Strisores: Difference between revisions

Strisores; Temporal range: ; Early Eocene - Holocene, 51–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Possibly an earlier origin based on molecular clock
	Common nighthawk, Chordeiles minor; (Caprimulgidae)
	Male rufous hummingbird, Selasphorus rufus; (Trochilidae)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
(unranked):	Passerea
Clade:	Strisores; Cabanis, 1847
Orders
	Traditional Two Orders: Apodiformes; Caprimulgiformes; ; Single Order: Caprimulgiformes; ; Multiple Orders: Caprimulgiformes; Vanescaves Sedentaves; Letornithes; ; ;

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Strisores (/straɪˈsoʊriːz/ stry-SOH-reez^[3]) is a clade of birds that includes the living families and orders Caprimulgidae (nightjars, nighthawks and allies), Nyctibiidae (potoos), Steatornithidae (oilbirds), Podargidae (frogmouths), Apodiformes (swifts and hummingbirds), as well as the Aegotheliformes (owlet-nightjars) whose distinctness was only recently realized. The Apodiformes (which include the "Trochiliformes" of the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy) and the Aegotheliformes form the Daedalornithes.^[4]

Description

The material evidence for this group is very equivocal; the most ancient Strisores are quite nondescript tree-dwellers but already tend towards peculiarly apomorphic feet, and no Cretaceous fossils are known. Torpor and other metabolic peculiarities are very frequently found in this group, perhaps more often than in any other bird lineage. The synapomorphies that define this clade are the ossa maxillaria separated by a large cleft, a mandible with very short pars symphysialis, and rami mandibulae very slender in their distal half.^{[citation needed]}

Taxonomic history

The taxonomy of this group of birds has a long and complicated history. Jean Cabanis originally coined the name Strisores in 1847 as an order encompassing a much broader group of birds subdivided into two 'tribes': The Macrochires (hummingbirds, swifts, and nightjars, including oilbirds and potoos, but notably excluding frogmouths) and the Amphibolae (hoatzin, mousebirds, and turacos).^[5] Hermann Burmeister later excluded the taxa in Cabanis' Amphibolae from Strisores, but added kingfishers and motmots.^[6] Subsequent authors used either definition according to their own judgement, with Baird following Cabanis',^[7] and Cooper following Burmeister's usage.^[8] In 1867, Thomas Henry Huxley proposed the name Cypselomorphae for hummingbirds, swifts, and nightjars (including owlet-nightjars and potoos), however, he considered frogmouths and oilbirds unrelated due to aspects of their skull morphology.^[9] In the 1880s Anton Reichenow continued to use Strisores in a similar sense as Huxley's Cypselomorphae (this time also excluding the owlet-nightjars),^[10] but by the late 19th Century, Strisores had fallen into disuse,^[11] and this remained the case through the 20th Century.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]

By the early 21st century, analyses of anatomical morphology and molecular phylogenomics demonstrated that the order Caprimulgiformes as had been used for much of the 20th century (oilbirds, potoos, nightjars, frogmouths, and owlet-nightjars) is actually paraphyletic respective to Apodiformes (hummingbirds, swifts, and treeswifts), with apodiform birds nesting deeply within caprimulgiformes and a sister taxon to the owlet-nightjars.^[16]^[17] The discovery has led to a challenge of reconciling a Linnean hierarchy with phylogenetic relationships while still maintaining nomenclatural stability, resulting in a complicated situation where some researchers currently use the resurrected name Strisores in a new sense,^[17]^[18] others expand the order Caprimulgiformes to include the 'traditional' apodiform families,^[19] whereas others^[20] use the superordinal name Caprimulgimorphae Cracraft, 2013,^[21] raising the 'traditional' caprimulgiform families to the rank of order.

Proposed phylogenetic definitions of Strisores and Caprimulgimorphae treat Strisores as the crown group and Caprimulgimorphae as the total group.^[22] This allows both names to be valid, with similar but not identical meanings.

Evolution

Strisores has a well-represented fossil record, with fossils of most major strisorean lineages known from the Paleogene.^[22] Chen et al. (2019)^[23] included 14 fossil lineages in their analysis. Nonetheless, it supports the emerging consensus phylogeny well. The genus Paraprefica, probably from the Early Eocene (though this is somewhat uncertain), seems to be a basal form that at times has been allied with the oilbird and the potoos, but cannot be assigned to either with certainty. In the consensus scenario, it would represent a record of the initial divergence of the three lineages.

This agrees with fossils suggesting that the basal divergence of the owlet-nightjar and apodiform branch also occurred during that time. In addition, Eocypselus, a Late Paleocene or Early Eocene genus of North America, cannot be assigned to any one strisore lineage with certainty but appears to be some ancestral form.^[1] Over some 20 million years, throughout the Eocene, the present-day diversity (as well as some entirely extinct lineages) slowly unfolds. By mid-Oligocene, some 30 million years ago, the crown lineages are present and adapting to their present-day ecological niches.

These Paleogene birds strongly suggest that the two main extant lineages of strisores separated about 60-55 mya (Selandian-Thanetian), and that some time around the Lutetian-Bartonian boundary, some 40 mya, the common ancestors of Nyctibiidae, Caprimulgidae and eared nightjars diverged from those of oilbird and frogmouths.

The relationships of the Early Eocene Parvicuculus and Procuculus from the southern North Sea basin are unresolved, but they bear some similarities to strisores.

By the distribution of fossils, the Paleogene radiation seems to have originated in Asia, which at that time became a highly fragmented landscape as the Himalayas lifted up and the Turgai Strait started to disappear.

Several fossil taxa are tentatively placed here as basal or incertae sedis

Eocypselus (Late Paleocene or Early Eocene)
Paraprefica (Early Eocene?)
Archaeotrogonidae (Early Eocene of England ?- Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of France)
Hassiavis (Middle Eocene of Messel, Germany) - Archaeotrogonidae?
Protocypselomorphus (Middle Eocene of Messel, Germany)

Systematics

Strisores contains the extant orders Aegotheliformes, Apodiformes (with families Apodidae, Hemiprocnidae, and Trochilidae), Caprimulgiformes, Nyctibiiformes, Podargiformes, Steatornithiformes. Apodidae and Hemiprocnidae are grouped together as Apodi, Apodi and Trochilidae are grouped together as Apodiformes, and Apodiformes and Aegotheliformes are grouped together as Daedalornithes.

The classification of the various birds that make up the order has long been controversial and difficult, particularly in the case of the nightjars and the paraphyly of the traditional Caprimulgiformes in relation to "Apodiformes", traditionally considered a separate order.

The IUCN adopts the following classification of Order Caprimulgiformes,^[24] which follows recent phylogenetic studies:

Family Trochilidae (hummingbirds, 368 species)
Family Apodidae (swifts, 96 species)
Family Caprimulgidae (nightjars, 98 species)
Family Podargidae (frogmouths, 14 species)
Family Aegothelidae (owlet-nightjars, 10 species)
Family Nyctibiidae (potoos, 7 species)
Family Hemiprocnidae (treeswifts, 4 species)
Family Steatornithidae (oilbird, 1 species)

The IUCN definition renders the order Caprimulgiformes identical to the clade Strisores. Authorities that favor the use of Strisores for this group (e.g., Yuri et al. 2013^[25] and Chen et al. 2019^[26]) adopt a sensu stricto definition of the order, limiting to the family Caprimulgidae. They also elevate many (or even all) of the families traditionally placed in Caprimulgiformes to ordinal rank.^[25] This requires recognizing at least three additional orders: Nyctibiiformes, Steatornithiformes, and Podargiformes. Owlet-nightjars can be placed in their own order (Aegotheliformes)^[25] or viewed as a family within Apodiformes.^[27]

Traditionally, Caprimulgiformes were regarded, on morphological grounds, as being midway between the owls (Strigiformes) and the swifts. Like the owls, they are nocturnal hunters with a highly developed sense of sight, and like the swifts they are excellent flyers with small, weak legs. At one time or another, they have been allied with owls, swifts, kingfishers, hoopoes, mousebirds, hornbills, rollers, bee-eaters, woodpeckers, trogons and hummingbirds. A close relationship to owls can be rejected since there is strong molecular evidence^[28]^[29] that owls are members of a clade, called Telluraves, that excludes Caprimulgiformes.

Based on analysis of DNA sequence data – notably β-fibrinogen intron 7 – Fain and Houde considered the families of the Caprimulgiformes to be members of the proposed clade Metaves, which also includes the hoatzin, tropicbirds, sandgrouse, pigeons, kagu, sunbittern, mesites, flamingos, grebes and swifts and hummingbirds. Metaves was also found by the expanded study of Ericson et al. (2006), but support for the clade was extremely weak.

While only the latter study recovered monophyly of the Cypselomorphae (see below) within Metaves, the former was based on only a single locus and could not resolve their relationships according to standard criteria of statistical confidence. No morphological synapomorphies have been found that uniquely unite Metaves (or Caprimulgiformes for that matter), but numerous unlinked nuclear genes independently support their monophyly either in majority or whole. Ericson et al. (2006) concluded that if valid, the "Metaves" must originate quite some time before the Paleogene, and they reconciled this with the fossil record.

While the relationships of cypselomorphs are a subject of ongoing debate, the phylogeny of the individual lineages is better resolved. Much of the remaining uncertainty regards minor details.

Initial mtDNA cytochrome b sequence analysis agreed with earlier morphological and DNA-DNA hybridization studies insofar as that the oilbird and the frogmouths seemed rather distinct. The other lineages appeared to form a clade, but this is now known to have been caused by methodological limitations.

The Aegothelidae (owlet-nightjars) with about a dozen living species in one genus are apparently closer to the Apodiformes; these and the Caprimulgiformes are closely related, being grouped together as Cypselomorphae. The oilbird and the frogmouths seem quite distinct among the remaining Caprimulgiformes, but their exact placement cannot be resolved based on osteological data alone.

Even the study of Ericson et al. could not properly resolve the oilbird's and frogmouths' relationships beyond the fact that they are quite certainly well distinct. It robustly supported, however, the idea that the owlet-nightjars should be considered closer to Caprimulgiformes, unlike the methodologically weaker studies of Mariaux & Braun (1996) and Fain and Houde (2004).

Alternatively, Mayr's phylogenetic taxon Cypselomorphae might be placed at order rank and substitute the two present orders Caprimulgiformes and Apodiformes. Such a group would be fairly uninformative as regards its evolutionary history, as it has to include some very plesiomorphic and some extremely derived lineages (such as hummingbirds) to achieve monophyly. Reddy et al. (2017)^[30] included hummingbirds and swifts in Caprimulgiformes, preserving the monophyly of the order.

The following cladogram follows the results of Mayr's (2002) phylogenetic study, which used a parsimony analysis of 25 morphological characters:

Steatornithidae

Podargidae

	Caprimulgidae

	Nyctibiidae

Aegothelidae

	Trochilidae

	Hemiprocnidae

	Apodidae

Subsequent molecular work has converged on two alternative topologies (topologies 1 and 2 below) that differ in the placement of the root.^[31] Although Braun et al. (2019)^[31] suggested that topology 1 was favored in large-scale analyses of non-coding data were analyzed and that topology 2 was favored in large-scale analyses of coding data (e.g., Prum et al. (2015)^[32]) subsequent analyses of datasets with many non-coding loci^[26]^[33] have also recovered topology 2. Thus, topology 2 should be viewed as the best-corroborated hypothesis at this time.

Topology 1: phylogeny according to Reddy et al. (2017),^[30] which analyzed 54 nuclear loci (mostly introns):

Caprimulgiformes

	Steatornithidae

	Nyctibiidae

Caprimulgidae

Podargidae

Daedalornithes

Aegothelidae

	Hemiprocnidae

	Apodidae

Trochilidae

Topology 2: phylogeny according to Prum et al. (2015)^[32] (259 "anchored hybrid enrichment" loci, which are mostly coding exons), Chen et al. (2019)^[26] (combined analysis of 2289 ultra-conserved elements [UCEs] and 117 morphological characters and including fossil taxa), and White and Braun (2019)^[33] (based on analyses of multiple UCE datasets, ranging in size from 2289 to 4243 loci):

Caprimulgiformes

Caprimulgidae

Vanescaves

	Steatornithidae

	Nyctibiidae

Podargidae

Daedalornithes

Aegothelidae

	Hemiprocnidae

	Apodidae

Trochilidae

Cladogram based on Prum et al.,^[18] with phylogenetic definitions following Chen et al.:^[22]

Strisores

Caprimulgiformes

Caprimulgidae (Nightjars)

sensu stricto

Vanescaves

Steatornithiformes	Steatornithidae (oilbird)

Nyctibiiformes	Nyctibiidae (potoos)

Podargiformes

Podargidae (frogmouths)

Daedalornithes

Aegotheliformes

Aegothelidae (owlet-nightjars)

Apodiformes

	Hemiprocnidae (treeswifts)

	Apodidae (swifts)

Trochilidae (hummingbirds)

Cladogram based on Reddy, S. et al. (2017):^[19]

Caprimulgiformes

	Steatornithidae (oilbird)

	Nyctibiidae (potoos)

Caprimulgidae (Nightjars)

Podargidae (frogmouths)

Daedalornithes

Aegothelidae (owlet-nightjars)

	Hemiprocnidae (treeswifts)

	Apodidae (swifts)

Trochilidae (hummingbirds)

sensu lato

Chen et al. (2019)^[34] proposed the name Vanescaves for the clade comprising all Caprimulgiformes (=Strisores) except Caprimulgidae. White and Braun (2019)^[35] acknowledged that some uncertainty remains; specifically, monophyly of the clade comprising Steatornithidae and Nyctibiidae was limited and that three different resolutions of Steatornithidae, Nyctibiidae, and the clade comprising Podargidae and Daedalornithes remain plausible. However, they viewed topology 2 as the best-supported hypothesis.^{[citation needed]}

Presently, the taxonomy favored by the IOC splits oilbirds, potoos, nightjars, and frogmouths into their own orders, along with the order Apodiformes as previously defined.^[36]

References

^ ^a ^b Ksepka, D. T.; Clarke, J. A.; Nesbitt, S. J.; Kulp, F. B.; Grande, L. (2013). "Fossil evidence of wing shape in a stem relative of swifts and hummingbirds (Aves, Pan-Apodiformes)". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1761): 20130580. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0580
^ Kuhl., H.; Frankl-Vilches, C.; Bakker, A.; Mayr, G.; Nikolaus, G.; Boerno, S. T.; Klages, S.; Timmermann, B.; Gahr, M. (2020). "An unbiased molecular approach using 3'UTRs resolves the avian family-level tree of life". Molecular Biology and Evolution: 143. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa191. PMC 7783168.
^ Whitney, William Dwight (1896), The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, vol. VII, New York: The Century Co., p. 5996
^ Sangster, George (2005). "A name for the clade formed by owlet-nightjars, swifts and hummingbirds (Aves)". Zootaxa. 799 (1): 1–6. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.799.1.1.
^ Cabanis, Jean (1847). "Ornithologische Notizen. II". Archiv für Naturgeschichte (in German). 13 (1). Berlin: 308–352.
^ Burmeister, Jean (1856), Systematische Uebersicht der Thiere Brasiliens : welche während einer Reise durch die Provinzen von Rio de Janeiro und Minas geraës gesammlt oder beobachtet Wurden (in German), vol. 2, Berlin: Georg Reimer, p. 311, doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13607
^ Baird, Spencer F. (1858), General report on the zoology upon the zoology of the several Pacific railroad routes. Part II. Birds, Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean., vol. IX, Washington, D.C.: A. O. P. Nicholson, p. 128
^ Cooper, J. G. (1870), Ornithology Of California, vol. 1, Cambridge: Welch, Bigelow, & Co., p. 336
^ Huxley, Thomas H. (1867). "On the classification of birds; and on the taxonomic value of the modifications of certain of the cranial bones observable in that class". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1867: 415–472.
^ Reichenow, Anton (1884), Die Vögel der zoologischen Gärten : Leitfaden zum Studium der Ornithologie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der in Gefangenschaft gehaltenen Vögel (in German), vol. 2, Leipzig: L. A. Kittler, p. 162, doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13560
^ Sharpe, R. Bowdler (1891), A review of recent attempts to classify birds; an address delivered before the Second international ornithological congress on the 18th of May, 1891, London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 1–90, doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13335
^ American Ornithologists' Union (1910), A Check-List of North American Birds (3rd ed.), New York: American Ornithologists' Union
^ American Ornithologists' Union (1931), A Check-List of North American Birds (4th ed.), Lancaster, PA: Lancaster Press
^ American Ornithologists' Union (1957), Check-List of North American Birds (5th ed.), Baltimore, MD: The Lord Baltimore Press
^ American Ornithologists' Union (1983), Check-List of North American Birds (6th ed.), Lawrence, KS: Allen Press
^ Hackett, Shannon J.; et al. (2008). "A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history". Science. 320 (5884): 1763–1768. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1763H. doi:10.1126/science.1157704.
^ ^a ^b Mayr, Gerald (2010). "Phylogenetic relationships of the paraphyletic ,caprimulgiform' birds (nightjars and allies)". Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 48 (2): 857–879. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2009.00552.x.
^ ^a ^b Prum, Richard O.; Berv, Jacob S.; Dornberg, Alex; Field, Daniel J.; Townsend, Jeffrey P.; Lemmon, Emily Moriarty; Lemmon, Alan R. (2015). "A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next-generation DNA sequencing". Nature. 526 (7574): 569–573. Bibcode:2015Natur.526..569P. doi:10.1038/nature15697. PMID 26444237.
^ ^a ^b Reddy, Sushma; et al. (2015). "Why do phylogenomic data sets yield conflicting trees? Data type influences the avian tree of life more than taxon sampling". Systematic Biology. 66 (5): 857–879. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syx041. PMID 28369655.
^ Jarvis, Erich D.; et al. (2014). "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds". Science. 346 (6215): 1320–1331. Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1320J. doi:10.1126/science.1253451. PMC 4405904. PMID 25504713.
^ Cracraft, Joel (2013), "Avian higher‐level relationships and classification: Nonpasseriforms", in Dickinson, Edward C.; Van Remsen, James, Jr. (eds.), Non-passerines, The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World, vol. 1 (4th ed.), Eastbourne, UK: Aves Press, pp. xxi–xliii, ISBN 9780956861108{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Chen, Albert; White, Noor D.; Benson, Roger B. J.; Braun, Michael J.; Field, Daniel J. (2019). "Total-evidence framework reveals complex morphological evolution in nightbirds (Strisores)". Diversity. 11 (9): 143. doi:10.3390/d11090143.
^ Chen, Albert; White, Noor D.; Benson, Roger B.J.; Braun, Michael J.; Field, Daniel J. (23 August 2019). "Total-Evidence Framework Reveals Complex Morphological Evolution in Nightbirds (Strisores)". Diversity. 11 (9): 143. doi:10.3390/d11090143. ISSN 1424-2818.
^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^c Yuri, Tamaki; Kimball, Rebecca; Harshman, John; Bowie, Rauri; Braun, Michael; Chojnowski, Jena; Han, Kin-Lan; Hackett, Shannon; Huddleston, Christopher; Moore, William; Reddy, Sushma (13 March 2013). "Parsimony and Model-Based Analyses of Indels in Avian Nuclear Genes Reveal Congruent and Incongruent Phylogenetic Signals". Biology. 2 (1): 419–444. doi:10.3390/biology2010419. ISSN 2079-7737. PMC 4009869. PMID 24832669.
^ ^a ^b ^c Chen, Albert; White, Noor D.; Benson, Roger B.J.; Braun, Michael J.; Field, Daniel J. (23 August 2019). "Total-Evidence Framework Reveals Complex Morphological Evolution in Nightbirds (Strisores)". Diversity. 11 (9): 143. doi:10.3390/d11090143. ISSN 1424-2818.
^ "ITIS Standard Report Page: Aegothelidae". www.itis.gov. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
^ Hackett, S. J.; Kimball, R. T.; Reddy, S.; Bowie, R. C. K.; Braun, E. L.; Braun, M. J.; Chojnowski, J. L.; Cox, W. A.; Han, K.-L.; Harshman, J.; Huddleston, C. J. (27 June 2008). "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History". Science. 320 (5884): 1763–1768. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1763H. doi:10.1126/science.1157704. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 18583609. S2CID 6472805.
^ Jarvis, E. D.; Mirarab, S.; Aberer, A. J.; Li, B.; Houde, P.; Li, C.; Ho, S. Y. W.; Faircloth, B. C.; Nabholz, B.; Howard, J. T.; Suh, A. (12 December 2014). "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds". Science. 346 (6215): 1320–1331. Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1320J. doi:10.1126/science.1253451. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 4405904. PMID 25504713.
^ ^a ^b Reddy, Sushma; Kimball, Rebecca T.; Pandey, Akanksha; Hosner, Peter A.; Braun, Michael J.; Hackett, Shannon J.; Han, Kin-Lan; Harshman, John; Huddleston, Christopher J.; Kingston, Sarah; Marks, Ben D. (1 September 2017). "Why Do Phylogenomic Data Sets Yield Conflicting Trees? Data Type Influences the Avian Tree of Life more than Taxon Sampling". Systematic Biology. 66 (5): 857–879. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syx041. ISSN 1063-5157. PMID 28369655.
^ ^a ^b Braun, Edward L.; Cracraft, Joel; Houde, Peter (2019), Kraus, Robert H. S. (ed.), "Resolving the Avian Tree of Life from Top to Bottom: The Promise and Potential Boundaries of the Phylogenomic Era", Avian Genomics in Ecology and Evolution, Springer International Publishing, pp. 151–210, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16477-5_6, ISBN 978-3-030-16476-8, retrieved 7 June 2020
^ ^a ^b Prum, Richard O.; Berv, Jacob S.; Dornburg, Alex; Field, Daniel J.; Townsend, Jeffrey P.; Lemmon, Emily Moriarty; Lemmon, Alan R. (October 2015). "A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next-generation DNA sequencing". Nature. 526 (7574): 569–573. Bibcode:2015Natur.526..569P. doi:10.1038/nature15697. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26444237. S2CID 205246158.
^ ^a ^b White, Noor D.; Braun, Michael J. (December 2019). "Extracting phylogenetic signal from phylogenomic data: Higher-level relationships of the nightbirds (Strisores)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 141: 106611. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106611. PMID 31520780.
^ Chen, Albert; White, Noor D.; Benson, Roger B.J.; Braun, Michael J.; Field, Daniel J. (23 August 2019). "Total-Evidence Framework Reveals Complex Morphological Evolution in Nightbirds (Strisores)". Diversity. 11 (9): 143. doi:10.3390/d11090143. ISSN 1424-2818.
^ White, Noor D.; Braun, Michael J. (December 2019). "Extracting phylogenetic signal from phylogenomic data: Higher-level relationships of the nightbirds (Strisores)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 141: 106611. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106611. PMID 31520780.
^ "Taxonomic Updates – IOC World Bird List". Retrieved 29 July 2021.

[ksepka2013-1] Ksepka, D. T.; Clarke, J. A.; Nesbitt, S. J.; Kulp, F. B.; Grande, L. (2013). "Fossil evidence of wing shape in a stem relative of swifts and hummingbirds (Aves, Pan-Apodiformes)". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1761): 20130580. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0580

[Kuhletal2020-2] Kuhl., H.; Frankl-Vilches, C.; Bakker, A.; Mayr, G.; Nikolaus, G.; Boerno, S. T.; Klages, S.; Timmermann, B.; Gahr, M. (2020). "An unbiased molecular approach using 3'UTRs resolves the avian family-level tree of life". Molecular Biology and Evolution: 143. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa191. PMC 7783168.

[3] Whitney, William Dwight (1896), The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, vol. VII, New York: The Century Co., p. 5996

[Sangster2005-4] Sangster, George (2005). "A name for the clade formed by owlet-nightjars, swifts and hummingbirds (Aves)". Zootaxa. 799 (1): 1–6. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.799.1.1.

[Cabanis1847-5] Cabanis, Jean (1847). "Ornithologische Notizen. II". Archiv für Naturgeschichte (in German). 13 (1). Berlin: 308–352.

[Burmeister-6] Burmeister, Jean (1856), Systematische Uebersicht der Thiere Brasiliens : welche während einer Reise durch die Provinzen von Rio de Janeiro und Minas geraës gesammlt oder beobachtet Wurden (in German), vol. 2, Berlin: Georg Reimer, p. 311, doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13607

[Baird1858-7] Baird, Spencer F. (1858), General report on the zoology upon the zoology of the several Pacific railroad routes. Part II. Birds, Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean., vol. IX, Washington, D.C.: A. O. P. Nicholson, p. 128

[Cooper1870-8] Cooper, J. G. (1870), Ornithology Of California, vol. 1, Cambridge: Welch, Bigelow, & Co., p. 336

[Huxley1867-9] Huxley, Thomas H. (1867). "On the classification of birds; and on the taxonomic value of the modifications of certain of the cranial bones observable in that class". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1867: 415–472.

[Reichenow1884-10] Reichenow, Anton (1884), Die Vögel der zoologischen Gärten : Leitfaden zum Studium der Ornithologie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der in Gefangenschaft gehaltenen Vögel (in German), vol. 2, Leipzig: L. A. Kittler, p. 162, doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13560

[Sharpe1891-11] Sharpe, R. Bowdler (1891), A review of recent attempts to classify birds; an address delivered before the Second international ornithological congress on the 18th of May, 1891, London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 1–90, doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13335

[AOU1910-12] American Ornithologists' Union (1910), A Check-List of North American Birds (3rd ed.), New York: American Ornithologists' Union

[AOU1931-13] American Ornithologists' Union (1931), A Check-List of North American Birds (4th ed.), Lancaster, PA: Lancaster Press

[AOU1957-14] American Ornithologists' Union (1957), Check-List of North American Birds (5th ed.), Baltimore, MD: The Lord Baltimore Press

[AOU1983-15] American Ornithologists' Union (1983), Check-List of North American Birds (6th ed.), Lawrence, KS: Allen Press

[Hackett2008-16] Hackett, Shannon J.; et al. (2008). "A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history". Science. 320 (5884): 1763–1768. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1763H. doi:10.1126/science.1157704.

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@@ Line 76: / Line 76: @@
 The IUCN definition renders the order Caprimulgiformes identical to the clade Strisores. Authorities that favor the use of Strisores for this group (e.g., Yuri et al. 2013<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Yuri|first1=Tamaki|last2=Kimball|first2=Rebecca|last3=Harshman|first3=John|last4=Bowie|first4=Rauri|last5=Braun|first5=Michael|last6=Chojnowski|first6=Jena|last7=Han|first7=Kin-Lan|last8=Hackett|first8=Shannon|last9=Huddleston|first9=Christopher|last10=Moore|first10=William|last11=Reddy|first11=Sushma|date=2013-03-13|title=Parsimony and Model-Based Analyses of Indels in Avian Nuclear Genes Reveal Congruent and Incongruent Phylogenetic Signals|journal=Biology|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=419–444|doi=10.3390/biology2010419|issn=2079-7737|pmc=4009869|pmid=24832669|doi-access=free}}</ref> and Chen ''et al.'' 2019<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Albert|last2=White|first2=Noor D.|last3=Benson|first3=Roger B.J.|last4=Braun|first4=Michael J.|last5=Field|first5=Daniel J.|date=2019-08-23|title=Total-Evidence Framework Reveals Complex Morphological Evolution in Nightbirds (Strisores)|journal=Diversity|language=en|volume=11|issue=9|pages=143|doi=10.3390/d11090143|issn=1424-2818|doi-access=free}}</ref>) adopt a ''sensu stricto'' definition of the order, limiting to the family [[Nightjar|Caprimulgidae]]. They also elevate many (or even all) of the families traditionally placed in Caprimulgiformes to ordinal rank.<ref name=":5" /> This requires recognizing at least three additional orders: [[Nyctibiiformes]], [[Steatornithiformes]], and [[Podargiformes]]. Owlet-nightjars can be placed in their own order ([[Aegotheliformes]])<ref name=":5" /> or viewed as a family within [[Apodiformes]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Aegothelidae|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=177957#null|access-date=2020-06-18|website=www.itis.gov}}</ref>
-Traditionally, Caprimulgiformes were regarded, on morphological grounds, as being midway between the [[Owl|owls]] (Strigiformes) and the [[Swift (bird)|swifts]]. Like the owls, they are nocturnal hunters with a highly developed sense of sight, and like the swifts they are excellent flyers with small, weak legs. At one time or another, they have been allied with owls, swifts, [[Kingfisher|kingfishers]], [[Hoopoe|hoopoes]], [[Mousebird|mousebirds]], [[Hornbill|hornbills]], [[Coraciidae|rollers]], [[Bee-eater|bee-eaters]], [[Woodpecker|woodpeckers]], [[Trogon|trogons]] and [[hummingbirds]]. A close relationship to owls can be rejected since there is strong molecular evidence<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hackett|first1=S. J.|last2=Kimball|first2=R. T.|last3=Reddy|first3=S.|last4=Bowie|first4=R. C. K.|last5=Braun|first5=E. L.|last6=Braun|first6=M. J.|last7=Chojnowski|first7=J. L.|last8=Cox|first8=W. A.|last9=Han|first9=K.-L.|last10=Harshman|first10=J.|last11=Huddleston|first11=C. J.|date=2008-06-27|title=A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1157704|journal=Science|language=en|volume=320|issue=5884|pages=1763–1768|bibcode=2008Sci...320.1763H|doi=10.1126/science.1157704|issn=0036-8075|pmid=18583609|s2cid=6472805}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jarvis|first1=E. D.|last2=Mirarab|first2=S.|last3=Aberer|first3=A. J.|last4=Li|first4=B.|last5=Houde|first5=P.|last6=Li|first6=C.|last7=Ho|first7=S. Y. W.|last8=Faircloth|first8=B. C.|last9=Nabholz|first9=B.|last10=Howard|first10=J. T.|last11=Suh|first11=A.|date=2014-12-12|title=Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds|url=|journal=Science|language=en|volume=346|issue=6215|pages=1320–1331|bibcode=2014Sci...346.1320J|doi=10.1126/science.1253451|issn=0036-8075|pmc=4405904|pmid=25504713}}</ref> that owls are members of a clade, called [[Telluraves]], that excludes Caprimulgiformes.
+Traditionally, Caprimulgiformes were regarded, on morphological grounds, as being midway between the [[Owl|owls]] (Strigiformes) and the [[Swift (bird)|swifts]]. Like the owls, they are nocturnal hunters with a highly developed sense of sight, and like the swifts they are excellent flyers with small, weak legs. At one time or another, they have been allied with owls, swifts, [[Kingfisher|kingfishers]], [[Hoopoe|hoopoes]], [[Mousebird|mousebirds]], [[Hornbill|hornbills]], [[Coraciidae|rollers]], [[Bee-eater|bee-eaters]], [[Woodpecker|woodpeckers]], [[Trogon|trogons]] and [[hummingbirds]]. A close relationship to owls can be rejected since there is strong molecular evidence<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hackett|first1=S. J.|last2=Kimball|first2=R. T.|last3=Reddy|first3=S.|last4=Bowie|first4=R. C. K.|last5=Braun|first5=E. L.|last6=Braun|first6=M. J.|last7=Chojnowski|first7=J. L.|last8=Cox|first8=W. A.|last9=Han|first9=K.-L.|last10=Harshman|first10=J.|last11=Huddleston|first11=C. J.|date=2008-06-27|title=A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1157704|journal=Science|language=en|volume=320|issue=5884|pages=1763–1768|bibcode=2008Sci...320.1763H|doi=10.1126/science.1157704|issn=0036-8075|pmid=18583609|s2cid=6472805}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jarvis|first1=E. D.|last2=Mirarab|first2=S.|last3=Aberer|first3=A. J.|last4=Li|first4=B.|last5=Houde|first5=P.|last6=Li|first6=C.|last7=Ho|first7=S. Y. W.|last8=Faircloth|first8=B. C.|last9=Nabholz|first9=B.|last10=Howard|first10=J. T.|last11=Suh|first11=A.|date=2014-12-12|title=Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds|url=|journal=Science|language=en|volume=346|issue=6215|pages=1320–1331|bibcode=2014Sci...346.1320J|doi=10.1126/science.1253451|issn=0036-8075|pmc=4405904|pmid=25504713}}</ref> that owls are members of a clade, called [[Telluraves]], that excludes Caprimulgiformes.
 Based on analysis of [[DNA sequence]] data – notably β-[[fibrinogen]] [[intron]] 7 – Fain and Houde considered the families of the Caprimulgiformes to be members of the proposed clade [[Metaves]], which also includes the [[hoatzin]], [[tropicbirds]], [[sandgrouse]], [[pigeons]], [[kagu]], [[sunbittern]], [[Mesitornithidae|mesites]], [[flamingos]], [[grebes]] and [[Swift (bird)|swifts]] and [[hummingbirds]]. Metaves was also found by the expanded study of Ericson ''et al.'' (2006), but support for the clade was extremely weak.