851X. JSTOR 25766411.

[FOOTNOTEPohl199918-16] Pohl 1999, p. 18.

[17] See, for instance, the Koryo-saram category on the Korean wikipedia

[Byong-18] Ban, Byung-yool (September 22, 2004). "Koreans in Russia: Historical Perspective". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on March 18, 2005. Retrieved November 20, 2006.

[19] King, Ross; Kim, German N., Introduction, East Rock Institute, archived from the original (DOC) on October 30, 2003, retrieved November 20, 2006

[FOOTNOTELee20007-20] Lee 2000, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEPohl19999-21] Pohl 1999, p. 9.

[oversk-23] "블라디보스토크의 한인마을은 왜 신한촌이라고 불리게 되었을까?". Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture.

[FOOTNOTELee20008-24] Lee 2000, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTEPohl199910-25] Pohl 1999, p. 10.

[FOOTNOTERussian_Census1897-27] Russian Census 1897.

[FOOTNOTELee200014-28] Lee 2000, p. 14.

[FOOTNOTELee200015-29] Lee 2000, p. 15.

[FOOTNOTEPohl199911-30] Pohl 1999, p. 11.

[FOOTNOTEPohl199912-31] Pohl 1999, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEPohl199913–14-32] Pohl 1999, pp. 13–14.

[FOOTNOTELee2000141-33] Lee 2000, p. 141.

[FOOTNOTEPohl199915-34] Pohl 1999, p. 15.

[35] "정상진" [Chŏng Sang-jin], Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture (in Korean), retrieved April 18, 2023

[Bae-2007-36] Bae, Jin-yeong (August 2007), "어진「양반」洪命熹, 가난한 인민들 안타까워한 崔承喜,「순수문학가」로 몰려 고민하던 李泰俊… 홍명희의 병간호 받다 숨진 李光洙" [The lost "Yangban" Hong Myeong-hui, Choe Seung-hui who felt sorry for poor civilians, Lee Tae-jun who worried about being remembered as a "pure writer"... Lee Gwang-soo, who died being nursed by Hong Myeong-hui], Monthly Chosun (in Korean), retrieved April 18, 2023

[FOOTNOTERussian_Census2002Table_4.1-37] Russian Census 2002, Table 4.1.

[FOOTNOTELee2006-38] Lee 2006.

[39] Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года Национальный состав населения по федеральным округам

[40] Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Официальные итоги с расширенными перечнями по национальному составу населения и по регионам.

[41] Всеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 - Результати - Національний склад населення, мовні ознаки, громадянство - Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою - корейці [Population census 2001 - Results - National composition of population, language attributes, nationality - of the population distribution by nationality and native language - Koreans]. State Statistics Committee of Ukraine (in Ukrainian). 2003. Retrieved December 22, 2016.

[FOOTNOTEKi2002-42] Ki 2002.

[FOOTNOTEPavlenko19992-43] Pavlenko 1999, p. 2.

[44] "Why has Ukraine become disillusioned?". BBC News. Retrieved April 21, 2019.

[FOOTNOTELee2000122-45] Lee 2000, p. 122.

[FOOTNOTEAlekseenko2000-46] Alekseenko 2000.

[47] Population and Housing Census 2009. Chapter 3.1. Resident population by nationality (PDF) (in Russian), Bishkek: National Committee on Statistics, 2010, retrieved December 14, 2021

[48] Sparling, Evan (October 21, 2009), Kyrgyzstan: Ethnic Minority Expands Ties to South Korea, Eurasianet, retrieved December 23, 2016

[FOOTNOTELee2000143-49] Lee 2000, p. 143.

[FOOTNOTEBack2004-50] Back 2004.

[51] Choe, Yeong-ha (December 13, 1998). 타지키스탄 내전과 한국교민 [Civil War in Tajikistan and Korean Ethnics]. Donga Ilbo (in Korean). Archived from the original on June 26, 2004. Retrieved March 26, 2007.

[FOOTNOTEDongSu2005-52] Dong & Su 2005.

[53] "The long journey of Korejskij". Korea JoongAng Daily. October 13, 2020. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[FOOTNOTELankov2002112-54] Lankov 2002, p. 112.

[FOOTNOTELankov2002111-55] Lankov 2002, p. 111.

[56] Baek, Il-hyun (September 14, 2005), "Scattered Koreans turn homeward", Joongang Daily, archived from the original on November 27, 2005, retrieved November 27, 2006

[57] "맛과 눈으로, 땟골마을에 녹아든 고려인 정착기". 고대신문 (in Korean). March 27, 2022. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[58] Jung-youn, Lee (February 24, 2023). "[Weekender] Koryoin from Ukraine find new home in ancestors' land". The Korea Herald. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[Jeon-2021-59] Jeon, Hai Ri (December 27, 2021). "Can Technology Solve Hambak Village's Littering Problem?". thediplomat.com. Retrieved October 2, 2023.

[60] 임, 영상 (June 14, 2023). "[부산 고려인마을①] 초량 TCK 하우스 가면, 고려인삶이 온전히 보인다". 아시아엔 THE AsiaN. Retrieved September 29, 2023.

[61] Kwak, Yeon-soo (June 28, 2018). "Seoul's Central Asian enclave undergoes demographic change". The Korea Times. Retrieved September 26, 2023.

[62] Lee, Hyo-jin (April 1, 2022). "[SPECIAL REPORT] Koryoin feel at home in Gwangju". The Korea Times. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[Korea_JoongAng_Daily-2012-63] "'Hanaan' probes the complex identities of Korean-Uzbeks". Korea JoongAng Daily. October 4, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2023.

[64] ""마리우폴에 있는 집 폭격 피해 한국행… 고려인 밥심은 나물 반찬"[나를 살리는 밥심]". Seoul Shinmun (in Korean). May 22, 2022. Retrieved October 9, 2023.

[FOOTNOTELee200040-65] Lee 2000, p. 40.

[FOOTNOTELee2000249-66] Lee 2000, p. 249.

[67] Похоронные обряды [Funeral rites] (in Russian). korea.narod.ru. January 18, 2006. Archived from the original on April 19, 2011. Retrieved April 29, 2010.

[68] Min, L. V. (April 2, 2011). Семейные Традиции И Обычаи Корейцев, Проживающих В Казахстане [Family Traditions and Customs of Koreans Living in Kazakhstan] (in Russian). world.lib.ru. Retrieved December 23, 2016.

[FOOTNOTELee2000250-69] Lee 2000, p. 250.

[70] "In Brooklyn, a Korean pastor leads a Russian-speaking flock". NBC News. August 21, 2017. Retrieved March 31, 2024.

[71] Moskin, Julia (January 18, 2006). "The Silk Road Leads to Queens". The New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2010.

[72] Lankov, Andrei (August 21, 2012). "Korean carrot". Russia Beyond the Headlines. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved December 22, 2016.

[73] 이, 명숙 (February 28, 2017). "한식 대중화의 일등 공신 고려인 동포, 그들을 위한 배려의 필요성". 한국국제문화교류진흥원. Retrieved December 25, 2018.

[74] "Korean glass noodle salad "Funchosa" detailed photo and video recipe". Mix Markt. Retrieved October 6, 2023.

[75] 이, 은주 (November 2, 2011). "우리 음식 지켜 온 중앙亞 고려인들". Seoul Shinmun. Retrieved January 22, 2024.

[FOOTNOTEKim20033-76] Kim 2003, p. 3.

[77] Kim, Yong-un (June 2001). Корейские боны (пои) [Korean bons (poi)]. Ariran (in Russian). Retrieved December 23, 2016.

[FOOTNOTETrosterud2000Tables_for_1970,_1979,_and_1989-78] Trosterud 2000, Tables for 1970, 1979, and 1989.

[79] "Ussuriysk, foothold of Korea's independence movement". The Korea Times. March 14, 2019. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[80] "우수리스크 고려인문화센터". Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture. Retrieved October 8, 2023.

[81] 권, 형석 (August 15, 2022). "고려인 최초 정착지에 세운 '추모의 벽'… 15人 독립영웅 우뚝". The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). Retrieved January 14, 2024.

[82] Oh, Hyun Woo; Lee, Jihae (November 8, 2019). "Park in Kazakhstan honoring ethnic Koreans to be built". Korea.net. Retrieved January 14, 2024.

[83] "Музей истории коре сарам в Уштобе". KOREANS.KZ (in Russian). Retrieved February 2, 2024.

[84] Kwon, Mee-yoo (August 19, 2023). "Korean Theater of Kazakhstan carries legacy of independence fighter". The Korea Times. Retrieved October 12, 2023.

[85] "광주고려인마을, 역사박물관 열었다". The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). June 25, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2024.

[86] 강, 성철 (January 4, 2019). "광주 고려인마을에 고려인역사박물관 건립 추진". Yonhap News Agency (in Korean). Retrieved February 2, 2024.

[87] Mishan, Ligaya (February 16, 2017). "At Cafe Lily, the Korean-Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 7, 2023.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Ethnic Koreans in the former USSR}}
 {{EngvarB|date=December 2016}}
+{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}}
 {{Infobox ethnic group
 | group            = Koryo-saram
@@ Line 8: / Line 9: @@
 | region1          = {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}}
 | pop1             = 174,200
-| ref1             = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gazeta.uz/ru/2021/08/20/ethnic-groups/|title = Опубликованы данные об этническом составе населения Узбекистана|date = 20 August 2021}}</ref>
+| ref1             = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gazeta.uz/ru/2021/08/20/ethnic-groups/|title = Опубликованы данные об этническом составе населения Узбекистана|date = August 20, 2021}}</ref>
 | region2          = {{flagcountry|Russia}}
 | pop2             = 153,156
@@ Line 17: / Line 18: @@
 | region4          = {{flagcountry|South Korea}}
 | pop4             = 40,000
-| ref4             = <ref>{{cite web |title=Koryo Saram in South Korea: 'Korean' but Struggling to Fit in |url=https://www.koreaexpose.com/koryo-saram-from-central-asia-and-russia-struggle-in-south-korea/ |access-date=30 September 2024}}</ref>
+| ref4             = <ref>{{cite web |title=Koryo Saram in South Korea: 'Korean' but Struggling to Fit in |url=https://www.koreaexpose.com/koryo-saram-from-central-asia-and-russia-struggle-in-south-korea/ |access-date=September 30, 2024}}</ref>
 | region5          = {{flagcountry|Kyrgyzstan}}
 | pop5             = 17,094
@@ Line 26: / Line 27: @@
 | region7          = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}}
 | pop7             = 2,500
-| ref7             = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624062134/http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|archive-date=2016-06-24|title=今話題のニュース配信サービス}}</ref>
+| ref7             = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624062134/http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|archive-date=June 24, 2016|title=今話題のニュース配信サービス}}</ref>
 | region8          = {{flagcountry|Tajikistan}}
 | pop8             = 634
-| ref8             = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://stat.tj/en/img/526b8592e834fcaaccec26a22965ea2b_1355502192.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=stat.tj |access-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116004155/http://stat.tj/en/img/526b8592e834fcaaccec26a22965ea2b_1355502192.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
+| ref8             = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://stat.tj/en/img/526b8592e834fcaaccec26a22965ea2b_1355502192.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=stat.tj |access-date=June 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116004155/http://stat.tj/en/img/526b8592e834fcaaccec26a22965ea2b_1355502192.pdf |archive-date=January 16, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 | region9          = {{flagcountry|Belarus}}
 | pop9             = 400
@@ Line 57: / Line 58: @@
 Koreans first began settling in the Russian Far East in the late 19th century. Their numbers increased as Koreans fled the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese colonization of Korea beginning in 1910]]. A number of Koryo-saram became significant [[List of Korean independence activists|Korean independence activists]], such as [[Hong Beom-do]] and [[Chŏng Sang-jin]]. In 1937, [[Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|they were all deported]] to [[Central Asia]]. They have since dispersed throughout the former Soviet Union, with significant populations in [[Siberia]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Kazakhstan]].
-Approximately 500,000 Koryo-saram reside in the former Soviet Union, primarily in the now-independent states of Central Asia. There are also large Korean communities in [[Southern Russia]] (around [[Volgograd]]), the Russian Far East (around [[Vladivostok]]), the [[Caucasus]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and southern [[Ukraine]]. While the ability to speak Korean has become increasingly rare amongst modern Koryo-saram, they have retained some elements of Korean culture, including [[Korean name]]s. [[Koryo-saram cuisine]] has become popular throughout the former Soviet Union, with the dish ''[[morkovcha]]'' now widely available in grocery stores there. A significant number of Koryo-saram have either moved temporarily or permanently to South Korea for economic or cultural reasons. The [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], especially the 2022 [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], has motivated several thousand [[Koreans in Ukraine|Korean Ukrainians]] to move to [[South Korea]] for safety.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=March 28, 2023 |title=Ukrainian Refugees of Korean Descent Seek Fresh Start in South Korea |url=https://www.asiapacific.ca/publication/ukrainian-refugees-korean-descent-seek-fresh-start-south |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rinna |first=Anthony |date=2022-08-17 |title=A Land They Never Knew: Ethnic Koreans From Ukraine Seeking Help in the ROK |url=https://sinonk.com/2022/08/17/a-land-they-never-knew-ethnic-koreans-from-ukraine-seeking-help-in-the-rok/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Sino-NK |language=en-US}}</ref>
+Approximately 500,000 Koryo-saram reside in the former Soviet Union, primarily in the now-independent states of Central Asia. There are also large Korean communities in [[Southern Russia]] (around [[Volgograd]]), the Russian Far East (around [[Vladivostok]]), the [[Caucasus]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and southern [[Ukraine]]. While the ability to speak Korean has become increasingly rare amongst modern Koryo-saram, they have retained some elements of Korean culture, including [[Korean name]]s. [[Koryo-saram cuisine]] has become popular throughout the former Soviet Union, with the dish ''[[morkovcha]]'' now widely available in grocery stores there. A significant number of Koryo-saram have either moved temporarily or permanently to South Korea for economic or cultural reasons. The [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], especially the 2022 [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], has motivated several thousand [[Koreans in Ukraine|Korean Ukrainians]] to move to [[South Korea]] for safety.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=March 28, 2023 |title=Ukrainian Refugees of Korean Descent Seek Fresh Start in South Korea |url=https://www.asiapacific.ca/publication/ukrainian-refugees-korean-descent-seek-fresh-start-south |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rinna |first=Anthony |date=August 17, 2022 |title=A Land They Never Knew: Ethnic Koreans From Ukraine Seeking Help in the ROK |url=https://sinonk.com/2022/08/17/a-land-they-never-knew-ethnic-koreans-from-ukraine-seeking-help-in-the-rok/ |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=Sino-NK |language=en-US}}</ref>
 [[Sakhalin Koreans]] also exist on the island of [[Sakhalin]] in Russia, but they are often considered a separate ethnic group. They arrived when [[Karafuto Prefecture|Sakhalin was partially under Japanese rule]], and were never subjected to the forced deportation to Central Asia. Some of them identify as Koryo-saram, but many do not. This has led to the term '''''materikovye''''' ({{Lang|ru|материковые}}) for Koryo-saram, meaning "'''continentals'''".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saveliev |first=Igor |date=2010 |title=Mobility Decision-Making and New Diasporic Spaces: Conceptualizing Korean Diasporas in the Post-Soviet Space |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25766411 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=485 |doi=10.5509/2010833481 |jstor=25766411 |issn=0030-851X}}</ref>
@@ Line 66: / Line 67: @@
 The word ''Koryo'' in "Koryo-saram" originated from the name of the [[Goryeo|Goryeo (Koryŏ) Dynasty]] from which "Korea" was also derived. The name ''Soviet Korean'' was also used, more frequently before the collapse of the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=18}} Russians may also lump Koryo-saram under the general label ''koreytsy'' ({{lang|ru|корейцы}}); however, this usage makes no distinctions between ethnic Koreans of the local nationality and the Korean nationals (citizens of North Korea or South Korea).
-In Standard Korean, the term "Koryo-saram" is typically used to refer to historical figures from the Goryeo dynasty;<ref>See, for instance, the [[:ko:분류:고려 사람|Koryo-saram category on the Korean wikipedia]]</ref> to avoid ambiguity, Korean speakers use a word ''Goryeoin'' ({{Korean|hangul=고려인|hanja=高麗人|labels=no}}, meaning the same as "Koryo-saram") to refer to ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet states.<ref name="Byong">{{cite news |last=Ban |first=Byung-yool |date=22 September 2004 |title=Koreans in Russia: Historical Perspective |url=http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/nation/200409/kt2004092218583111950.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050318164348/http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/nation/200409/kt2004092218583111950.htm |archive-date=18 March 2005 |access-date=20 November 2006 |newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]}}</ref> However, the [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]] morpheme "-in" ({{Korean|hangul=인|hanja=人|labels=no}}) is not [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] in [[Koryo-mal]], the dialect spoken by Koryo-saram and as a result, only a few (mainly those who have studied Standard Korean) refer to themselves by this name; instead, "Koryo-saram" has come to be the preferred term.<ref>{{citation|format=DOC|last1=King|first1=Ross|last2=Kim|first2=German N.|title=Introduction|url=http://www.koryosaram.freenet.kz/update1/east-rock-intro.doc|publisher=East Rock Institute|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031030073148/http://www.koryosaram.freenet.kz/update1/east-rock-intro.doc|archive-date=30 October 2003|access-date=20 November 2006}}</ref>
+In Standard Korean, the term "Koryo-saram" is typically used to refer to historical figures from the Goryeo dynasty;<ref>See, for instance, the [[:ko:분류:고려 사람|Koryo-saram category on the Korean wikipedia]]</ref> to avoid ambiguity, Korean speakers use a word ''Goryeoin'' ({{Korean|hangul=고려인|hanja=高麗人|labels=no}}, meaning the same as "Koryo-saram") to refer to ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet states.<ref name="Byong">{{cite news |last=Ban |first=Byung-yool |date=September 22, 2004 |title=Koreans in Russia: Historical Perspective |url=http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/nation/200409/kt2004092218583111950.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050318164348/http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/nation/200409/kt2004092218583111950.htm |archive-date=March 18, 2005 |access-date=November 20, 2006 |newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]}}</ref> However, the [[Sino-Korean vocabulary|Sino-Korean]] morpheme "-in" ({{Korean|hangul=인|hanja=人|labels=no}}) is not [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] in [[Koryo-mal]], the dialect spoken by Koryo-saram and as a result, only a few (mainly those who have studied Standard Korean) refer to themselves by this name; instead, "Koryo-saram" has come to be the preferred term.<ref>{{citation|format=DOC|last1=King|first1=Ross|last2=Kim|first2=German N.|title=Introduction|url=http://www.koryosaram.freenet.kz/update1/east-rock-intro.doc|publisher=East Rock Institute|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031030073148/http://www.koryosaram.freenet.kz/update1/east-rock-intro.doc|archive-date=October 30, 2003|access-date=November 20, 2006}}</ref>
 ==History==
@@ Line 72: / Line 73: @@
 [[File:Корейский дом. Бухта Находка. 1893.png|thumb|A Korean home in [[Nakhodka]], Russia (1893)]]
 The early 19th century saw the decline of the [[Joseon|Joseon Dynasty]] of Korea. A small population of wealthy elite owned the farmlands in the country, and poor peasants found it difficult to survive. Koreans leaving the country in this period were obliged to move toward Russia, as the border with China was sealed by the [[Qing dynasty|Qing Dynasty]].{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=7}} However, the first Koreans in the Russian Empire, 761 families totalling 5,310 people, had actually migrated to Qing territory; the land they had settled on was ceded to Russia by the [[Convention of Peking]] in 1860.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=9}} Many peasants considered [[Siberia]] to be a land where they could lead better lives, and so they subsequently migrated there. According to Russian sources early as 1863, 13 Korean households were recorded in [[Posyet]], near Bay of Novgorod.{{efn|Old name of Posyet at the date of foundation in 1860 was Novgorodsky Posyet. The korean source says it is Novgorod bay, however by context, it means Novgorodsky bay, which can be translated as bay of Novgorod by the Russian "-sky".}}<ref name="oversk">{{cite web|url=http://www.okpedia.kr/Contents/ContentsView?localCode=cis&contentsId=GC95300003|title=블라디보스토크의 한인마을은 왜 신한촌이라고 불리게 되었을까?|website=[[:ko:세계한민족문화대전|Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture]]}}</ref> These numbers rose dramatically, and by 1869 Koreans composed 20% of the population of the [[Primorsky Krai]].{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=7}} Prior to the completion of the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]], Koreans outnumbered Russians in the [[Russian Far East]]; the local governors encouraged them to naturalize.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=8}} The village of [[Blagoslovennoye|Blagoslovennoe]] was founded in 1870 by Korean migrants.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=10}} Another Korean village near [[Zolotoy Rog]] that Russians called Koreyskaya slabodka (Корейская слабодка, literally means Korean village) and what Koreans called "Gaecheok-ri" (開拓里,개척리) was officially recognized by the Vladivostok authorities.<ref name="oversk"/>{{efn|The region already had a Korean house in 1874, and was the biggest Korean village among the 7 villages recorded in the 1907 Russian census. The town was abandoned after the 1911 order by the Russian authorities due to cholera concerns. and the old town became the new base for the Russian Kazakh military.}} The 1897 [[Russian Empire Census]] found 26,005 Korean speakers (16,225 men and 9,780 women) in the whole of Russia.{{sfn|Russian Census|1897}}
-[[File:Shinhanchon March 1st Movement Anniversary Protest (1920) 01 (cropped).jpg|thumb|March 1st Movement anniversary protests in Vladivostok (1920)]]
+[[File:Shinhanchon March 1st Movement Anniversary Protest (1920) 01 (cropped).jpg|thumb|March 1 Movement anniversary protests in Vladivostok (1920)]]
-In the early 20th century, both Russia and Korea came into conflict with Japan. Following the end of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1907, Russia enacted an anti-Korean law at the behest of Japan, under which the land of Korean farmers was confiscated and Korean labourers were laid off.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=14}} However, Korean migration to Russia continued to grow; 1914 figures showed 64,309 Koreans (among whom 20,109 were Russian citizens). Even the 1917 [[October Revolution|Bolshevik Revolution]] did nothing to slow migration; after the repression of the 1919 [[March 1st Movement]] in [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese-colonised Korea]], migration actually intensified.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=10}} Korean leaders in [[Vladivostok]]'s [[Sinhanch'on]] (literally, "New Korean Village") neighbourhood also provided support to the independence movement, making it a centre for nationalist activities, including arms supply; the [[Shinhanchon Incident|Japanese attacked it on 4 April 1920]], leaving hundreds dead.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=15}} By 1923, the Korean population in the Soviet Union had grown to 106,817. The following year, the Soviets began taking measures to control Korean population movement to their territory; however, they were not completely successful until 1931; after that date, they halted all migration from Korea and required existing migrants to naturalise as Soviet citizens.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=10}}
+In the early 20th century, both Russia and Korea came into conflict with Japan. Following the end of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1907, Russia enacted an anti-Korean law at the behest of Japan, under which the land of Korean farmers was confiscated and Korean labourers were laid off.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=14}} However, Korean migration to Russia continued to grow; 1914 figures showed 64,309 Koreans (among whom 20,109 were Russian citizens). Even the 1917 [[October Revolution|Bolshevik Revolution]] did nothing to slow migration; after the repression of the 1919 [[March 1st Movement]] in [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese-colonised Korea]], migration actually intensified.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=10}} Korean leaders in [[Vladivostok]]'s [[Sinhanch'on]] (literally, "New Korean Village") neighbourhood also provided support to the independence movement, making it a centre for nationalist activities, including arms supply; the [[Shinhanchon Incident|Japanese attacked it on April 4, 1920]], leaving hundreds dead.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=15}} By 1923, the Korean population in the Soviet Union had grown to 106,817. The following year, the Soviets began taking measures to control Korean population movement to their territory; however, they were not completely successful until 1931; after that date, they halted all migration from Korea and required existing migrants to naturalise as Soviet citizens.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=10}}
 The Soviet policy of ''[[korenizatsiya]]'' (indigenisation) resulted in the creation of 105 Korean village [[Soviet (council)|soviet]]s (councils) in mixed-nationality ''raion'', as well as an entire ''raion'' for the Korean nationality, the Pos'et Korean National Raion; these conducted their activities entirely in the [[Korean language]]. The Soviet Koreans had a large number of their own official institutions, including 380 Korean schools, two teachers' colleges, one pedagogical school, three hospitals, a theatre, six journals, and seven newspapers (the largest of which, ''Vanguard'', had a circulation of 10,000). The [[Soviet Census (1937)|1937 Census]] showed 168,259 Koreans in the Soviet Union. However, officials in the Russian Far East viewed the Koreans' ethnic and family ties to the Japanese Empire with suspicion, which would soon set the stage for the deportation of the whole population.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=10}}
@@ Line 80: / Line 81: @@
 {{main|Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union}}
-In 1937, facing reports from the [[NKVD|People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD)]] that there were possibilities that Japanese would have infiltrate the Russian Far East by means of ethnic Korean spies, [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] signed Resolution 1428-326 ss, "On the Exile of the Korean Population from border ''Raions'' of the Far East Kray", on 21 August.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=11}} According to the report of [[Nikolai Yezhov]], 36,442 Korean families totalling 171,781 persons were deported by 25 October.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=12}} The deported Koreans faced difficult conditions in Central Asia: monetary assistance promised by the government never materialised, and furthermore, most of the deported were rice farmers and fishermen, who had difficulty adapting to the arid climate of their new home. Estimates based on population statistics suggest that 40,000 deported Koreans died in 1937 and 1938 for these reasons.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|pp=13–14}} Nonetheless, the deportees cooperated to build irrigation works and start rice farms; within three years, they had recovered their original standard of living.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=141}}
+In 1937, facing reports from the [[NKVD|People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD)]] that there were possibilities that Japanese would have infiltrate the Russian Far East by means of ethnic Korean spies, [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] signed Resolution 1428-326 ss, "On the Exile of the Korean Population from border ''Raions'' of the Far East Kray", on August 21.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=11}} According to the report of [[Nikolai Yezhov]], 36,442 Korean families totalling 171,781 persons were deported by October 25.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=12}} The deported Koreans faced difficult conditions in Central Asia: monetary assistance promised by the government never materialised, and furthermore, most of the deported were rice farmers and fishermen, who had difficulty adapting to the arid climate of their new home. Estimates based on population statistics suggest that 40,000 deported Koreans died in 1937 and 1938 for these reasons.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|pp=13–14}} Nonetheless, the deportees cooperated to build irrigation works and start rice farms; within three years, they had recovered their original standard of living.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=141}}
 The events of this period led to the formation of a cohesive identity among the Korean deportees.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=141}} However, in schools for Soviet Korean children, the government switched Korean language from being the [[medium of instruction]] to being taught merely as a second language in 1939, and from 1945 stopped it from being taught entirely; furthermore, the only publication in the Korean language was the ''[[Kore Ilbo|Lenin Kichi]]'' (now called ''Koryo Ilbo''). As a result, subsequent generations lost the use of the Korean language, which J. Otto Pohl described as "emasculat[ing] the expression of Korean culture in the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Pohl|1999|p=15}} Up until the era of [[glasnost]], it was not permitted to speak openly of the deportations.<ref name="Byong" /><!-- To do here: Deportation and it's effect on Koryo-saram's attitudes towards Korean culture. Koryo-saram became highly assimilationist, achieved high education levels and one of the best command of Russian among the minority nationalities. Analogous to Japanese internment? (Especially with regards to confiscation of property). Obviously more severe (executions of community leaders, etc.), but similar effects. -->
@@ Line 121: / Line 122: @@
 {{Main article|Koreans in Ukraine}}
 [[File:Oleksandr Sin.JPG|thumb|[[Oleksandr Sin]], a mayor of [[Zaporizhia]]]]
-In the Ukrainian [[Ukrainian Census (2001)|2001 census]], 12,711 people defined themselves as ethnic Koreans, up from 8,669 in 1989. Of these only 17.5% gave Korean as their native language. The majority (76%) named [[Russian language|Russian]] as their native language, while 5.5% named [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul1/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=50&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20%20%20%20&n_page=3|script-title=uk:Всеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 - Результати - Національний склад населення, мовні ознаки, громадянство - Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою - корейці|trans-title=Population census 2001 - Results - National composition of population, language attributes, nationality - of the population distribution by nationality and native language - Koreans|language=uk|work=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|date=2003|access-date=22 December 2016}}</ref> The largest concentrations can be found in [[Kharkiv]], [[Kyiv]], [[Odesa]], [[Mykolaiv]], [[Cherkasy]], [[Lviv]], [[Luhansk]], [[Donetsk]], [[Dnipro]], [[Zaporizhzhia|Zaporizhia]] and [[Crimea]]. The largest ethnic representative body, the Association of Koreans in Ukraine, is located in Kharkiv, where roughly 150 Korean families reside; the first [[Korean language]] school was opened in 1996 under their direction.{{sfn|Ki|2002}}{{sfn|Pavlenko|1999|p=2}} Some of the most famous Korean-Ukrainians are [[Vitalii Kim]], current governor of [[Mykolaiv Oblast]], [[Pavlo Lee]], actor killed in [[Battle of Irpin|Russo-Ukrainian war]], and [[Oleksandr Sin]], former mayor of [[Zaporizhzhia]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-12685587/why-has-ukraine-become-disillusioned-with-the-orange-revolution|title=Why has Ukraine become disillusioned?|work=[[BBC News]]|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-04-21}}</ref> After 2001, many Koreans migrated into Ukraine from Central Asia.{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}
+In the Ukrainian [[Ukrainian Census (2001)|2001 census]], 12,711 people defined themselves as ethnic Koreans, up from 8,669 in 1989. Of these only 17.5% gave Korean as their native language. The majority (76%) named [[Russian language|Russian]] as their native language, while 5.5% named [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul1/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=50&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20%20%20%20&n_page=3|script-title=uk:Всеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 - Результати - Національний склад населення, мовні ознаки, громадянство - Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою - корейці|trans-title=Population census 2001 - Results - National composition of population, language attributes, nationality - of the population distribution by nationality and native language - Koreans|language=uk|work=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|date=2003|access-date=December 22, 2016}}</ref> The largest concentrations can be found in [[Kharkiv]], [[Kyiv]], [[Odesa]], [[Mykolaiv]], [[Cherkasy]], [[Lviv]], [[Luhansk]], [[Donetsk]], [[Dnipro]], [[Zaporizhzhia|Zaporizhia]] and [[Crimea]]. The largest ethnic representative body, the Association of Koreans in Ukraine, is located in Kharkiv, where roughly 150 Korean families reside; the first [[Korean language]] school was opened in 1996 under their direction.{{sfn|Ki|2002}}{{sfn|Pavlenko|1999|p=2}} Some of the most famous Korean-Ukrainians are [[Vitalii Kim]], current governor of [[Mykolaiv Oblast]], [[Pavlo Lee]], actor killed in [[Battle of Irpin|Russo-Ukrainian war]], and [[Oleksandr Sin]], former mayor of [[Zaporizhzhia]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-12685587/why-has-ukraine-become-disillusioned-with-the-orange-revolution|title=Why has Ukraine become disillusioned?|work=[[BBC News]]|language=en-GB|access-date=April 21, 2019}}</ref> After 2001, many Koreans migrated into Ukraine from Central Asia.{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}
 ===Central Asia===
@@ Line 127: / Line 128: @@
 The majority of Koryo-saram in Central Asia reside in [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]. Korean culture in Kazakhstan is centered in [[Almaty]], the former capital. For much of the 20th century, this was the only place in Central Asia where a Korean language newspaper (the ''[[Koryo Ilbo]]'') and Korean language theater ([[Korean Theatre of Kazakhstan]]) were in operation.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=122}} The censuses of Kazakhstan recorded 96,500 Koryo-saram in 1939, 74,000 in 1959, 81,600 in 1970, 92,000 in 1979, 100,700 in 1989, and 99,700 in 1999.{{sfn|Alekseenko|2000}}
-In [[Kyrgyzstan]], the population has remained roughly stable over the past three censuses: 18,355 (1989), 19,784 (1999), and 17,299 (2009).<ref>{{Citation|title=Population and Housing Census 2009. Chapter 3.1. Resident population by nationality |place=Bishkek |publisher=National Committee on Statistics |date=2010 |url=https://www.stat.gov.kg/media/files/9cd9d7ee-78f0-413e-885d-80f914049ebf.pdf |access-date=2021-12-14 |language=ru }}</ref> This contrasts sharply with other non-indigenous groups such as [[Kyrgyzstan Germans|Germans]], many of whom [[History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine and the Soviet Union#Russian Germans and Perestroika|migrated to Germany]] after the breakup of the Soviet Union. South Korea never had any programme to promote return migration of their diaspora in Central Asia, unlike Germany. However, they have established organisations to promote Korean language and culture, such as the Korean Centre of Education which opened in Bishkek in 2001. South Korean Christian missionaries are also active in the country.<ref>{{citation|last=Sparling|first=Evan|title=Kyrgyzstan: Ethnic Minority Expands Ties to South Korea|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav102209a.shtml|publisher=Eurasianet |date=21 October 2009|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>
+In [[Kyrgyzstan]], the population has remained roughly stable over the past three censuses: 18,355 (1989), 19,784 (1999), and 17,299 (2009).<ref>{{Citation|title=Population and Housing Census 2009. Chapter 3.1. Resident population by nationality |place=Bishkek |publisher=National Committee on Statistics |date=2010 |url=https://www.stat.gov.kg/media/files/9cd9d7ee-78f0-413e-885d-80f914049ebf.pdf |access-date=December 14, 2021 |language=ru }}</ref> This contrasts sharply with other non-indigenous groups such as [[Kyrgyzstan Germans|Germans]], many of whom [[History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine and the Soviet Union#Russian Germans and Perestroika|migrated to Germany]] after the breakup of the Soviet Union. South Korea never had any programme to promote return migration of their diaspora in Central Asia, unlike Germany. However, they have established organisations to promote Korean language and culture, such as the Korean Centre of Education which opened in Bishkek in 2001. South Korean Christian missionaries are also active in the country.<ref>{{citation|last=Sparling|first=Evan|title=Kyrgyzstan: Ethnic Minority Expands Ties to South Korea|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav102209a.shtml|publisher=Eurasianet |date=October 21, 2009|access-date=December 23, 2016}}</ref>
 The population in Uzbekistan is largely scattered in rural areas. This population has suffered in recent years from linguistic handicaps, as the Koryo-saram there spoke [[Russian language|Russian]] but not [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]. After the independence of [[Uzbekistan]], many lost their jobs due to being unable to speak the national language. Some emigrated to the [[Russian Far East]], but found life difficult there as well.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=143}}
-There is also a small Korean community in [[Tajikistan]]. Mass settlement of Koreans in the country began during the late 1950s and early 1960s, after the loosening of restrictions on their freedom of movement which had previously kept them confined to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Pull factors for migration included rich natural resources and a relatively mild climate. Their population grew to 2,400 in 1959, 11,000 in 1979 and 13,000 in 1989; most lived in the capital [[Dushanbe]], with smaller concentrations in [[Qurghonteppa]] and [[Khujand]]. Like Koreans in other parts of Central Asia, they generally possessed higher incomes compared to members of other ethnic groups. However, with the May 1992 onset of [[Tajikistani Civil War|civil war in Tajikistan]], many fled the country; by 1996, their population had fallen by over half to 6,300 people.{{sfn|Back|2004}} Most are engaged in agriculture and retail business.<ref>{{cite web|last=Choe |first=Yeong-ha |url=http://www.donga.com/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$i_21&a=v&l=2&id=199812130104 |script-title=ko:타지키스탄 내전과 한국교민 |trans-title=Civil War in Tajikistan and Korean Ethnics |language=ko |periodical=Donga Ilbo |date=13 December 1998 |access-date=26 March 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040626182149/http://www.donga.com/fbin/moeum?n=dstory%24i_21&a=v&l=2&id=199812130104 |archive-date=26 June 2004 }}</ref> Violence continued even after the end of the civil war; in 2000, suspected [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] members exploded a bomb in a Korean Christian church in Dushanbe, killing 9 and wounding 30.{{sfn|Dong|Su|2005}}
+There is also a small Korean community in [[Tajikistan]]. Mass settlement of Koreans in the country began during the late 1950s and early 1960s, after the loosening of restrictions on their freedom of movement which had previously kept them confined to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Pull factors for migration included rich natural resources and a relatively mild climate. Their population grew to 2,400 in 1959, 11,000 in 1979 and 13,000 in 1989; most lived in the capital [[Dushanbe]], with smaller concentrations in [[Qurghonteppa]] and [[Khujand]]. Like Koreans in other parts of Central Asia, they generally possessed higher incomes compared to members of other ethnic groups. However, with the May 1992 onset of [[Tajikistani Civil War|civil war in Tajikistan]], many fled the country; by 1996, their population had fallen by over half to 6,300 people.{{sfn|Back|2004}} Most are engaged in agriculture and retail business.<ref>{{cite web|last=Choe |first=Yeong-ha |url=http://www.donga.com/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$i_21&a=v&l=2&id=199812130104 |script-title=ko:타지키스탄 내전과 한국교민 |trans-title=Civil War in Tajikistan and Korean Ethnics |language=ko |periodical=Donga Ilbo |date=December 13, 1998 |access-date=March 26, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040626182149/http://www.donga.com/fbin/moeum?n=dstory%24i_21&a=v&l=2&id=199812130104 |archive-date=June 26, 2004 }}</ref> Violence continued even after the end of the civil war; in 2000, suspected [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] members exploded a bomb in a Korean Christian church in Dushanbe, killing 9 and wounding 30.{{sfn|Dong|Su|2005}}
 ===Return migration to Korea===
-[[File:Gwangjukoryoinvillage.jpg|thumb|Community centers for [[Gwangju Koryoin Village]], which is one of the largest ethnic enclaves of Koryo-saram in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-13 |title=The long journey of Korejskij |url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2020/10/13/opinion/fountain/Primorsky-Krai-in-Russia-Arirang-Nursing-Home-Central-Asia/20201013194600360.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]] |language=en}}</ref> (2022)]]
+[[File:Gwangjukoryoinvillage.jpg|thumb|Community centers for [[Gwangju Koryoin Village]], which is one of the largest ethnic enclaves of Koryo-saram in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 13, 2020 |title=The long journey of Korejskij |url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2020/10/13/opinion/fountain/Primorsky-Krai-in-Russia-Arirang-Nursing-Home-Central-Asia/20201013194600360.html |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]] |language=en}}</ref> (2022)]]
 There was some minor return migration of Soviet Koreans to Korea in the first half of the 20th century. They formed four main groups: those [[Maki Mirage|sent for intelligence work]] during the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial period]], the Red Army personnel who arrived in 1945&ndash;1946, civilian advisors and teachers who arrived in the northern half of the peninsula in 1946&ndash;1948 and individuals who repatriated from the Soviet Union to North Korea for personal reasons.{{sfn|Lankov|2002|p=112}} Though it was common in most of the newly socialist countries of the [[Eastern Bloc]] to receive Soviet-educated personnel who were from the country or had ancestral ethnic connections there, in North Korea such returned members of national diaspora played a more important role than in other countries.{{sfn|Lankov|2002|p=111}}
-Later, labour migration to South Korea would grow to a large size. {{As of|2005}}, as many as 10,000 Uzbekistani nationals worked in South Korea, with most of them being ethnic Koreans. It is estimated that [[remittances]] from South Korea to Uzbekistan exceed $100 million annually.<ref>{{citation|last=Baek|first=Il-hyun|title=Scattered Koreans turn homeward|date=2005-09-14|periodical=Joongang Daily|access-date=2006-11-27|url=http://joongangdaily.joins.com/200509/14/200509142129404979900091009101.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051127093846/http://joongangdaily.joins.com/200509/14/200509142129404979900091009101.html |archive-date = 2005-11-27}}</ref>
+Later, labour migration to South Korea would grow to a large size. {{As of|2005}}, as many as 10,000 Uzbekistani nationals worked in South Korea, with most of them being ethnic Koreans. It is estimated that [[remittances]] from South Korea to Uzbekistan exceed $100 million annually.<ref>{{citation|last=Baek|first=Il-hyun|title=Scattered Koreans turn homeward|date=September 14, 2005|periodical=Joongang Daily|access-date=November 27, 2006|url=http://joongangdaily.joins.com/200509/14/200509142129404979900091009101.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051127093846/http://joongangdaily.joins.com/200509/14/200509142129404979900091009101.html |archive-date = November 27, 2005}}</ref>
-A number of Koryo-saram communities now exist in South Korea, including [[Ttaetgol Village]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-27 |title=맛과 눈으로, 땟골마을에 녹아든 고려인 정착기 |url=http://www.kunews.ac.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=33557 |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=고대신문 |language=ko}}</ref> [[Gwangju Koryoin Village]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jung-youn |first=Lee |date=2023-02-24 |title=[Weekender] Koryoin from Ukraine find new home in ancestors' land |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20230224000657 |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=[[The Korea Herald]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Hambak Village]],<ref name="Jeon-2021">{{Cite web |last=Jeon |first=Hai Ri |date=December 27, 2021 |title=Can Technology Solve Hambak Village's Littering Problem? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/can-technology-solve-hambak-villages-littering-problem/ |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Texas Street]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=임 |first=영상 |date=2023-06-14 |title=[부산 고려인마을①] 초량 TCK 하우스 가면, 고려인삶이 온전히 보인다 |url=http://kor.theasian.asia/archives/339239 |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=아시아엔 THE AsiaN |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[Central Asia Street]] in Seoul.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kwak |first=Yeon-soo |date=2018-06-28 |title=Seoul's Central Asian enclave undergoes demographic change |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/09/177_251437.html |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref> Several of these communities are also host to Russian speakers of other ethnicities.<ref name="Jeon-2021"/>
+A number of Koryo-saram communities now exist in South Korea, including [[Ttaetgol Village]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 27, 2022 |title=맛과 눈으로, 땟골마을에 녹아든 고려인 정착기 |url=http://www.kunews.ac.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=33557 |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=고대신문 |language=ko}}</ref> [[Gwangju Koryoin Village]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jung-youn |first=Lee |date=February 24, 2023 |title=[Weekender] Koryoin from Ukraine find new home in ancestors' land |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20230224000657 |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=[[The Korea Herald]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Hambak Village]],<ref name="Jeon-2021">{{Cite web |last=Jeon |first=Hai Ri |date=December 27, 2021 |title=Can Technology Solve Hambak Village's Littering Problem? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/can-technology-solve-hambak-villages-littering-problem/ |access-date=October 2, 2023 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Texas Street]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=임 |first=영상 |date=June 14, 2023 |title=[부산 고려인마을①] 초량 TCK 하우스 가면, 고려인삶이 온전히 보인다 |url=http://kor.theasian.asia/archives/339239 |access-date=September 29, 2023 |website=아시아엔 THE AsiaN |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[Central Asia Street]] in Seoul.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kwak |first=Yeon-soo |date=June 28, 2018 |title=Seoul's Central Asian enclave undergoes demographic change |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/09/177_251437.html |access-date=September 26, 2023 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref> Several of these communities are also host to Russian speakers of other ethnicities.<ref name="Jeon-2021"/>
-Koryo-saram have consistently reported feeling social isolation or even employment discrimination<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Hyo-jin |date=2022-04-01 |title=[SPECIAL REPORT] Koryoin feel at home in Gwangju |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/10/281_326553.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref> when in Korea.<ref name="Korea JoongAng Daily-2012">{{Cite web |date=2012-10-04 |title='Hanaan' probes the complex identities of Korean-Uzbeks |url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2012/10/04/artsDesign/Hanaan-probes-the-complex-identities-of-KoreanUzbeks/2960300.html |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-22 |title="마리우폴에 있는 집 폭격 피해 한국행… 고려인 밥심은 나물 반찬"[나를 살리는 밥심] |url=https://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20220523010013 |access-date=2023-10-09 |website=[[Seoul Shinmun]] |language=ko}}</ref> The experience of returnees has been portrayed in media, such as the 2011 film ''[[Hanaan]]'', by Koryo-saram director Ruslan Pak.<ref name="Korea JoongAng Daily-2012" />
+Koryo-saram have consistently reported feeling social isolation or even employment discrimination<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Hyo-jin |date=April 1, 2022 |title=[SPECIAL REPORT] Koryoin feel at home in Gwangju |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/10/281_326553.html |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref> when in Korea.<ref name="Korea JoongAng Daily-2012">{{Cite web |date=October 4, 2012 |title='Hanaan' probes the complex identities of Korean-Uzbeks |url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2012/10/04/artsDesign/Hanaan-probes-the-complex-identities-of-KoreanUzbeks/2960300.html |access-date=October 12, 2023 |website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 22, 2022 |title="마리우폴에 있는 집 폭격 피해 한국행… 고려인 밥심은 나물 반찬"[나를 살리는 밥심] |url=https://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20220523010013 |access-date=October 9, 2023 |website=[[Seoul Shinmun]] |language=ko}}</ref> The experience of returnees has been portrayed in media, such as the 2011 film ''[[Hanaan]]'', by Koryo-saram director Ruslan Pak.<ref name="Korea JoongAng Daily-2012" />
 ==Culture==
@@ Line 171: / Line 172: @@
 }}After their arrival in Central Asia, the Koryo-saram quickly established a way of life different from that of neighbouring peoples. They set up irrigation works and became known throughout the region as rice farmers.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=141}} They interacted little with the nomadic peoples around them and focused on education. Although they soon ceased to wear [[Hanbok|traditional Korean clothing]], they adopted Western-style dress rather than the clothing worn by the Central Asian peoples.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=40}}
-The ritual life of the Koryo-saram community has changed in various respects. Marriages have taken on the Russian style.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=249}} At [[Korean traditional funeral]]s, the coffin is taken out of the house either through the window or a single door threshold; however, if there is more than one door threshold on the way out (e.g. in modern multi-stories buildings), three notches are made on each threshold.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://korea.narod.ru/content/korea/25/25.html|script-title=ru:Похоронные обряды|trans-title=Funeral rites|language=ru|publisher=korea.narod.ru|date=18 January 2006|access-date=29 April 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110419190244/http://korea.narod.ru/content/korea/25/25.html|archive-date=19 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Min|first=L. V.|url=http://world.lib.ru/k/kim_german_nikolaewich/40.shtml|script-title=ru:Семейные Традиции И Обычаи Корейцев, Проживающих В Казахстане|trans-title=Family Traditions and Customs of Koreans Living in Kazakhstan|language=ru|publisher=world.lib.ru|date=2 April 2011|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref> The name of the dead is traditionally written in [[hanja]]; however, as hardly anyone is left among the Koryo-saram who can write in hanja, the name is generally written in [[hangul]] only. On the other hand, the rituals for the first birthday and sixtieth anniversary have been preserved in their traditional form.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=250}}
+The ritual life of the Koryo-saram community has changed in various respects. Marriages have taken on the Russian style.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=249}} At [[Korean traditional funeral]]s, the coffin is taken out of the house either through the window or a single door threshold; however, if there is more than one door threshold on the way out (e.g. in modern multi-stories buildings), three notches are made on each threshold.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://korea.narod.ru/content/korea/25/25.html|script-title=ru:Похоронные обряды|trans-title=Funeral rites|language=ru|publisher=korea.narod.ru|date=January 18, 2006|access-date=April 29, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110419190244/http://korea.narod.ru/content/korea/25/25.html|archive-date=April 19, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Min|first=L. V.|url=http://world.lib.ru/k/kim_german_nikolaewich/40.shtml|script-title=ru:Семейные Традиции И Обычаи Корейцев, Проживающих В Казахстане|trans-title=Family Traditions and Customs of Koreans Living in Kazakhstan|language=ru|publisher=world.lib.ru|date=April 2, 2011|access-date=December 23, 2016}}</ref> The name of the dead is traditionally written in [[hanja]]; however, as hardly anyone is left among the Koryo-saram who can write in hanja, the name is generally written in [[hangul]] only. On the other hand, the rituals for the first birthday and sixtieth anniversary have been preserved in their traditional form.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=250}}
-In New York City, United States, there is the [[All Nations Baptist Church]], a Russian-speaking Christian church for Koryo-saram.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-21 |title=In Brooklyn, a Korean pastor leads a Russian-speaking flock |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/brooklyn-korean-reverend-leads-russian-speaking-flock-n793166 |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>
+In New York City, United States, there is the [[All Nations Baptist Church]], a Russian-speaking Christian church for Koryo-saram.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 21, 2017 |title=In Brooklyn, a Korean pastor leads a Russian-speaking flock |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/brooklyn-korean-reverend-leads-russian-speaking-flock-n793166 |access-date=March 31, 2024 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>
 ===Cuisine===
 {{Main article|Koryo-saram cuisine}}
 [[File:Korean-style carrot.jpg|thumb|[[Morkovcha]] (Korean carrot salad)]]
-The cuisine of the Koryo-saram is closest to that of the [[Hamgyong Province|Hamgyong provinces]] in North Korea and is dominated by meat soups and salty side dishes.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=249}} It uses similar cooking techniques but is adapted to local ingredients, which resulted in invention of new dishes. One well-known example is ''[[morkovcha]]'', a variant of [[kimchi]] that uses carrots. It has become popular in many parts of the former Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/18/dining/the-silk-road-leads-to-queens.html|title=The Silk Road Leads to Queens|periodical=The New York Times|last=Moskin|first=Julia|date=18 January 2006|access-date=8 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Lankov|first=Andrei|author-link=Andrei Lankov|url=http://via.sawd.ch/index.php?q=aHR0cDovL3JidGguYXNpYS9hcnRpY2xlcy8yMDEyLzA4LzIxL2tvcmVhbl9jYXJyb3RfMTY0MDUuaHRtbA%3D%3D|title=Korean carrot|publisher=Russia Beyond the Headlines|date=21 August 2012|access-date=22 December 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928142343/http://via.sawd.ch/index.php?q=aHR0cDovL3JidGguYXNpYS9hcnRpY2xlcy8yMDEyLzA4LzIxL2tvcmVhbl9jYXJyb3RfMTY0MDUuaHRtbA%3D%3D|archive-date=28 September 2013}}</ref>
+The cuisine of the Koryo-saram is closest to that of the [[Hamgyong Province|Hamgyong provinces]] in North Korea and is dominated by meat soups and salty side dishes.{{sfn|Lee|2000|p=249}} It uses similar cooking techniques but is adapted to local ingredients, which resulted in invention of new dishes. One well-known example is ''[[morkovcha]]'', a variant of [[kimchi]] that uses carrots. It has become popular in many parts of the former Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/18/dining/the-silk-road-leads-to-queens.html|title=The Silk Road Leads to Queens|periodical=The New York Times|last=Moskin|first=Julia|date=January 18, 2006|access-date=January 8, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Lankov|first=Andrei|author-link=Andrei Lankov|url=http://via.sawd.ch/index.php?q=aHR0cDovL3JidGguYXNpYS9hcnRpY2xlcy8yMDEyLzA4LzIxL2tvcmVhbl9jYXJyb3RfMTY0MDUuaHRtbA%3D%3D|title=Korean carrot|publisher=Russia Beyond the Headlines|date=August 21, 2012|access-date=December 22, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928142343/http://via.sawd.ch/index.php?q=aHR0cDovL3JidGguYXNpYS9hcnRpY2xlcy8yMDEyLzA4LzIxL2tvcmVhbl9jYXJyb3RfMTY0MDUuaHRtbA%3D%3D|archive-date=September 28, 2013}}</ref>
-Other examples of dishes include ''[[pyanse]]'', ''[[kuksu]]'', ''[[funchoza]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=이 |first=명숙 |date=2017-02-28 |title=한식 대중화의 일등 공신 고려인 동포, 그들을 위한 배려의 필요성 |url=http://kofice.or.kr/c30correspondent/c30_correspondent_02_view.asp?seq=13516 |access-date=2018-12-25 |website=한국국제문화교류진흥원}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Korean glass noodle salad "Funchosa" detailed photo and video recipe |url=https://www.mixmarkt.eu/en/germany/recipes/Rezept/1/salat-funchoza/ |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=Mix Markt |language=en-US}}</ref> ''timpeni'', ''khe'', ''chartagi'', ''kadi che'' ({{Korean|hangul=가지채|labels=no}}), [[Pteridium aquilinum#Korea|''kosari che'']], ''chirgym che'', ''[[siryak-tyamuri]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |last=이 |first=은주 |date=2011-11-02 |title=우리 음식 지켜 온 중앙亞 고려인들 |url=https://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20111102024008 |access-date=2024-01-22 |work=[[Seoul Shinmun]]}}</ref> and ''kadyuri''.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}
+Other examples of dishes include ''[[pyanse]]'', ''[[kuksu]]'', ''[[funchoza]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=이 |first=명숙 |date=February 28, 2017 |title=한식 대중화의 일등 공신 고려인 동포, 그들을 위한 배려의 필요성 |url=http://kofice.or.kr/c30correspondent/c30_correspondent_02_view.asp?seq=13516 |access-date=December 25, 2018 |website=한국국제문화교류진흥원}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Korean glass noodle salad "Funchosa" detailed photo and video recipe |url=https://www.mixmarkt.eu/en/germany/recipes/Rezept/1/salat-funchoza/ |access-date=October 6, 2023 |website=Mix Markt |language=en-US}}</ref> ''timpeni'', ''khe'', ''chartagi'', ''kadi che'' ({{Korean|hangul=가지채|labels=no}}), [[Pteridium aquilinum#Korea|''kosari che'']], ''chirgym che'', ''[[siryak-tyamuri]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |last=이 |first=은주 |date=November 2, 2011 |title=우리 음식 지켜 온 중앙亞 고려인들 |url=https://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20111102024008 |access-date=January 22, 2024 |work=[[Seoul Shinmun]]}}</ref> and ''kadyuri''.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}
 ===Personal and family names===
@@ Line 187: / Line 188: @@
 {{See also|List of Korean family names|Cyrillization of Korean}}
-Many Korean surnames, when Cyrillized, are spelled and pronounced slightly differently from the romanisations used in the U.S. and the resulting common pronunciations, as can be seen in the table at right. Some surnames of Koryo-saram have a particle "gai" added to them, such as Kogai or Nogai. The origin of this is unclear.{{sfn|Kim|2003|p=3}} The introduction of international passports by newly independent CIS countries, resulted in further differences in pronunciation as Korean surnames had to be transliterated from Cyrillic into Latin. In addition to a surname, Koreans also use clan names (known as ''[[bon-gwan]]'' in Korea and pronounced as пой among Koryo-saram) denoting the place of origin.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kim|first=Yong-un|url=http://www.arirang.ru/bons/bons.htm|script-title=ru:Корейские боны (пои)|trans-title=Korean bons (poi)|language=ru|periodical=Ariran|issue=2|date=June 2001|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>
+Many Korean surnames, when Cyrillized, are spelled and pronounced slightly differently from the romanisations used in the U.S. and the resulting common pronunciations, as can be seen in the table at right. Some surnames of Koryo-saram have a particle "gai" added to them, such as Kogai or Nogai. The origin of this is unclear.{{sfn|Kim|2003|p=3}} The introduction of international passports by newly independent CIS countries, resulted in further differences in pronunciation as Korean surnames had to be transliterated from Cyrillic into Latin. In addition to a surname, Koreans also use clan names (known as ''[[bon-gwan]]'' in Korea and pronounced as пой among Koryo-saram) denoting the place of origin.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kim|first=Yong-un|url=http://www.arirang.ru/bons/bons.htm|script-title=ru:Корейские боны (пои)|trans-title=Korean bons (poi)|language=ru|periodical=Ariran|issue=2|date=June 2001|access-date=December 23, 2016}}</ref>
 [[Korean name|Korean naming practices]] and [[Names in Russian Empire, Soviet Union and CIS countries|Russian naming practices]] are different – Koryo-saram use Russian name practices, but Korean surnames and sometimes Korean names. But most often Christian names are used from the saints of the Russian Orthodox Church, typical for Russians.
@@ Line 253: / Line 254: @@
 == Tourism ==
-There are a number of places in multiple countries that can be visited to learn about Koryo-saram history and culture. [[Korean Cultural Centers]] throughout the former Soviet Union, such as the [[Korean Cultural Center, Ussuriysk|one in Ussuriysk, Russia]], offer cultural experiences and sometimes museums on Koryo-saram and Korean history.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-14 |title=Ussuriysk, foothold of Korea's independence movement |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/culture/2023/10/199_265244.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=우수리스크 고려인문화센터 |url=http://www.okpedia.kr/Contents/ContentsView?localCode=cis&contentsId=GC95300933 |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture]]}}</ref> In Kazakhstan there is a number of places. In Ushtobe, there is a [[Kazakhstan–Korea Friendship Park]] that marks where the Koryo-saram first settled in Kazakhstan. It has a Korean cemetery and memorials for Koryo-saram figures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=권 |first=형석 |date=2022-08-15 |title=고려인 최초 정착지에 세운 '추모의 벽'… 15人 독립영웅 우뚝 |url=https://www.chosun.com/culture-life/culture_general/2022/08/16/YNP3KT5R2RABVK4NYSV37UQQC4/ |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Oh |first1=Hyun Woo |last2=Lee |first2=Jihae |date=November 8, 2019 |title=Park in Kazakhstan honoring ethnic Koreans to be built |url=https://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=179004 |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=[[Korea.net]] |language=en}}</ref> Also in Ushtobe, the [[Karatal Korean History Center]] has a museum with authentic houses and historical materials on display.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Музей истории коре сарам в Уштобе |url=https://koreans.kz/news/muzey-istorii-kore-saram-v-ushtobe.html?lang=ru |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=KOREANS.KZ |language=ru}}</ref> In Almaty, there is the [[Korean Theatre of Kazakhstan|Korean Theatre]], where one can watch plays in Korean with Russian subtitles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kwon |first=Mee-yoo |date=2023-08-19 |title=Korean Theater of Kazakhstan carries legacy of independence fighter |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/10/120_357393.html |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref> In South Korea, one can visit the various enclaves they live in, as well as visit a history museum in Gwangju Koryoin Village.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-25 |title=광주고려인마을, 역사박물관 열었다 |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2017/06/25/2017062500574.html |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=강 |first=성철 |date=2019-01-04 |title=광주 고려인마을에 고려인역사박물관 건립 추진 |url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190104114200371 |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |language=ko}}</ref> In New York City, United States, the restaurant [[Cafe Lily]] is operated by Koryo-saram, and serves Koryo-saram cuisine.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishan |first=Ligaya |date=2017-02-16 |title=At Cafe Lily, the Korean-Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/16/dining/cafe-lily-review-bensonhurst-korean-uzbek.html |access-date=2023-10-07 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
+There are a number of places in multiple countries that can be visited to learn about Koryo-saram history and culture. [[Korean Cultural Centers]] throughout the former Soviet Union, such as the [[Korean Cultural Center, Ussuriysk|one in Ussuriysk, Russia]], offer cultural experiences and sometimes museums on Koryo-saram and Korean history.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 14, 2019 |title=Ussuriysk, foothold of Korea's independence movement |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/culture/2023/10/199_265244.html |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=우수리스크 고려인문화센터 |url=http://www.okpedia.kr/Contents/ContentsView?localCode=cis&contentsId=GC95300933 |access-date=October 8, 2023 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Overseas Korean Culture]]}}</ref> In Kazakhstan there is a number of places. In Ushtobe, there is a [[Kazakhstan–Korea Friendship Park]] that marks where the Koryo-saram first settled in Kazakhstan. It has a Korean cemetery and memorials for Koryo-saram figures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=권 |first=형석 |date=August 15, 2022 |title=고려인 최초 정착지에 세운 '추모의 벽'… 15人 독립영웅 우뚝 |url=https://www.chosun.com/culture-life/culture_general/2022/08/16/YNP3KT5R2RABVK4NYSV37UQQC4/ |access-date=January 14, 2024 |website=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Oh |first1=Hyun Woo |last2=Lee |first2=Jihae |date=November 8, 2019 |title=Park in Kazakhstan honoring ethnic Koreans to be built |url=https://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=179004 |access-date=January 14, 2024 |website=[[Korea.net]] |language=en}}</ref> Also in Ushtobe, the [[Karatal Korean History Center]] has a museum with authentic houses and historical materials on display.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Музей истории коре сарам в Уштобе |url=https://koreans.kz/news/muzey-istorii-kore-saram-v-ushtobe.html?lang=ru |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=KOREANS.KZ |language=ru}}</ref> In Almaty, there is the [[Korean Theatre of Kazakhstan|Korean Theatre]], where one can watch plays in Korean with Russian subtitles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kwon |first=Mee-yoo |date=August 19, 2023 |title=Korean Theater of Kazakhstan carries legacy of independence fighter |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/10/120_357393.html |access-date=October 12, 2023 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref> In South Korea, one can visit the various enclaves they live in, as well as visit a history museum in Gwangju Koryoin Village.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 25, 2017 |title=광주고려인마을, 역사박물관 열었다 |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2017/06/25/2017062500574.html |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=강 |first=성철 |date=January 4, 2019 |title=광주 고려인마을에 고려인역사박물관 건립 추진 |url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190104114200371 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |language=ko}}</ref> In New York City, United States, the restaurant [[Cafe Lily]] is operated by Koryo-saram, and serves Koryo-saram cuisine.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishan |first=Ligaya |date=February 16, 2017 |title=At Cafe Lily, the Korean-Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/16/dining/cafe-lily-review-bensonhurst-korean-uzbek.html |access-date=October 7, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 275: / Line 276: @@
 ==Further reading==
-*{{Cite journal|url=http://ecsocman.hse.ru/data/632/697/1217/010Alekseenko.pdf|last=Alekseenko|first=Aleksandr Nikolaevich|script-title=ru:Республика в зеркале переписей населения|trans-title=Republic in the Mirror of the Population Censuses|language=ru|journal=Population and Society: Newsletter of the Centre for Demography and Human Ecology|publisher=Institute of Economic Forecasting of the Russian Academy of Sciences|year=2000|issue=47|pages=58–62|access-date=22 December 2016}}
+*{{Cite journal|url=http://ecsocman.hse.ru/data/632/697/1217/010Alekseenko.pdf|last=Alekseenko|first=Aleksandr Nikolaevich|script-title=ru:Республика в зеркале переписей населения|trans-title=Republic in the Mirror of the Population Censuses|language=ru|journal=Population and Society: Newsletter of the Centre for Demography and Human Ecology|publisher=Institute of Economic Forecasting of the Russian Academy of Sciences|year=2000|issue=47|pages=58–62|access-date=December 22, 2016}}
 *{{cite journal|last=Back|first=Tae-Hyun|title=The social reality faced by ethnic Koreans in Central Asia|journal=Korean and Korean American Studies Bulletin|volume=12|number=2–3|pages=45–88|year=2004}}
-*{{cite journal|last=Chang|first=Jon|title=Central Asia or Bust|journal=KoreAm Journal|date=February 2005|url=http://www.koreamjournal.com/Magazine/index.php/kj/2005/february/spotlight/central_asia_or_bust|access-date=26 February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007111253/http://www.koreamjournal.com/Magazine/index.php/kj/2005/february/spotlight/central_asia_or_bust|archive-date=7 October 2008}}
+*{{cite journal|last=Chang|first=Jon|title=Central Asia or Bust|journal=KoreAm Journal|date=February 2005|url=http://www.koreamjournal.com/Magazine/index.php/kj/2005/february/spotlight/central_asia_or_bust|access-date=February 26, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007111253/http://www.koreamjournal.com/Magazine/index.php/kj/2005/february/spotlight/central_asia_or_bust|archive-date=October 7, 2008}}
-*{{citation|chapter=Strategic Adjustments and Countermeasures against Extremist Forces of Central Asian Countries after 9/11|last1=Dong|first1=Xiaoyang|first2=Chang|last2=Su|editor1=Charles Hawkins|editor2=Robert Love|title=Proceedings of the Central Asia Symposium, Monterey, California|publisher=U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command|publication-place=Fort Monroe, Virginia|date=August 2005|access-date=26 March 2007|chapter-url=http://leav-www.army.mil/fmso/documents/New-Great-Game.pdf|pages=47–82|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410040701/http://leav-www.army.mil/fmso/documents/New-Great-Game.pdf|archive-date=10 April 2008}}
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 ===Census data===
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+*{{citation|ref=CITEREFRussian_Census1897 |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php |publisher=Demoscope.ru |title=Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. (General Population Census of the Russian Empire in 1897) |access-date=May 20, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528084326/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php |archive-date=May 28, 2012 }}
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+*{{citation|title=Soviet censuses: Introduction to the census data, legend to the tables, and sources|year=2000|access-date=December 1, 2009|publisher=[[University of Tromsø]]|publication-place=Norway|url=http://www.hum.uit.no/a/trond/sintr.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020191853/http://www.hum.uit.no/a/trond/sintr.html|archive-date=October 20, 2008|first=Trond|last=Trosterud}}
-*{{citation|ref=CITEREFRussian_Census2002 |title=Russian Census |publisher=Федеральная служба государственной статистики |date=9 October 2002 |url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_01.xls |access-date=26 July 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229073920/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_01.xls |archive-date=29 February 2016 }}
+*{{citation|ref=CITEREFRussian_Census2002 |title=Russian Census |publisher=Федеральная служба государственной статистики |date=October 9, 2002 |url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_01.xls |access-date=July 26, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229073920/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_01.xls |archive-date=February 29, 2016 }}
 *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277973184_Koreans_of_The_South_Ussury_in_1879 Koreans of The South Ussury in 1879]