Soukous: Difference between revisions

Soukous
Soukous
Stylistic origins	Congolese rumba;
Cultural origins	Late 1960s in DRC and Republic of the Congo, 1980s in France
Derivative forms	Muziki wa dansi and ndombolo
Regional scenes
	Congolese sound (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania), fast-paced soukous (Paris)
Other topics
	Soukous musicians

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Soukous (from French secousse, "shock, jolt, jerk") is a genre of dance music originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) and the Republic of the Congo (formerly French Congo).^[1] It derived from Congolese rumba in the 1960s, with faster dance rhythms and bright, intricate guitar improvisation,^[2] and gained popularity in the 1980s in France.^[3] Although often used by journalists as a synonym for Congolese rumba, both the music and dance associated with soukous differ from more traditional rumba, especially in its higher tempo, song structures and longer dance sequences.^[3]

Soukous fuses traditional Congolese rhythms with contemporary instruments. It customarily incorporates electric guitars, double bass, congas, clips, a third guitar (mi-solo), and brass/woodwinds.^[4]^[5] Soukous lyrics often explore themes of love, social commentary, amorous narratives, philosophical musings, and ordinary struggles and successes.^[2] Singers occasionally sing and croon in Lingala, Kikongo, French and Swahili and bands often consist of a primary vocalist accompanied by several backing singers.^[6]^[7]

Musical form

The basic line-up for a soukous band included three or four guitars, bass guitar, drums, brass, and vocals.^[8] The musical arrangement begins with a rumba section characterized by intricate harmony. As the song transitions into its mid-tempo and concluding rapid segments, harmonic structures often simplify to a triadic chordal progression.^[9] In Matonge, the rhythmic guitar typically accompanies mid-tempo vocal passages, with the bass and bass drums accentuating strong beats, while guitarists emphasize the offbeats (one and two and three and four and).^[9]

The percussive section frequently employs a relentless, rapid rhythm known as cavacha, which serves as the song's rhythmic foundation.^[10] Franco Luambo notably popularized the placement of the sébène at the conclusion of a song, employing a thumb-and-forefinger picking technique that creates the auditory illusion of dual guitar lines.^[11] During the sébène, the drummer signals transitions, guiding the guitarists to shift their parts synchronously with the lead player. The conventional Congolese progression for the sébène follows the I-IV-V-IV chord sequence. Collaborative interplay with fellow guitarists and the drummer enhances technical proficiency.^[9] Soukous bass lines, inspired by hand-drum percussion patterns, significantly contribute to the rhythmic and harmonic texture of the music. Emerging prominently during Mobutu Sese Seko's regime in Zaire, the assertive bass style of soukous emulated the movements of soldiers, known as marche militaire. This distinctive bass approach involves toggling between lower and higher registers, utilizing a picking technique with the thumb (p) and index finger (i).^[9]

During vocal performances, the lead guitarist establishes a groove that supports harmonized call-and-response vocals,^[9] often enhanced by an echo effect, creating a sometimes described hypnotic auditory experience. The music typically utilizes a 12/8 time signature and major chords articulated in arpeggiated forms.^[10] Soukous lead guitarists are renowned for their speed, precision, and nimble fingerwork, often navigating the higher registers of the fretboard.^[9]

History

Origins

The origins of the genre can be traced back to Congolese rumba, which emerged in the early 20th century when urban residents of the French Congo and the Belgian Congo embraced the fusion of intertribal Kongolese maringa dance music near Pool Malebo, infused with guitar techniques from Liberia.^[12] The outflow of Kru merchants and sailors from Liberia to Brazzaville during the mid-19th century introduced distinctive guitar-playing techniques that ultimately influenced the use of the accordion to emulate local "likembe" (thumb piano, best known worldwide as a mbira) rhythms.^[12]^[13] As early as 1902, the accordion's melodies resonated through the streets near Pool Malebo's factories.^[12]

The outbreak of World War I introduced a new wave of music and dance across the Lower Congo (present-day Kongo Central) and the Pool Malebo region.^[12] Emerging from labor camp and conceivably associated with the return of Matadi–Kinshasa Railway construction workers, local dances such as agbaya and maringa gained prominence.^[12] The circular agbaya dance was soon replaced by partnered maringa dance music, becoming increasingly ubiquitous in Matadi, Boma, Brazzaville, and Léopoldville (now Kinshasa).^[12] Initially, maringa bands featured the likembe for melody, a metal rod-struck bottle for rhythm, and a small skin-covered frame drum called patenge for counter-rhythms.^[12] However, by the 1920s, accordions and acoustic guitars progressively supplanted the likembe as melody instruments. The distinctive hip movements of maringa dancers, shifting their body weight between legs gained popularity.^[12] By 1935, partnered dancing's popularity dispersed expeditiously across the Congo basin, reaching even remote villages. Dance halls emerged in towns and rural areas, while conventional dancing persisted in palm branch huts.^[12]

In the early 1940s, Pool Malebo transformed from a barrier into a communication channel linking Brazzaville and Kinshasa.^[12] The Cuban son groups like Sexteto Habanero, Trio Matamoros, and Los Guaracheros de Oriente were broadcast on Radio Congo Belge, gaining popularity in the country.^[12]^[14]^[15] Due to influence of Cuban son, the maringa dance music—although unrelated to Cuban rumba—became known as "rumba Congolaise" as the imported records of Sexteto Habanero and Trio Matamoros were often mislabeled as "rumba".^[16]^[12] ^[17] Ethnomusicology Professor Kazadi wa Mukuna of Kent State University explicates that the term "rumba" persisted in the Congos due to recording industry interests. Recording studio proprietors reinterpreted the term rumba by attributing it new maringa rhythm while retaining the name.^[16] Consequently, their music became recognized as "Congolese rumba" or "African rumba". Antoine Wendo Kolosoy became the first star of Congolese rumba touring Europe and North America with his band Victoria Bakolo Miziki. His 1948 hit "Marie-Louise," co-written with guitarist Henri Bowane, gained popularity across West Africa.^[18]^[19] Congolese rumba gained prominence in Congolese music as early pioneers revolutionized their relationship with the instruments they held.^[20]^[21]

Formation and paternity debate

Etymologically, the term soukous, derived from the French verb secouer, denoting "to shake," initially described a person who moved jerkily but evolved into a dance style synonymous with vitality and cadence.^[22] The term secousse evolved over time, transitioning to soucousses and eventually soucous in colloquial language and the media, until the "c" fell out of favor, replaced by a "k".^[22]

During the early 1960s, a surge of young Congolese musicians sought to speed up the slow tempo of Congolese rumba, which precipitated the emergence of soukous. Artists began incorporating faster rhythms, and prominent guitar improvisation, often characterized by high-pitched, fast-paced lines imbued with more heightened African motif. The drummer shifts to the high-octane cadence, wherein the clave rhythm shifts to the snare drum, singers engage in rhythmic chanting (animation), and lead guitars take center stage.^[23]^[2]^[24]^[11]

Franco Luambo (left) and Dr. Nico Kasanda (right) are often credited as pioneers of soukous

The origins of soukous are a matter of dispute, with divergent attributions and viewpoints. Clément Ossinondé, a Congolese musicologist specializing in Congolese music, accredits Franco Luambo and TPOK Jazz with pioneering soukous, citing his odemba-inspired style, known for its fast tempo.^[25] Franco is also recognized for revolutionizing the genre's themes by infusing significant social and political issues into the lyrics, making the music a platform for social consciousness.^[23]^[2]^[24]^[11] Conversely, British writer Gary Stewart suggests that soukous evolved into both a music genre and dance style in Brazzaville, stemming from the establishment of the Super Band in 1964 by up-and-coming guitarist Jacques Kimbembe.^[26]^[27] The ensemble, later rebranded as Sinza, meaning "root stock," introduced soukous to Brazzaville's nightlife in 1966, supplanting the traditional boucher style of Les Bantous de la Capitale.^[26] Stewart further notes that Orchestre Sinza innovated soukous in 1968 with a new wrinkle called mossaka, and soon thereafter, Nico Kasanda introduced the kiri-kiri, which was based in part on the "jerk" from Western rock.^[26] Meanwhile, Les Bantous de la Capitale developed a fusion with Pablito's song "Masuwa," billed as a soucous-kiri-kiri. The kiri-kiri, which, according to Stewart, became a defining piece of the genre as exemplified by Nico's "Kiri-Kiri Mabina Ya Sika," telling the story of a man's quest through Kinshasa's streets to reunite with his partner for a kiri-kiri session at Fiesta Sukisa, gaining widespread acclaim.^[26] Established artists rapidly embraced the dance and disseminated it across the continent.^[28]

1960s and 1970s

Europe and the United States

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, soukous became a predominant popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, and the United States.^[29]^[30] During this period, a surge of Zairean musicians moved to Belgium and France, primarily driven by the hegemony of the Mobutu Sese Seko regime, which propagated propaganda songs as part of the Authenticité campaign to foster a sense of national identity and pride through ideological slogans of the one-party state, the Movement Populaire de la Révolution (MPR).^[31]^[32]^[33] This state ideological shift gradually infiltrated Zairean popular music, with popular musicians embracing the regime's ideology and documenting its achievements. Mobutu's encouragement of urban musicians paralleled Mao Zedong's approach in China, where music served the revolution.^[34]^[32]^[35] As a result, the globalization of Congolese urban music expanded, leading to a massive exodus of musicians to African and European countries, most notably Belgium and France.^[34]^[36] Many youths with limited employment options gravitated towards a music career, with Kinshasa's soukous scene becoming an attractive choice. However, some faced obstacles in establishing themselves in France.^[16]^[37]^[29] Against this backdrop, Tabu Ley Rochereau made history as the first African artist invited to perform at Paris's Olympia Hall in December 1970, where he attracted few connoisseurs and set a precedent for subsequent Zairean musicians.^[29]^[38]^[39]^[40] Abeti Masikini followed suit, becoming the second Zairean and the first female soukous artist to grace the Olympia stage alongside Mireille Mathieu and Hugues Aufray.^[41]^[42]^[43] This momentum continued with Masikini's performance at Carnegie Hall in New York on 11 March 1974, setting the stage for burgeoning singers, griots, and other lesser-known divas from Africa.^[29]^[44]

Concurrently, the M'Bamina orchestra ventured to Paris before seeking audiences in Italy in 1972.^[29] Pablo 'Porthos' Lubadika arrived in Paris in 1979 with singer Sam Mangwana through Lomé, Togo, after recording under the name the African All Stars. Mangwana, having collaborated with nearly every prominent figure in Congo, relocated to Abidjan in 1978 to pursue better opportunities. He formed a new band of Congolese economic exiles, who became regulars in Parisian session bands.^[45] The African All Stars' breakout hit, "Suzana Coulibaly," released on 31 December 1979, featured "simple, repetitive rhythms" at a faster tempo than traditional Congolese rumba.^[45] Mangwana's exclamation "soukous sophistiqué" as Lokassa Ya M'Bongo and Rigo Star crafted a "rock-solid" sebene solidified the record's direction, initiating an independent musical movement targeting the international market. As their influence grew, the African All Stars adapted the fast, rough stylings of youth bands in Brazzaville and Kinshasa, introducing this new tempo globally.^[45]

Africa

Across Africa, soukous dominated East African nightclubs' dance floors and played a pivotal role in shaping virtually all the styles of contemporary African popular music, including benga music, muziki wa dansi, Kidandali, Igbo highlife, palm-wine music, taarab, and inspiring the establishment of approximately 350 youth orchestras in Kinshasa, paving the way for new traditional dances, rhythmic patterns, and bands.^[46]^[47]^[11]^[48]

As sociopolitical turmoil in Zaire deteriorated in the 1970s, a great number of musicians ventured to Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, where orchestras sustained themselves through record sales and consistent stage performances. By the early 1970s, several Congolese bands had taken up the soukous beat in Kenyan nightclubs.^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53] The vivacious cavacha dance craze, propagated by bands like Zaïko Langa Langa and Orchestra Shama Shama, swept across East and Central Africa, exert influence on Kenyan musicians.^[54]^[55] The utilization of the cavacha rhythm, typically played on the snare drum or high-hat, became emblematic of the Zairean sound in Nairobi and was frequently adopted by regional bands. Prominent Congolese rumba Swahili bands in Nairobi formed around Tanzanian groups like Simba Wanyika, giving rise to offshoots like Les Wanyika and Super Wanyika Stars.^[46]^[56]^[50] Maroon Commandos, a Nairobi-based ensemble, assimilated the soukous style while infusing their distinctive artistic imprint. Japanese students in Kenya, including Rio Nakagawa, developed a fondness for Congolese music, with Rio eventually spearheading Yoka Choc Nippon, a Japanese-conceived Congolese rumba group.^[57]

Virgin Records produced albums by the Tanzanian-Zairean Orchestra Makassy and the Kenya-based Orchestra Super Mazembe. The Swahili song "Shauri Yako" ("It's your problem") gained widespread acclaim in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Another influential Zairean ensemble, Les Mangelepa, relocated to Kenya and achieved immense popularity across East Africa. Zairean singer Samba Mapangala and his band Orchestra Virunga, based in Nairobi, released the LP Malako, which became a pioneering release in Europe's emerging world music scene.^[55]^[58]^[59]^[60] Meanwhile, between 1976 and 1977, Sam Mangwana and the African All Stars dominated the dance halls of Kinshasa with records produced in West Africa, which were different from the sounds produced in the two-track studios of Kinshasa. Following this, there was a migration to Lomé and Cotonou, followed by Franco Luambo's departure to Belgium.^[29]

In Nigeria, soukous became widespread due to the transmission of Zairean music through Radio Brazzaville, where audiences were introduced to material from Zaire Vol. 6 (Soundpoint SOP 044, 1978).^[61]^[62] Soukous catalyzed the emergence of a distinct genre of guitar-based Igbo highlife music, exemplified by musicians like Oliver De Coque, the Oriental Brothers International, and their various imitators and followers.^[61]^[63]^[64]^[65] The superabundance of Nigerian pressings of Zairean music featured the musicians who influenced this trend, as seen in the case of Music From Zaire Vol. 6, which showcased artists from Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta's stable like Orchestre Kiam, Orchestre Lipua-Lipua, and the cavacha rhythm.^[61] There was a prevalent inclination to exclude the slower "A" sides of various recordings and instead focus on the climactic sebene, the faster and more improvisational second half.^[61] This structural paradigm became emblematic of Igbo guitar highlife recordings epitomized by the music style of Oliver De Coque and Oriental Brothers International.^[61]

Soukous experienced widespread diffusion across southern Africa, where it was both adopted and adapted into various offshoots, such as Zimbabwe's immensely popular sungura genre.^[66]

Colombia

During this epoch, African music began procuring popularity globally due to the world music movement. In Colombia, soukous gained traction, influencing local culture and playing a pivotal role in pioneering champeta.^[67]^[68] Zairean sailors introduced their records to Colombia, including the plate-numbered 45 RPM "El Mambote" by Congo's l'Orchestre Veve, which gained popularity.^[53] The locals began replicating musical arrangements by Congolese luminaries like Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay, Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Syran Mbenza, Lokassa Ya M'Bongo, Pépé Kallé, Rémy Sahlomon, and Kanda Bongo Man. Homegrown talents like Viviano Torres, Luis Towers, and Charles King added their original compositions to the mix, maintaining the core essence of Congolese soukous.^[52]^[69]^[53]

1980s and the Paris scene

As sociopolitical unrest persisted in Zaire throughout the 1980s, numerous musicians sought refuge across Africa, with a considerable number relocating to Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom. Some traversed through Central and East Africa before ultimately establishing their operational bases in Europe.^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74] Soukous gained traction in Brussels, Paris, and London, emerging as the only sub-Saharan African genre universally embraced in Belgium and France.^[75] According to Congolese columnist Achille Ngoye, Belgium offered a significant permanent operational base for numerous Zairean artists.^[29] Orchestras such as Los Nickelos, Yéyé National, and Les Mongali, predominantly composed of students, garnered significant attention in Belgium.^[29]^[76]^[77] Uncle Yorgho, a former member of OK Jazz, established a distribution epicenter for Zairean musical repertoire in Brussels in July 1980 (Visa 80).^[29] Meanwhile, Dieudonné Kabongo, Dizzy Mandjeku, and Ntesa Dalienst rose to prominence due to the bankruptcy of Belgian record label Fonior!, which prompted many Zairean artists like Lita Bembo and Matima to seek reputable distribution entities in Belgium, while others found solace in performing in religious choirs, which frequently toured Holland.^[29]

Soukous was chosen by Island Records producer Ben Mandelson and Togolese entrepreneur Richard Dick as the title of a 1982 compilation, Sound D'Afrique II: Soukous. The compilation included music from Mali and Cameroon alongside "Madeleina," a track from Pablo 'Porthos' Lubadika's 1981 album Ma Coco, which gained significant attention in Europe.^[78] Zaïko Langa Langa introduced the role of a dedicated hypeman—known as atalaku or animateur—into the ensemble of singers, setting a trend that almost every band on the Congolese music scene adopted, making atalakus emblematic of soukous as well as Congolese rumba.^[78] Zaïko Langa Langa achieved significant success, becoming the third generation of Congolese music as many founding members split off to form their own groups, which in turn splintered into more groups: Isife Lokole, Grand Zaïko Wa Wa, Langa Langa Stars, Clan Langa Langa, Choc Stars, and Anti-Choc among them.^[78]^[79] Papa Wemba and Viva La Musica made the longest-lasting impact, partly due to Wemba's ability to maintain a presence in both Paris and Kinshasa with dual bands, one focusing on soukous and another featuring French session players for international pop. In Parisian studios, the seben guitars blended with the tight drum machines and synths of zouk and funky disco makossa on numerous records.^[78]^[80]^[81] However, this fusion received criticism for deviating from authentic Congolese styles. Notable critics like Nyboma argued that the music had become commercialized and lacked emotional depth, calling for a return to the fundamentals of "beautiful melodies and highly tuned voices."^[82]^{: 384–385}^[83]

The Loketo group, established by Aurlus Mabélé and Diblo Dibala, emerged as a prominent soukous band during the 1980s and 1990s.

The influx of Zairean artists to France catalyzed the proliferation of Parisian studios as epicenters for soukous production, with an increasing reliance on synthesizers and electronic instruments. Some artists continued to record for the Congolese market, but others abandoned the demands of the Kinshasa public and set out to pursue new audiences.^[80]^[29]^[81] A sizable Zairean community established itself in France and Switzerland, with Zairean artists conducting training programs in the country.^[29] Kanda Bongo Man, another Paris-based artist, pioneered fast, short tracks conducive for play on dance floors worldwide, popularly known as kwassa kwassa, after the dance moves popularized in his and other artists' music videos. This music appealed to Africans and to new audiences as well. Artists like Diblo Dibala, Aurlus Mabélé, Tchicl Tchicaya, Jeannot Bel Musumbu, M'bilia Bel, Yondo Sister, Tinderwet, Loketo, Rigo Star, Nyboma, Madilu System, Soukous Stars and veterans like Pépé Kallé and Koffi Olomidé followed suit. Soon Paris became home to talented studio musicians who recorded for the African and Caribbean markets and filled out bands for occasional tours.^[49]^[84]^[55] Diblo Dibala and Aurlus Mabélé dominated the clubs with "Africa Moussou", creating a hyperactive style of super-speed soukous, dubbed TGV soukous by fans, alluding to France's high-speed trains.^[78]

Swede-Swede, an ensemble exclusively employing traditional instruments, operates out of Belgium, while Les Malo, primarily comprising former instructors from the National Institute of Arts in Kinshasa, specializes in Afro-jazz in Lyon.^[29] Tshala Muana gained prominence in Africa and Europe for her Luba traditional hip-swaying dance known as mutuashi, which make waves across African stadiums and earned her the moniker of "Queen of Mutuashi".^[29] Other female vocalists such as Déesse Mukangi, Djena Mandako, Faya Tess, Isa, and Abby Surya garnered widespread recognition.^[29]

Ndombolo

By the late 1990s, musicians such as Radja Kula, Wenge Musica, Koffi Olomidé, Général Defao, and Extra Musica metamorphosed soukous into raunchy, frenetic hip-swinging dance music, renaming it ndombolo.^[85]^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89] This style surged in popularity across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Canada, and the United States.^[90]^[91]^[92] However, by the early 2000s, ndombolo faced scrutiny, with accusations of obscenity leading to attempts to prohibit it from state media in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, Senegal, Mali, and Kenya.^[93]^[94]^[95]^[96] In February 2005, ndombolo music videos in the Democratic Republic of the Congo underwent censorship for indecency, which resulted in the banning of videos by Koffi Olomidé, JB MPiana, and Werrason from airwaves.^[97] Despite the censure, ndombolo record sales surged, remaining popular with new releases dominating discos, bars, and clubs across Africa.^[98]

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^ ^a ^b ^c Greenstreet, Morgan (December 7, 2018). "Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous". Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com. Retrieved June 11, 2024.
^ ^a ^b Stone, Ruth M., ed. (April 2, 2010). The Garland Handbook of African Music. Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 132–133. ISBN 9781135900014.
^ Messager (August 18, 2009). "Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise". Mbokamosika (in French). Retrieved August 27, 2023.
^ Sturman, Janet (February 26, 2019). The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture. Thousand Oaks, California, United States: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-5338-8.
^ ^a ^b Davies, Carole Boyce (July 29, 2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-85109-705-0.
^ ^a ^b Trillo, Richard (2016). The Rough Guide to Kenya. London, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 598. ISBN 9781848369733.
^ Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City, New York State: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-911-0.
^ ^a ^b Valdés, Vanessa K., ed. (June 2012). Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora. Albany, New York City, New York State: State University of New York Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 9781438442174.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hodgkinson, Will (July 8, 2010). "How African music made it big in Colombia". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
^ Adieu, Verckys (October 19, 2022). "congolese rumba". Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mutara, Eugene (April 29, 2008). "Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music". The New Times. Retrieved July 27, 2024.
^ "congolese rumba". Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits. October 19, 2022. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
^ Mwamba, Bibi (February 7, 2022). "L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale". Music in Africa (in French). Retrieved August 23, 2023.
^ "Shauri Yako — Orchestra Super Mazembe". Last.fm. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
^ "congo in kenya". muzikifan.com. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
^ Nyanga, Caroline. "Stars who came for music and found eternal resting place". The Standard. Retrieved July 10, 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Beadle, John (August 18, 2010). "From Congo via Nigeria". Likembe. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States. Retrieved May 12, 2024.
^ "Various – Music From Zaire Vol. 6". Discogs. Beaverton, Oregon, United States. 1978. Retrieved May 12, 2024.
^ "Google Honors Oliver de Coque with a Doodle on his 74th Posthumous Birthday". BellaNaija. Lagos, Nigeria. April 14, 2021. Retrieved May 12, 2024.
^ Collins, John (1994). The Ghanaian Concert Party: African Popular Entertainment at the Cross Roads. Buffalo, New York State, United States: State University of New York at Buffalo. p. 47.
^ The Beat: Volume 14. Melbourne, Australia: Beat Magazine. 1995. p. 41.
^ Musira, Patrick (July 6, 2011). "Slow down on ndombolo song and dance Congolese urged". Theafronews.com. Retrieved September 20, 2024.
^ Malandra, Ocean (December 2020). Moon Cartagena & Colombia's Caribbean Coast. New York City, New York State, United States: Avalon Publishing. ISBN 9781640499416.
^ Koskoff, Ellen, ed. (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; The United States and Canada; Europe; Oceania. Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 185.
^ Slater, Russ (January 17, 2020). "Colombia's African Soul". Long Live Vinyl. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
^ Davies, Carole Boyce (July 29, 2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-85109-705-0.
^ Trillo, Richard (2016). The Rough Guide to Kenya. London, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 598. ISBN 9781848369733.
^ Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City, New York State: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-911-0.
^ Valdés, Vanessa K., ed. (June 2012). Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora. Albany, New York City, New York State: State University of New York Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 9781438442174.
^ Hodgkinson, Will (July 8, 2010). "How African music made it big in Colombia". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
^ Daoudi, Bouziane (August 29, 1998). "World. Le chanteur ex-zaïrois en concert à l'Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo de la rumba. Koffi Olomidé. Samedi à 23 heures à l'Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris IXe. Tél.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Loi", Sonodisc" [World. The ex-Zairian singer in concert at the Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo of rumba. Koffi Olomide. Saturday at 11 p.m. at the Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris 9th. Tel.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: “Law”, Sonodisc.]. Libération (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved December 29, 2023.
^ Mbu-Mputu, Norbert X. L'AUTRE LUMUMBA. Peuple du CONGO: Histoire, résistances, assassinats et victoires sur le front de la Guerre froide (in French). Morrisville, North Carolina, United States. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-244-77422-6.
^ Graham, Ronnie, ed. (1992). The World of African Music: Volume 1. London, England, United Kingdom: Pluto Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-948390-03-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Greenstreet, Morgan (December 7, 2018). "Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous". Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com. Retrieved June 11, 2024.
^ Lavaine, Bertrand (September 30, 2020). "Zaïko Langa Langa, une histoire congolaise" [Zaïko Langa Langa, a Congolese story]. RFI Musique (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved May 27, 2024.
^ ^a ^b Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-911-0.
^ ^a ^b Vogel, Christoph; Network, part of the Guardian Africa (August 23, 2013). "Say my name: How 'shout-outs' keep Congolese musicians in the money". the Guardian. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
^ Stewart, Gary (2000). Rumba on the river : a history of the popular music of the two Congos. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-744-7.
^ Public Radio International, Afropop Worldwide, program on "The Four Stars," recorded February 1996 from KSKA Anchorage.
^ "Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance". BBC News. September 29, 2014. Retrieved August 27, 2023.
^ Ngaira, Amos (August 22, 2020). "Dancing styles innovator Radja Kula Mbuta takes last bow". Nation. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
^ Mafuta, Masand (September 5, 2020). "Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila s'engage mordicus pour l'organisation des obsèques de Radja Kula" [Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila is committed to organizing the funeral of Radja Kula]. AxeNordSud Media (in French). Retrieved January 13, 2024.
^ George, Nelson; Carr, Daphne (October 20, 2008). Best Music Writing 2008. New York City, New York State, United States: Hachette Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7867-2612-7.
^ Buettner, Elizabeth (March 24, 2016). Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 313. ISBN 978-1-316-59470-4.
^ Makumeno, Emery (July 1, 2022). "Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ?". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved November 12, 2023.
^ George, Nelson; Carr, Daphne (October 20, 2008). Best Music Writing 2008. New York City, New York State, United States: Hachette Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7867-2612-7.
^ Buettner, Elizabeth (March 24, 2016). Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 313. ISBN 978-1-316-59470-4.
^ Makumeno, Emery (July 1, 2022). "Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ?". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved November 12, 2023.
^ "Anger at Cameroon dance ban; BBC News", BBC News, July 25, 2000
^ Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel (December 14, 2015). Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 979-8-216-04273-0.
^ Trillo, Richard (2002). Kenya. London, England, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-85828-859-8.
^ Nzale, Félix (February 3, 2004). "Sénégal: Ndombolo, mapuka : ces danses jugées indésirables" [Senegal: Ndombolo, mapuka: these dances considered undesirable]. Sudquotidien.sn (in French). Retrieved November 10, 2023.
^ Mutara, Eugene (April 29, 2008). "Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music". Newtimes.co.rw. Retrieved May 12, 2024.
^ Woods, Sarah (July 6, 2017). The 50 Greatest Musical Places. North Road, London, United Kingdom: Icon Books. ISBN 978-1-78578-190-2.

Bibliography

Gary Stewart (2000). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-368-9.
Wheeler, Jesse Samba (March 2005). "Rumba Lingala as Colonial Resistance". Image & Narrative (10). Archived from the original on January 15, 2016. Retrieved July 14, 2014.

External links

Soukous at Curlie
The Sound of Sunshine: How soukous saved my life
Rare recording (1961) of rural finger style Soukous guitarist Pierre Gwa with home made guitar
GuitOp81's Soukous Guitar site Archived February 27, 2017, at the Wayback Machine

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[4] Davies, Carole Boyce (July 29, 2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture [3 volumes]. Santa Barbara, California: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-85109-705-0.

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[:15-32] Sturman, Janet, ed. (February 26, 2019). The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture. Thousand Oaks, California, United States: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-5337-1.

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[:19-34] Wa Mukuna, Kazadi (December 7, 2014). "A brief history of popular music in DRC". Music In Africa. Retrieved May 13, 2024.

[35] Jean-Jacques, Daniel; Falola, Toyin, eds. (December 14, 2015). Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]. Santa Barbara, California, United States: ABC-CLIO. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-59884-666-9.

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[37] Rand, Jonas (December 17, 2016). "Congolese Music, 1970s". From the Sahel to the Cape. Retrieved May 11, 2024.

[38] White, Bob W. (June 6, 2008). Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-8223-8926-2.

[39] Africa Events: Volume 1. Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania: Dar es Salaam Limited. 1985. pp. 60–61.

[40] Barlow, Sean; Eyre, Banning; Vartoogian, Jack (1995). Afropop!: An Illustrated Guide to Contemporary African Music. New York, New York State, United States: Chartwell Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-7858-0443-7.

[:24-41] "musicMe: Biographie de Abeti Maskini". musicMe (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved November 14, 2023.

[:52-42] "Abeti Masikini Finant Elisabeth 1954 -1994". Universrumbacongolaise.com (in French). June 19, 2012. Retrieved November 17, 2023.

[43] Bergman, Billy (1985). African Pop: Goodtime Kings. Blandford. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-7137-1551-4.

[:25-44] Fraser, C. Gerald (March 11, 1974). "African Singer, Too, Got A Start in Church Choir". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 16, 2023.

[:27-45] Greenstreet, Morgan (December 7, 2018). "Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous". Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com. Retrieved June 11, 2024.

[:12-46] Stone, Ruth M., ed. (April 2, 2010). The Garland Handbook of African Music. Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 132–133. ISBN 9781135900014.

[47] Messager (August 18, 2009). "Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise". Mbokamosika (in French). Retrieved August 27, 2023.

[48] Sturman, Janet (February 26, 2019). The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture. Thousand Oaks, California, United States: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-5338-8.

[:11-49] Davies, Carole Boyce (July 29, 2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-85109-705-0.

[:23-50] Trillo, Richard (2016). The Rough Guide to Kenya. London, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 598. ISBN 9781848369733.

[51] Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City, New York State: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-911-0.

[:73-52] Valdés, Vanessa K., ed. (June 2012). Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora. Albany, New York City, New York State: State University of New York Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 9781438442174.

[:84-53] Hodgkinson, Will (July 8, 2010). "How African music made it big in Colombia". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 23, 2023.

[54] Adieu, Verckys (October 19, 2022). "congolese rumba". Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits. Retrieved August 27, 2023.

[:29-55] Mutara, Eugene (April 29, 2008). "Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music". The New Times. Retrieved July 27, 2024.

[:32-56] "congolese rumba". Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits. October 19, 2022. Retrieved July 10, 2023.

[:10-57] Mwamba, Bibi (February 7, 2022). "L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale". Music in Africa (in French). Retrieved August 23, 2023.

[58] "Shauri Yako — Orchestra Super Mazembe". Last.fm. Retrieved July 10, 2023.

[59] "congo in kenya". muzikifan.com. Retrieved July 10, 2023.

[60] Nyanga, Caroline. "Stars who came for music and found eternal resting place". The Standard. Retrieved July 10, 2023.

[:18-61] Beadle, John (August 18, 2010). "From Congo via Nigeria". Likembe. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States. Retrieved May 12, 2024.

[62] "Various – Music From Zaire Vol. 6". Discogs. Beaverton, Oregon, United States. 1978. Retrieved May 12, 2024.

[63] "Google Honors Oliver de Coque with a Doodle on his 74th Posthumous Birthday". BellaNaija. Lagos, Nigeria. April 14, 2021. Retrieved May 12, 2024.

[64] Collins, John (1994). The Ghanaian Concert Party: African Popular Entertainment at the Cross Roads. Buffalo, New York State, United States: State University of New York at Buffalo. p. 47.

[65] The Beat: Volume 14. Melbourne, Australia: Beat Magazine. 1995. p. 41.

[66] Musira, Patrick (July 6, 2011). "Slow down on ndombolo song and dance Congolese urged". Theafronews.com. Retrieved September 20, 2024.

[67] Malandra, Ocean (December 2020). Moon Cartagena & Colombia's Caribbean Coast. New York City, New York State, United States: Avalon Publishing. ISBN 9781640499416.

[68] Koskoff, Ellen, ed. (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; The United States and Canada; Europe; Oceania. Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 185.

[:9-69] Slater, Russ (January 17, 2020). "Colombia's African Soul". Long Live Vinyl. Retrieved August 23, 2023.

[:112-70] Davies, Carole Boyce (July 29, 2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-85109-705-0.

[:232-71] Trillo, Richard (2016). The Rough Guide to Kenya. London, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 598. ISBN 9781848369733.

[72] Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City, New York State: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-911-0.

[:732-73] Valdés, Vanessa K., ed. (June 2012). Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora. Albany, New York City, New York State: State University of New York Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 9781438442174.

[:842-74] Hodgkinson, Will (July 8, 2010). "How African music made it big in Colombia". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 23, 2023.

[75] Daoudi, Bouziane (August 29, 1998). "World. Le chanteur ex-zaïrois en concert à l'Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo de la rumba. Koffi Olomidé. Samedi à 23 heures à l'Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris IXe. Tél.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Loi", Sonodisc" [World. The ex-Zairian singer in concert at the Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo of rumba. Koffi Olomide. Saturday at 11 p.m. at the Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris 9th. Tel.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: “Law”, Sonodisc.]. Libération (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved December 29, 2023.

[76] Mbu-Mputu, Norbert X. L'AUTRE LUMUMBA. Peuple du CONGO: Histoire, résistances, assassinats et victoires sur le front de la Guerre froide (in French). Morrisville, North Carolina, United States. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-244-77422-6.

[77] Graham, Ronnie, ed. (1992). The World of African Music: Volume 1. London, England, United Kingdom: Pluto Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-948390-03-6.

[:28-78] Greenstreet, Morgan (December 7, 2018). "Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous". Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com. Retrieved June 11, 2024.

[79] Lavaine, Bertrand (September 30, 2020). "Zaïko Langa Langa, une histoire congolaise" [Zaïko Langa Langa, a Congolese story]. RFI Musique (in French). Paris, France. Retrieved May 27, 2024.

[:16-80] Stewart, Gary (May 5, 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Brooklyn, New York City: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-911-0.

[:17-81] Vogel, Christoph; Network, part of the Guardian Africa (August 23, 2013). "Say my name: How 'shout-outs' keep Congolese musicians in the money". the Guardian. Retrieved August 27, 2023.

[Stewart-82] Stewart, Gary (2000). Rumba on the river : a history of the popular music of the two Congos. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-744-7.

[Afropop-83] Public Radio International, Afropop Worldwide, program on "The Four Stars," recorded February 1996 from KSKA Anchorage.

[Kanda_Bongo_Man_dances_a_new_dance-84] "Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance". BBC News. September 29, 2014. Retrieved August 27, 2023.

[85] Ngaira, Amos (August 22, 2020). "Dancing styles innovator Radja Kula Mbuta takes last bow". Nation. Retrieved January 13, 2024.

[86] Mafuta, Masand (September 5, 2020). "Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila s'engage mordicus pour l'organisation des obsèques de Radja Kula" [Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila is committed to organizing the funeral of Radja Kula]. AxeNordSud Media (in French). Retrieved January 13, 2024.

[:42-87] George, Nelson; Carr, Daphne (October 20, 2008). Best Music Writing 2008. New York City, New York State, United States: Hachette Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7867-2612-7.

[88] Buettner, Elizabeth (March 24, 2016). Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 313. ISBN 978-1-316-59470-4.

[89] Makumeno, Emery (July 1, 2022). "Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ?". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved November 12, 2023.

[:43-90] George, Nelson; Carr, Daphne (October 20, 2008). Best Music Writing 2008. New York City, New York State, United States: Hachette Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7867-2612-7.

[:162-91] Buettner, Elizabeth (March 24, 2016). Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 313. ISBN 978-1-316-59470-4.

[92] Makumeno, Emery (July 1, 2022). "Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ?". BBC News Afrique (in French). Retrieved November 12, 2023.

[ndb1-93] "Anger at Cameroon dance ban; BBC News", BBC News, July 25, 2000

[:72-94] Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel (December 14, 2015). Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]. New York City, New York State, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 979-8-216-04273-0.

[95] Trillo, Richard (2002). Kenya. London, England, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-85828-859-8.

[:82-96] Nzale, Félix (February 3, 2004). "Sénégal: Ndombolo, mapuka : ces danses jugées indésirables" [Senegal: Ndombolo, mapuka: these dances considered undesirable]. Sudquotidien.sn (in French). Retrieved November 10, 2023.

[97] Mutara, Eugene (April 29, 2008). "Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music". Newtimes.co.rw. Retrieved May 12, 2024.

[98] Woods, Sarah (July 6, 2017). The 50 Greatest Musical Places. North Road, London, United Kingdom: Icon Books. ISBN 978-1-78578-190-2.

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@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 | stylistic_origins = {{hlist|[[Congolese rumba]]}}
 | cultural_origins  = Late 1960s in [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DRC]] and [[Republic of the Congo]], 1980s in [[France]]
-| derivatives       = [[Muziki wa dansi]]
+| derivatives       = [[Muziki wa dansi]] and [[ndombolo]]
 | subgenrelist      =
 | subgenres         =
@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 }}
-'''Soukous''' (from [[French language|French]] ''[[wikt:secousse|secousse]]'', "shock, jolt, jerk") is a genre of [[dance music]] originating from the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (formerly [[Zaire]]) and  the [[Republic of the Congo]] (formerly [[French Congo]]).<ref name="encyc1">{{cite book|last1=Appiah|first1=Anthony|last2=Gates|first2=Henry Louis|title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|pages=407–408|isbn=9780195337709|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=RA1-PA407}}</ref> It derived from [[Congolese rumba]] in the 1960s, with faster dance rhythms and bright, intricate [[musical improvisation|guitar improvisation]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa |last2=Gates (Jr.) |first2=Henry Louis |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=407–408 |language=en}}</ref> and gained popularity in the 1980s in [[France]].<ref name="encyc2">{{cite book |last1=Peek |first1=Philip M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmmUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA548 |title=African Folklore: An Encyclopedia |last2=Yankah |first2=Kwesi |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781135948733 |location=New York, NY |page=548}}</ref> Although often used by journalists as a synonym for Congolese rumba, both the music and dance associated with soukous differ from more traditional rumba, especially in its higher tempo, song structures and longer dance sequences.<ref name="encyc2" />
+'''Soukous''' (from [[French language|French]] ''[[wikt:secousse|secousse]]'', "shock, jolt, jerk") is a genre of [[dance music]] originating from the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (formerly [[Zaire]]) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (formerly [[French Congo]]).<ref name="encyc1">{{cite book|last1=Appiah|first1=Anthony|last2=Gates|first2=Henry Louis|title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|pages=407–408|isbn=9780195337709|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=RA1-PA407}}</ref> It derived from [[Congolese rumba]] in the 1960s, with faster dance rhythms and bright, intricate [[musical improvisation|guitar improvisation]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa |last2=Gates (Jr.) |first2=Henry Louis |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=407–408 |language=en}}</ref> and gained popularity in the 1980s in [[France]].<ref name="encyc2">{{cite book |last1=Peek |first1=Philip M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmmUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA548 |title=African Folklore: An Encyclopedia |last2=Yankah |first2=Kwesi |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781135948733 |location=New York, NY |page=548}}</ref> Although often used by journalists as a synonym for Congolese rumba, both the music and dance associated with soukous differ from more traditional rumba, especially in its higher tempo, song structures and longer dance sequences.<ref name="encyc2" />
 Soukous fuses traditional Congolese rhythms with contemporary instruments. It customarily incorporates [[electric guitar]]s, [[double bass]], [[conga]]s, clips, a third guitar (''mi-solo''), and [[brass]]/[[Woodwind instrument|woodwinds]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture [3 volumes] |date=2008-07-29 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=849 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Domosh |first1=Mona |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKLq8YzQMH4C |title=The Human Mosaic |last2=Jordan-Bychkov |first2=Terry G. |last3=Neumann |first3=Roderick P. |last4=Price |first4=Patricia L. |publisher=Macmillan |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4292-7200-1 |pages=416 |language=en}}</ref> Soukous lyrics often explore themes of [[love]], [[social commentary]], [[Intimate relationship|amorous narratives]], philosophical musings, and ordinary [[Struggle session|struggles]] and [[success]]es.<ref name=":0" /> Singers occasionally sing and croon in [[Lingala]], [[Kikongo]], [[French language|French]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and bands often consist of a primary vocalist accompanied by several [[Backing vocalist|backing singers]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Olwig |first1=Karen Fog |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXaBAgAAQBAJ |title=Work and Migration: Life and Livelihoods in a Globalizing World |last2=Sorensen |first2=Ninna Nyberg |date=2003-08-27 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-50306-3 |location=Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |pages=56 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=K.F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hK84AQAAIAAJ&q=soukous%20swahili,%20french%20and%20lingala |title=Rhythm Music Magazine: RMM |publisher=K.F. Russell |year=1997 |pages=45 |language=en}}</ref>
 == Musical form ==
-The basic line-up for a soukous band included three or four guitars, [[bass guitar]], [[drum]]s, [[brass]], and [[Singing|vocals]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boomer |first1=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tI3cBAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+20+musicians&pg=PA7 |title=Bassist's Bible: How to Play Every Bass Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco |last2=Berry |first2=Mick |last3=Bufe |first3=Chaz |date=2014-01-01 |publisher=See Sharp Press |isbn=978-1-937276-25-6 |language=en}}</ref> A soukous arrangement commences with a rumba section featuring intricate [[harmony]]. However, as the song progresses into the mid-[[tempo]] and final fast sections, harmony often simplifies to [[Three-chord song|three chords]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Eyre |first=Banning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDLXx5vxTn4C |title=Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music |publisher=Alfred Music Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7390-2474-4 |location=Los Angeles, California, United States |pages=12–17 |language=en}}</ref> In [[Matonge (Kinshasa)|Matonge]], the rhythmic guitar typically chaperones mid-tempo vocals, with [[Bass (sound)|bass]] and [[bass drum]]s emphasizing strong beats while guitarists accentuate offbeats (one ''and'' two ''and'' three ''and'' four ''and'').<ref name=":5" /> During singing, the [[lead guitar]]ist creates a [[Groove (music)|groove]] to support harmonized [[Call and response|call-and-response]] vocals.<ref name=":5" /> Soukous lead guitarists are celebrated for their speed, precision, and nimble fingerwork, often high on the [[Fingerboard|fretboard]].<ref name=":5" />
+The basic line-up for a soukous band included three or four guitars, [[bass guitar]], [[drum]]s, [[brass]], and [[Singing|vocals]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boomer |first1=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tI3cBAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+20+musicians&pg=PA7 |title=Bassist's Bible: How to Play Every Bass Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco |last2=Berry |first2=Mick |last3=Bufe |first3=Chaz |date=2014-01-01 |publisher=See Sharp Press |isbn=978-1-937276-25-6 |language=en}}</ref> The musical arrangement begins with a [[Congolese rumba|rumba]] section characterized by intricate [[harmony]]. As the song transitions into its mid-tempo and concluding rapid segments, harmonic structures often simplify to a [[Triad (music)|triadic chordal]] progression.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Eyre |first=Banning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDLXx5vxTn4C |title=Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music |publisher=Alfred Music Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7390-2474-4 |location=Los Angeles, California, United States |pages=12–17 |language=en}}</ref> In [[Matonge (Kinshasa)|Matonge]], the rhythmic guitar typically accompanies mid-tempo vocal passages, with the [[Bass (sound)|bass]] and [[Bass drum|bass drums]] accentuating strong beats, while guitarists emphasize the offbeats (one ''and'' two ''and'' three ''and'' four ''and'').<ref name=":5" />
-[[Franco Luambo]] popularized placing the [[sébène]] at a song's end and using a thumb-and-forefinger picking technique for a sonic illusion of two guitar lines.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=African |first=New |date=2018-08-15 |title=The mixed legacy of DRC musician Franco |url=https://newafricanmagazine.com/17337/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=New African Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref> During a sébène, the drummer signals changes, guiding guitarists to shift parts in sync with the lead player. The typical Congolese progression for sébène is I-IV-V-IV. Collaborating with other guitarists and a drummer enhances proficiency.<ref name=":5" />
+The percussive section frequently employs a relentless, rapid rhythm known as [[cavacha]], which serves as the song's rhythmic foundation.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=December 7, 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Franco Luambo]] notably popularized the placement of the [[Sebene|sébène]] at the conclusion of a song, employing a thumb-and-forefinger picking technique that creates the auditory illusion of dual guitar lines.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=African |first=New |date=2018-08-15 |title=The mixed legacy of DRC musician Franco |url=https://newafricanmagazine.com/17337/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=New African Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref> During the sébène, the drummer signals transitions, guiding the guitarists to shift their parts synchronously with the lead player. The conventional Congolese progression for the sébène follows the I-IV-V-IV chord sequence. Collaborative interplay with fellow guitarists and the drummer enhances technical proficiency.<ref name=":5" /> Soukous [[Bassline|bass lines]], inspired by [[Hand drum|hand-drum]] percussion patterns, significantly contribute to the rhythmic and harmonic texture of the music. Emerging prominently during [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]'s regime in [[Zaire]], the assertive bass style of soukous emulated the movements of soldiers, known as ''marche militaire.'' This distinctive bass approach involves toggling between lower and higher [[Register (music)|registers]], utilizing a picking technique with the thumb (''p'') and index finger (''i'').<ref name=":5" />
+During vocal performances, the [[Lead guitar|lead guitarist]] establishes a [[Groove (music)|groove]] that supports harmonized [[Call and response|call-and-response]] vocals,<ref name=":5" /> often enhanced by an echo effect, creating a sometimes described hypnotic auditory experience. The music typically utilizes a 12/8 [[time signature]] and [[Major chord|major chords]] articulated in [[Arpeggio|arpeggiated]] forms.<ref name=":20" /> Soukous lead guitarists are renowned for their speed, precision, and nimble fingerwork, often navigating the higher [[Register (music)|registers]] of the [[Fingerboard|fretboard]].<ref name=":5" />
-Soukous [[Bassline|bass parts]], derived from [[Hand drum|hand-drum]] percussion, contribute strong rhythm and harmony. Emerging during [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]'s regime in [[Zaire]], soukous music's aggressive bass style imitated soldiers' movements, known as ''marche militaire''. This bass style involves toggling between low and high lines, employing picking with ''p'' and ''i''.<ref name=":5" />
 ==History==
 === Origins ===
@@ Line 35: / Line 36: @@
 === Formation and paternity debate ===
-[[File:Orchestra OK Jazz à Léopoldville de 1955 à 1965.jpg|left|thumb|214x214px|Drummer of [[TPOK Jazz]] in Léopoldville]]Etymologically, the term ''soukous'', derived from the French verb ''secouer'', denoting "to shake," initially described a person who moved jerkily but evolved into a dance style synonymous with vitality and cadence.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT194&dq=Bavon+and+Bholen's+N%C3%A9gro+Succ%C3%A8s+is+'le+premier+au+marathon+du+soucous,+Etoile+du+Congo+announced+in+1968.&hl=en |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York State, United States |language=en}}</ref> The term ''secousse'' evolved over time, transitioning to ''soucousses'' and eventually ''soucous'' in [[Colloquialism|colloquial language]] and the media, until the "''c''" fell out of favor, replaced by a "''k''".<ref name=":7" />
+[[File:Orchestra OK Jazz à Léopoldville de 1955 à 1965.jpg|left|thumb|214x214px|Drummer of [[TPOK Jazz]] in Léopoldville]]Etymologically, the term ''soukous'', derived from the French verb ''secouer'', denoting "to shake," initially described a person who moved jerkily but evolved into a dance style synonymous with vitality and cadence.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Bavon+and+Bholen's+N%C3%A9gro+Succ%C3%A8s+is+'le+premier+au+marathon+du+soucous,+Etoile+du+Congo+announced+in+1968.&pg=PT194 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York State, United States |language=en}}</ref> The term ''secousse'' evolved over time, transitioning to ''soucousses'' and eventually ''soucous'' in [[Colloquialism|colloquial language]] and the media, until the "''c''" fell out of favor, replaced by a "''k''".<ref name=":7" />
-During the early 1960s, a surge of young Congolese musicians sought to speed up the slow tempo of Congolese rumba, which precipitated the emergence of soukous. Artists began incorporating faster rhythms, and prominent guitar improvisation, often characterized by high-pitched, fast-paced lines imbued with more heightened African [[Motif (music)|motif]]. The drummer shifts to the high-octane cadence, wherein the [[Clave (rhythm)|clave rhythm]] shifts to the [[snare drum]], singers engage in rhythmic chanting ([[animation|''animation'']]), and lead guitars take center stage.<ref name=":8">{{cite news |last1=AP |date=1989 |title=Franco, 51, Zairian Band Leader And Creator of the Soukous Style |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/17/obituaries/franco-51-zairian-band-leader-and-creator-of-the-soukous-style.html |access-date=18 November 2022 |work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa |last2=Gates (Jr.) |first2=Henry Louis |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=407 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6" />
+During the early 1960s, a surge of young Congolese musicians sought to speed up the slow tempo of Congolese rumba, which precipitated the emergence of soukous. Artists began incorporating faster rhythms, and prominent guitar improvisation, often characterized by high-pitched, fast-paced lines imbued with more heightened African [[Motif (music)|motif]]. The drummer shifts to the high-octane cadence, wherein the [[Clave (rhythm)|clave rhythm]] shifts to the [[snare drum]], singers engage in rhythmic chanting (''[[animation]]''), and lead guitars take center stage.<ref name=":8">{{cite news |last1=AP |date=1989 |title=Franco, 51, Zairian Band Leader And Creator of the Soukous Style |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/17/obituaries/franco-51-zairian-band-leader-and-creator-of-the-soukous-style.html |access-date=18 November 2022 |work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa |last2=Gates (Jr.) |first2=Henry Louis |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=407 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6" />
 {{Multiple image
 | total_width       = 280
@@ Line 46: / Line 47: @@
 }}
-The origins of soukous are a matter of dispute, with divergent attributions and viewpoints. Clément Ossinondé, a Congolese musicologist specializing in Congolese music, accredits [[Franco Luambo]] and [[TPOK Jazz]] with pioneering soukous, citing his ''odemba''-inspired style, known for its fast tempo.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=2 March 2020 |title=Voyage Musical : l'aller et retour de la rumba |trans-title=Musical Journey: the back and forth of the rumba |url=https://www.congopage.com/Voyage-musical-l-aller-et-retour-de-la-rumba |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Congopage.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Franco is also recognized for revolutionizing the genre's themes by infusing significant [[Social issue|social]] and [[Political issue|political]] issues into the lyrics, making the music a platform for [[social consciousness]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":6" /> Conversely, British writer Gary Stewart suggests that soukous evolved into both a music genre and dance style in Brazzaville, stemming from the establishment of the Super Band in 1964 by up-and-coming guitarist Jacques Kimbembe.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT195&dq=Orchestre+Sinza+introduced+the+soukous+to+Brazzaville+bar+patrons+in+1966+but+lacked+the+connections&hl=en |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York State, United States |language=en}}</ref> The ensemble, later rebranded as Sinza, meaning "root stock," introduced soukous to Brazzaville's nightlife in 1966, supplanting the traditional boucher style of Les Bantous de la Capitale.<ref name=":14" /> Stewart further notes that Orchestre Sinza innovated soukous in 1968 with a new wrinkle called ''mossaka'', and soon thereafter, [[Nico Kasanda]] introduced the kiri-kiri, which was based in part on the "jerk" from [[Rock music|Western rock]].<ref name=":14" /> Meanwhile, Les Bantous de la Capitale developed a fusion with Pablito's song "Masuwa," billed as a ''soucous''-''kiri-kiri''. The kiri-kiri, which, according to Stewart, became a defining piece of the genre as exemplified by Nico's "Kiri-Kiri Mabina ya Sika," telling the story of a man's quest through Kinshasa's streets to reunite with his partner for a kiri-kiri session at Fiesta Sukisa, and gaining immense acclaim.<ref name=":14" />
+The origins of soukous are a matter of dispute, with divergent attributions and viewpoints. Clément Ossinondé, a Congolese musicologist specializing in Congolese music, accredits [[Franco Luambo]] and [[TPOK Jazz]] with pioneering soukous, citing his ''odemba''-inspired style, known for its fast tempo.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=2 March 2020 |title=Voyage Musical : l'aller et retour de la rumba |trans-title=Musical Journey: the back and forth of the rumba |url=https://www.congopage.com/Voyage-musical-l-aller-et-retour-de-la-rumba |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Congopage.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Franco is also recognized for revolutionizing the genre's themes by infusing significant [[Social issue|social]] and [[Political issue|political]] issues into the lyrics, making the music a platform for [[social consciousness]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":6" /> Conversely, British writer Gary Stewart suggests that soukous evolved into both a music genre and dance style in Brazzaville, stemming from the establishment of the Super Band in 1964 by up-and-coming guitarist Jacques Kimbembe.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Orchestre+Sinza+introduced+the+soukous+to+Brazzaville+bar+patrons+in+1966+but+lacked+the+connections&pg=PT195 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York State, United States |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bemba |first=Audifax |date=14 October 2023 |title=Orchestre Sinza "Kotoko" de Brazzaville |trans-title=Sinza "Kotoko" Orchestra of Brazzaville |url=https://www.congopage.com/orchestre-sinza-kotoko-de-brazzaville |access-date=31 August 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}</ref> The ensemble, later rebranded as Sinza, meaning "root stock," introduced soukous to Brazzaville's nightlife in 1966, supplanting the traditional boucher style of Les Bantous de la Capitale.<ref name=":14" /> Stewart further notes that Orchestre Sinza innovated soukous in 1968 with a new wrinkle called ''mossaka'', and soon thereafter, [[Nico Kasanda]] introduced the kiri-kiri, which was based in part on the "jerk" from [[Rock music|Western rock]].<ref name=":14" /> Meanwhile, Les Bantous de la Capitale developed a fusion with Pablito's song "Masuwa," billed as a ''soucous''-''kiri-kiri''. The kiri-kiri, which, according to Stewart, became a defining piece of the genre as exemplified by Nico's "Kiri-Kiri Mabina Ya Sika," telling the story of a man's quest through Kinshasa's streets to reunite with his partner for a kiri-kiri session at Fiesta Sukisa, gaining widespread acclaim.<ref name=":14" /> Established artists rapidly embraced the dance and disseminated it across the continent.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=December 7, 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com |language=en}}</ref>
 ===1960s and 1970s===
 ==== Europe and the United States ====
 [[File:Rochereau performing at Paris Olympia.jpg|thumb|[[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] performing at the [[Paris Olympia]] in 1970]]
-In the late 1960s and early 1970s, soukous became a predominant popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, and the United States.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ngoye |first=Achille |date=1995 |title=Le soukouss des Zaïrois en Europe |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/homig_1142-852x_1995_num_1191_1_2536 |journal=Hommes & Migrations |volume=1191 |issue=1 |pages=42–47 |doi=10.3406/homig.1995.2536}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Winders |first=James A. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Paris_Africain/iqoYDAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=Paris Africain: Rhythms of the African Diaspora |date=5 June 2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-0-230-60207-6 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=57 |language=en}}</ref> During this period, a surge of Zairean musicians moved to Belgium and France, primarily driven by the hegemony of the [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] regime, which propagated propaganda songs as part of the ''[[Authenticité (Zaire)|Authenticité]]'' campaign to foster a sense of national identity and pride through ideological slogans of the [[one-party state]], the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution|Movement Populaire de la Révolution]] (MPR).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ndaliko |first=Chérie Rivers |date=March 2020 |title=Mobutu's Ghost: A Case for the Urgency of History in Cultural Aid |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/40543/chapter-abstract/347879247?redirectedFrom=fulltext# |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=academic.oup.com |publication-place=Oxford, England, United Kingdom}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0OKDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PT1157&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&hl=en |title=The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture |date=26 February 2019 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-5337-1 |editor-last=Sturman |editor-first=Janet |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=RA1-PA201&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&hl=en |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |editor-last=Appiah |editor-first=Anthony |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |pages=201 |language=en |editor-last2=Gates |editor-first2=Henry Louis}}</ref> This [[Ideocracy|state ideological]] shift gradually infiltrated Zairean popular music, with popular musicians embracing the regime's ideology and documenting its achievements. Mobutu's encouragement of urban musicians paralleled [[Mao Zedong]]'s approach in [[China]], where music served the revolution.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Wa Mukuna |first=Kazadi |date=7 December 2014 |title=A brief history of popular music in DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/brief-history-popular-music-drc |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=Music In Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OPNEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA301&dq=soukous+artists+praise+mobutu&hl=en |title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |date=2015-12-14 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-666-9 |editor-last=Jean-Jacques |editor-first=Daniel |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |pages=301 |language=en |editor-last2=Falola |editor-first2=Toyin}}</ref> As a result, the [[globalization]] of Congolese urban music expanded, leading to a massive exodus of musicians to African and European countries, most notably [[Belgium]] and [[France]].<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal |last=Perullo |first=Alex |date=2008 |title=Rumba in the City of Peace: Migration and the Cultural Commodity of Congolese Music in Dar es Salaam, 1968-1985 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174590 |journal=Ethnomusicology |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=296–323 |doi=10.2307/20174590 |issn=0014-1836 |jstor=20174590}}</ref> Many youths with limited employment options gravitated towards a music career, with Kinshasa's soukous scene becoming an attractive choice. However, some faced obstacles in establishing themselves in France.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rand |first=Jonas |date=17 December 2016 |title=Congolese Music, 1970s |url=https://saheltothecape.wordpress.com/2016/12/17/congolese-music-1970s/ |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=From the Sahel to the Cape |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Against this backdrop, [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] made history as the first African artist invited to perform at Paris's [[Olympia (Paris)|Olympia Hall]] in December 1970, where he attracted few connoisseurs and set a precedent for subsequent Zairean musicians.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Bob W. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Rumba_Rules/MsLMW6gCULgC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire |date=6 June 2008 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8926-2 |location=Durham, North Carolina, United States |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf0DAQAAIAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=Tabu+Ley+Rochereau+Paris+Olympia&q=Tabu+Ley+Rochereau+Paris+Olympia&hl=en |title=Africa Events: Volume 1 |date=1985 |publisher=Dar es Salaam Limited |location=Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania |pages=60–61 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Barlow |first=Sean |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Afropop/BCzaAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=Tabu%20Ley%20Rochereau%20Paris%20Olympia |title=Afropop!: An Illustrated Guide to Contemporary African Music |last2=Eyre |first2=Banning |last3=Vartoogian |first3=Jack |date=1995 |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=978-0-7858-0443-7 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref> [[Abeti Masikini]] followed suit, becoming the second Zairean and the first female soukous artist to grace the Olympia stage alongside [[Mireille Mathieu]] and [[Hugues Aufray]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite web |title=musicMe: Biographie de Abeti Maskini |url=https://www.musicme.com/Abeti-Masikini/biographie/ |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=musicMe |language=Fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite web |date=2012-06-19 |title=Abeti Masikini Finant Elisabeth 1954 -1994 |url=https://www.universrumbacongolaise.com/artistes/abeti-masikini/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=Universrumbacongolaise.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergman |first=Billy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzLaAAAAMAAJ&q=abeti+masikini+1974 |title=African Pop: Goodtime Kings |publisher=Blandford |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7137-1551-4 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> This momentum continued with Masikini's performance at [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York City|New York]] on 11 March 1974, setting the stage for burgeoning singers, [[Griot|griots]], and other lesser-known divas from Africa.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite news |last=Fraser |first=C. Gerald |date=1974-03-11 |title=African Singer, Too, Got A Start in Church Choir |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/03/11/archives/african-singer-too-got-a-start-in-church-choir.html |access-date=2023-11-16 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Concurrently, the M'Bamina orchestra ventured to Paris before seeking alternative audiences in [[Italy]] in 1972.<ref name=":1" />
+In the late 1960s and early 1970s, soukous became a predominant popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, and the United States.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ngoye |first=Achille |date=1995 |title=Le soukouss des Zaïrois en Europe |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/homig_1142-852x_1995_num_1191_1_2536 |journal=Hommes & Migrations |volume=1191 |issue=1 |pages=42–47 |doi=10.3406/homig.1995.2536}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Winders |first=James A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqoYDAAAQBAJ |title=Paris Africain: Rhythms of the African Diaspora |date=5 June 2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-0-230-60207-6 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=57 |language=en}}</ref> During this period, a surge of Zairean musicians moved to Belgium and France, primarily driven by the hegemony of the [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] regime, which propagated propaganda songs as part of the ''[[Authenticité (Zaire)|Authenticité]]'' campaign to foster a sense of national identity and pride through ideological slogans of the [[one-party state]], the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution|Movement Populaire de la Révolution]] (MPR).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ndaliko |first=Chérie Rivers |date=March 2020 |title=Mobutu's Ghost: A Case for the Urgency of History in Cultural Aid |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/40543/chapter-abstract/347879247?redirectedFrom=fulltext# |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=academic.oup.com |publication-place=Oxford, England, United Kingdom}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0OKDwAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&pg=PT1157 |title=The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture |date=26 February 2019 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-5337-1 |editor-last=Sturman |editor-first=Janet |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&pg=RA1-PA201 |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |editor-last=Appiah |editor-first=Anthony |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |pages=201 |language=en |editor-last2=Gates |editor-first2=Henry Louis}}</ref> This [[Ideocracy|state ideological]] shift gradually infiltrated Zairean popular music, with popular musicians embracing the regime's ideology and documenting its achievements. Mobutu's encouragement of urban musicians paralleled [[Mao Zedong]]'s approach in [[China]], where music served the revolution.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Wa Mukuna |first=Kazadi |date=7 December 2014 |title=A brief history of popular music in DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/brief-history-popular-music-drc |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=Music In Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OPNEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+artists+praise+mobutu&pg=PA301 |title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |date=2015-12-14 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-666-9 |editor-last=Jean-Jacques |editor-first=Daniel |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |pages=301 |language=en |editor-last2=Falola |editor-first2=Toyin}}</ref> As a result, the [[globalization]] of Congolese urban music expanded, leading to a massive exodus of musicians to African and European countries, most notably [[Belgium]] and [[France]].<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal |last=Perullo |first=Alex |date=2008 |title=Rumba in the City of Peace: Migration and the Cultural Commodity of Congolese Music in Dar es Salaam, 1968-1985 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174590 |journal=Ethnomusicology |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=296–323 |doi=10.2307/20174590 |issn=0014-1836 |jstor=20174590}}</ref> Many youths with limited employment options gravitated towards a music career, with Kinshasa's soukous scene becoming an attractive choice. However, some faced obstacles in establishing themselves in France.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rand |first=Jonas |date=17 December 2016 |title=Congolese Music, 1970s |url=https://saheltothecape.wordpress.com/2016/12/17/congolese-music-1970s/ |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=From the Sahel to the Cape |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Against this backdrop, [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] made history as the first African artist invited to perform at Paris's [[Olympia (Paris)|Olympia Hall]] in December 1970, where he attracted few connoisseurs and set a precedent for subsequent Zairean musicians.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Bob W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsLMW6gCULgC |title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire |date=6 June 2008 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8926-2 |location=Durham, North Carolina, United States |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf0DAQAAIAAJ&q=Tabu+Ley+Rochereau+Paris+Olympia |title=Africa Events: Volume 1 |date=1985 |publisher=Dar es Salaam Limited |location=Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania |pages=60–61 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barlow |first1=Sean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCzaAAAAMAAJ&q=Tabu%20Ley%20Rochereau%20Paris%20Olympia |title=Afropop!: An Illustrated Guide to Contemporary African Music |last2=Eyre |first2=Banning |last3=Vartoogian |first3=Jack |date=1995 |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=978-0-7858-0443-7 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref> [[Abeti Masikini]] followed suit, becoming the second Zairean and the first female soukous artist to grace the Olympia stage alongside [[Mireille Mathieu]] and [[Hugues Aufray]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite web |title=musicMe: Biographie de Abeti Maskini |url=https://www.musicme.com/Abeti-Masikini/biographie/ |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=musicMe |language=Fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite web |date=2012-06-19 |title=Abeti Masikini Finant Elisabeth 1954 -1994 |url=https://www.universrumbacongolaise.com/artistes/abeti-masikini/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=Universrumbacongolaise.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergman |first=Billy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzLaAAAAMAAJ&q=abeti+masikini+1974 |title=African Pop: Goodtime Kings |publisher=Blandford |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7137-1551-4 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> This momentum continued with Masikini's performance at [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York on 11 March 1974, setting the stage for burgeoning singers, [[Griot|griots]], and other lesser-known divas from Africa.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite news |last=Fraser |first=C. Gerald |date=1974-03-11 |title=African Singer, Too, Got A Start in Church Choir |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/03/11/archives/african-singer-too-got-a-start-in-church-choir.html |access-date=2023-11-16 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
+Concurrently, the M'Bamina orchestra ventured to Paris before seeking audiences in [[Italy]] in 1972.<ref name=":1" /> Pablo 'Porthos' Lubadika arrived in Paris in 1979 with singer [[Sam Mangwana]] through [[Lomé]], Togo, after recording under the name the African All Stars. Mangwana, having collaborated with nearly every prominent figure in Congo, relocated to [[Abidjan]] in 1978 to pursue better opportunities. He formed a new band of Congolese economic exiles, who became regulars in Parisian session bands.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=December 7, 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com |language=en}}</ref> The African All Stars' breakout hit, "Suzana Coulibaly," released on 31 December 1979, featured "simple, repetitive rhythms" at a faster tempo than traditional Congolese rumba.<ref name=":27" /> Mangwana's exclamation "soukous sophistiqué" as Lokassa Ya M'Bongo and [[Rigo Star]] crafted a "rock-solid" sebene solidified the record's direction, initiating an independent musical movement targeting the international market. As their influence grew, the African All Stars adapted the fast, rough stylings of youth bands in Brazzaville and Kinshasa, introducing this new tempo globally.<ref name=":27" />
 ==== Africa ====
-Across Africa, soukous dominated [[East Africa]]n nightclubs' dance floors and played a pivotal role in shaping virtually all the styles of contemporary [[African popular music]], including [[benga music]], [[muziki wa dansi]], [[highlife]], [[palm-wine music]], [[taarab]], and inspiring the establishment of approximately 350 youth orchestras in Kinshasa, paving the way for new traditional dances, rhythmic patterns, and bands.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEeTAgAAQBAJ |title=The Garland Handbook of African Music |date=2 April 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781135900014 |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Ruth M. |location=Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom |pages=132–133}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Messager |date=2009-08-18 |title=Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-35012968.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sturman |first=Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUSKDwAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+benga+music&pg=PT295 |title=The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture |date=2019-02-26 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-5338-8 |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |language=en}}</ref>
+Across Africa, soukous dominated [[East Africa]]n nightclubs' dance floors and played a pivotal role in shaping virtually all the styles of contemporary [[African popular music]], including [[benga music]], [[muziki wa dansi]], [[Kidandali]], [[Igbo highlife]], [[palm-wine music]], [[taarab]], and inspiring the establishment of approximately 350 youth orchestras in Kinshasa, paving the way for new traditional dances, rhythmic patterns, and bands.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEeTAgAAQBAJ |title=The Garland Handbook of African Music |date=2 April 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781135900014 |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Ruth M. |location=Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom |pages=132–133}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Messager |date=2009-08-18 |title=Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-35012968.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sturman |first=Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUSKDwAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+benga+music&pg=PT295 |title=The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture |date=2019-02-26 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-5338-8 |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |language=en}}</ref>
-[[File:Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa in 1971.jpg|thumb|[[Zaïko Langa Langa]] performing  in 1971. From left to right: Beaudoin Mitsho, Meridjo Belobi (behind), Enoch Zamuangana (behind), Teddy Sukami, [[Papa Wemba]], Damien Ndebo (behind), [[Evoloko Jocker]], [[Félix Manuaku Waku]]|187x187px]]
+[[File:Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa in 1971.jpg|thumb|[[Zaïko Langa Langa]] performing in 1971. From left to right: Beaudoin Mitsho, Meridjo Belobi (behind), Enoch Zamuangana (behind), Teddy Sukami, [[Papa Wemba]], Damien Ndebo (behind), [[Evoloko Jocker]], [[Félix Manuaku Waku]]|187x187px]]
-As sociopolitical turmoil in Zaire deteriorated in the 1970s, a great number of musicians ventured to [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]], where orchestras sustained themselves through record sales and consistent stage performances. By the early 1970s, several Congolese bands had taken up the soukous beat in Kenyan nightclubs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=2008-07-29 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |pages=849 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |pages=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2020-05-05 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":73">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=June 2012 |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":84">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The vivacious [[cavacha]] dance craze, propagated by bands like [[Zaïko Langa Langa]] and Orchestra Shama Shama, swept across East and [[Central Africa]], exert influence on Kenyan musicians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adieu |first=Verckys |date=2022-10-19 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits |language=en}}</ref> The utilization of the cavacha rhythm, typically played on the [[snare drum]] or [[Hi-hat|high-hat]], became emblematic of the Zairean sound in [[Nairobi]] and was frequently adopted by regional bands. Prominent Congolese rumba [[Swahili language|Swahili]] bands in Nairobi formed around [[Tanzania]]n groups like [[Simba Wanyika]], giving rise to offshoots like [[Les Wanyika]] and Super Wanyika Stars.<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=19 October 2022 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits}}</ref><ref name=":23"/> [[Maroon Commandos]], a Nairobi-based ensemble, assimilated the soukous style while infusing their distinctive artistic imprint. [[Japanese people|Japanese]] students in Kenya, including Rio Nakagawa, developed a fondness for Congolese music, with Rio eventually spearheading Yoka Choc Nippon, a Japanese-conceived Congolese rumba group.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Mwamba |first=Bibi |date=7 February 2022 |title=L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/linfluence-de-la-rumba-congolaise-sur-la-scene-musicale-mondiale |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Music in Africa |language=fr}}</ref>
+As sociopolitical turmoil in Zaire deteriorated in the 1970s, a great number of musicians ventured to [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]], where orchestras sustained themselves through record sales and consistent stage performances. By the early 1970s, several Congolese bands had taken up the soukous beat in Kenyan nightclubs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=2008-07-29 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |pages=849 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |pages=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2020-05-05 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":73">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=June 2012 |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":84">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The vivacious [[cavacha]] dance craze, propagated by bands like [[Zaïko Langa Langa]] and Orchestra Shama Shama, swept across East and [[Central Africa]], exert influence on Kenyan musicians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adieu |first=Verckys |date=2022-10-19 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |access-date=27 July 2024 |website=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]]}}</ref> The utilization of the cavacha rhythm, typically played on the [[snare drum]] or [[Hi-hat|high-hat]], became emblematic of the Zairean sound in [[Nairobi]] and was frequently adopted by regional bands. Prominent Congolese rumba [[Swahili language|Swahili]] bands in Nairobi formed around [[Tanzania]]n groups like [[Simba Wanyika]], giving rise to offshoots like [[Les Wanyika]] and Super Wanyika Stars.<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=19 October 2022 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits}}</ref><ref name=":23"/> [[Maroon Commandos]], a Nairobi-based ensemble, assimilated the soukous style while infusing their distinctive artistic imprint. [[Japanese people|Japanese]] students in Kenya, including Rio Nakagawa, developed a fondness for Congolese music, with Rio eventually spearheading Yoka Choc Nippon, a Japanese-conceived Congolese rumba group.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Mwamba |first=Bibi |date=7 February 2022 |title=L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/linfluence-de-la-rumba-congolaise-sur-la-scene-musicale-mondiale |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Music in Africa |language=fr}}</ref>
 [[File:A posture of Pepe Kalle in 1978.jpg|left|thumb|294x294px|A posture of [[Pépé Kallé]] in 1978]]
 [[File:Gaby Lita Bembo jouant du piano à la fin des années 1970.jpg|thumb|198x198px|[[Orchestre Stukas|Gaby Lita Bembo]] playing piano in the 1970s]]
-Virgin Records produced albums by the Tanzanian-Zairean [[Orchestra Makassy]] and the Kenya-based [[Orchestra Super Mazembe]]. The Swahili song "Shauri Yako" ("It's your problem") gained widespread acclaim in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Another influential Zairean ensemble, [[Les Mangelepa]], relocated to Kenya and achieved immense popularity across East Africa. Zairean singer [[Samba Mapangala]] and his band Orchestra Virunga, based in Nairobi, released the [[LP record|LP]] ''Malako'', which became a pioneering release in Europe's emerging world music scene.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shauri Yako — Orchestra Super Mazembe |url=https://www.last.fm/music/Orchestra+Super+Mazembe/Shauri+Yako |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Last.fm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=congo in kenya |url=http://muzikifan.com/shika.html |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=muzikifan.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyanga |first=Caroline |title=Stars who came for music and found eternal resting place |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/standard-entertainment/article/2001370770/stars-who-came-for-music-and-found-eternal-resting-place |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=The Standard}}</ref> Meanwhile, between 1976 and 1977, [[Sam Mangwana]] and the African All Stars dominated the dance halls of Kinshasa with records produced in [[West Africa]], which were different from the sounds produced in the two-track studios of Kinshasa. Following this, there was a migration to [[Lomé]] and [[Cotonou]], followed by Franco Luambo's departure to Belgium.<ref name=":1" />
+Virgin Records produced albums by the Tanzanian-Zairean [[Orchestra Makassy]] and the Kenya-based [[Orchestra Super Mazembe]]. The Swahili song "Shauri Yako" ("It's your problem") gained widespread acclaim in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Another influential Zairean ensemble, [[Les Mangelepa]], relocated to Kenya and achieved immense popularity across East Africa. Zairean singer [[Samba Mapangala]] and his band Orchestra Virunga, based in Nairobi, released the [[LP record|LP]] ''Malako'', which became a pioneering release in Europe's emerging world music scene.<ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shauri Yako — Orchestra Super Mazembe |url=https://www.last.fm/music/Orchestra+Super+Mazembe/Shauri+Yako |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Last.fm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=congo in kenya |url=http://muzikifan.com/shika.html |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=muzikifan.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyanga |first=Caroline |title=Stars who came for music and found eternal resting place |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/standard-entertainment/article/2001370770/stars-who-came-for-music-and-found-eternal-resting-place |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=The Standard}}</ref> Meanwhile, between 1976 and 1977, [[Sam Mangwana]] and the African All Stars dominated the dance halls of Kinshasa with records produced in [[West Africa]], which were different from the sounds produced in the two-track studios of Kinshasa. Following this, there was a migration to [[Lomé]] and [[Cotonou]], followed by Franco Luambo's departure to Belgium.<ref name=":1" />
-In [[Nigeria]], soukous became widespread due to the transmission of Zairean music through Radio Brazzaville, where audiences were introduced to material from ''Zaire Vol. 6'' (Soundpoint SOP 044, 1978).<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=Beadle |first=John |date=18 August 2010 |title=From Congo via Nigeria |url=https://likembe.blogspot.com/2010/08/from-congo-via-nigeria.html |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Likembe |publication-place=Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1978 |title=Various – Music From Zaire Vol. 6 |url=https://www.discogs.com/release/11788853-Various-Music-From-Zaire-Vol-6 |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Discogs |publication-place=Beaverton, Oregon, United States}}</ref> Soukous catalyzed the emergence of a distinct genre of guitar-based [[Igbo highlife]] music, exemplified by musicians like [[Oliver De Coque]], the [[Oriental Brothers International]], and their various imitators and followers.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=14 April 2021 |title=Google Honors Oliver de Coque with a Doodle on his 74th Posthumous Birthday |url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/04/oliver-de-coque-google-doodle/ |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=BellaNaija |language=en-US |publication-place=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=John |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Ghanaian_Concert_Party/kzvuAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Ghanaian Concert Party: African Popular Entertainment at the Cross Roads |date=1994 |publisher=State University of New York at Buffalo |location=Buffalo, New York State, United States |pages=47 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Beat/vQM5AQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Beat: Volume 14 |date=1995 |publisher=Beat Magazine |location=Melbourne, Australia |pages=41 |language=en}}</ref> The superabundance of Nigerian pressings of Zairean music featured the musicians who influenced this trend, as seen in the case of ''Music From Zaire Vol. 6'', which showcased artists from [[Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta]]'s stable like Orchestre Kiam, Orchestre Lipua-Lipua, and the cavacha rhythm.<ref name=":18" /> There was a prevalent inclination to exclude the slower "A" sides of various recordings and instead focus on the climactic [[sebene]], the faster and more improvisational [[Half-time (music)|second half]].<ref name=":18" /> This structural paradigm became emblematic of Igbo guitar highlife recordings epitomized by the music style of Oliver De Coque and Oriental Brothers International.<ref name=":18" />
+In [[Nigeria]], soukous became widespread due to the transmission of Zairean music through Radio Brazzaville, where audiences were introduced to material from ''Zaire Vol. 6'' (Soundpoint SOP 044, 1978).<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=Beadle |first=John |date=18 August 2010 |title=From Congo via Nigeria |url=https://likembe.blogspot.com/2010/08/from-congo-via-nigeria.html |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Likembe |publication-place=Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1978 |title=Various – Music From Zaire Vol. 6 |url=https://www.discogs.com/release/11788853-Various-Music-From-Zaire-Vol-6 |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Discogs |publication-place=Beaverton, Oregon, United States}}</ref> Soukous catalyzed the emergence of a distinct genre of guitar-based [[Igbo highlife]] music, exemplified by musicians like [[Oliver De Coque]], the [[Oriental Brothers International]], and their various imitators and followers.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=14 April 2021 |title=Google Honors Oliver de Coque with a Doodle on his 74th Posthumous Birthday |url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/04/oliver-de-coque-google-doodle/ |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=BellaNaija |language=en-US |publication-place=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzvuAAAAMAAJ&q=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Ghanaian Concert Party: African Popular Entertainment at the Cross Roads |date=1994 |publisher=State University of New York at Buffalo |location=Buffalo, New York State, United States |pages=47 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQM5AQAAIAAJ&q=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Beat: Volume 14 |date=1995 |publisher=Beat Magazine |location=Melbourne, Australia |pages=41 |language=en}}</ref> The superabundance of Nigerian pressings of Zairean music featured the musicians who influenced this trend, as seen in the case of ''Music From Zaire Vol. 6'', which showcased artists from [[Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta]]'s stable like Orchestre Kiam, Orchestre Lipua-Lipua, and the cavacha rhythm.<ref name=":18" /> There was a prevalent inclination to exclude the slower "A" sides of various recordings and instead focus on the climactic [[sebene]], the faster and more improvisational [[Half-time (music)|second half]].<ref name=":18" /> This structural paradigm became emblematic of Igbo guitar highlife recordings epitomized by the music style of Oliver De Coque and Oriental Brothers International.<ref name=":18" />
+Soukous experienced widespread diffusion across [[southern Africa]], where it was both adopted and adapted into various offshoots, such as [[Zimbabwe]]'s immensely popular sungura genre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musira |first=Patrick |date=6 July 2011 |title=Slow down on ndombolo song and dance Congolese urged |url=https://theafronews.com/slow-down-on-ndombolo-song-and-dance-congolese-urged/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |website=Theafronews.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
 ==== Colombia ====
@@ Line 67: / Line 73: @@
 ===1980s and the Paris scene===
-As sociopolitical unrest persisted in Zaire throughout the 1980s, numerous musicians sought refuge across Africa, with a considerable number relocating to Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom. Some traversed through Central and East Africa before ultimately establishing their operational bases in Europe.<ref name=":112">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=849}}</ref><ref name=":232">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |page=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State}}</ref><ref name=":732">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |date=June 2012 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":842">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Soukous gained traction in Brussels, Paris, and London, emerging as the only sub-Saharan African genre universally embraced in Belgium and France.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daoudi |first=Bouziane |date=August 29, 1998 |title=World. Le chanteur ex-zaïrois en concert à l'Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo de la rumba. Koffi Olomidé. Samedi à 23 heures à l'Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris IXe. Tél.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Loi", Sonodisc. |trans-title=World. The ex-Zairian singer in concert at the Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo of rumba. Koffi Olomide. Saturday at 11 p.m. at the Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris 9th. Tel.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: “Law”, Sonodisc. |url=https://www.liberation.fr/culture/1998/08/29/world-le-chanteur-ex-zairois-en-concert-a-l-olympia-koffi-olomide-rambo-de-la-rumba-koffi-olomide-sa_244600/ |access-date=2023-12-29 |website=Libération |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> According to Congolese columnist [[:fr:Achille_Ngoye|Achille Ngoye]], Belgium offered a significant permanent operational base for numerous Zairean artists.<ref name=":1" /> Orchestras such as Los Nickelos, Yéyé National, and Les Mongali, predominantly composed of students, garnered significant attention in Belgium.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mbu-Mputu |first=Norbert X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfWiDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA331&dq=Y%C3%A9y%C3%A9+National+brussels&hl=en |title=L'AUTRE LUMUMBA. Peuple du CONGO: Histoire, résistances, assassinats et victoires sur le front de la Guerre froide |publisher= |isbn=978-0-244-77422-6 |location=Morrisville, North Carolina, United States |pages=331 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLQ4AQAAIAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=Los+Nickelos+brussels+1980s&q=Los+Nickelos+brussels+1980s&hl=en |title=The World of African Music: Volume 1 |date=1992 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-948390-03-6 |editor-last=Graham |editor-first=Ronnie |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=130 |language=en}}</ref> Uncle Yorgho, a former member of [[TPOK Jazz|OK Jazz]], established a distribution epicenter for Zairean musical repertoire in Brussels in July 1980 (Visa 80).<ref name=":1" /> Meanwhile, [[Dieudonné Kabongo]], Dizzy Mandjeku, and [[Ntesa Dalienst]] rose to prominence due to the bankruptcy of Belgian record label Fonior!, which prompted many Zairean artists like [[Orchestre Stukas|Lita Bembo]] and Matima to seek reputable distribution entities in Belgium, while others found solace in performing in religious [[Choir|choirs]], which frequently toured [[Holland]].<ref name=":1" />
 [[File:Papa Wemba and Koffi Olomide, 1988.jpg|thumb|[[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]] and [[Papa Wemba]], 1988]]
+As sociopolitical unrest persisted in Zaire throughout the 1980s, numerous musicians sought refuge across Africa, with a considerable number relocating to Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom. Some traversed through Central and East Africa before ultimately establishing their operational bases in Europe.<ref name=":112">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=849}}</ref><ref name=":232">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |page=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State}}</ref><ref name=":732">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |date=June 2012 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":842">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Soukous gained traction in Brussels, Paris, and London, emerging as the only sub-Saharan African genre universally embraced in Belgium and France.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daoudi |first=Bouziane |date=August 29, 1998 |title=World. Le chanteur ex-zaïrois en concert à l'Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo de la rumba. Koffi Olomidé. Samedi à 23 heures à l'Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris IXe. Tél.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Loi", Sonodisc. |trans-title=World. The ex-Zairian singer in concert at the Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo of rumba. Koffi Olomide. Saturday at 11 p.m. at the Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris 9th. Tel.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: “Law”, Sonodisc. |url=https://www.liberation.fr/culture/1998/08/29/world-le-chanteur-ex-zairois-en-concert-a-l-olympia-koffi-olomide-rambo-de-la-rumba-koffi-olomide-sa_244600/ |access-date=2023-12-29 |website=Libération |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> According to Congolese columnist [[:fr:Achille_Ngoye|Achille Ngoye]], Belgium offered a significant permanent operational base for numerous Zairean artists.<ref name=":1" /> Orchestras such as Los Nickelos, Yéyé National, and Les Mongali, predominantly composed of students, garnered significant attention in Belgium.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mbu-Mputu |first=Norbert X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfWiDwAAQBAJ&dq=Y%C3%A9y%C3%A9+National+brussels&pg=PA331 |title=L'AUTRE LUMUMBA. Peuple du CONGO: Histoire, résistances, assassinats et victoires sur le front de la Guerre froide |publisher= |isbn=978-0-244-77422-6 |location=Morrisville, North Carolina, United States |pages=331 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLQ4AQAAIAAJ&q=Los+Nickelos+brussels+1980s |title=The World of African Music: Volume 1 |date=1992 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-948390-03-6 |editor-last=Graham |editor-first=Ronnie |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=130 |language=en}}</ref> Uncle Yorgho, a former member of [[TPOK Jazz|OK Jazz]], established a distribution epicenter for Zairean musical repertoire in Brussels in July 1980 (Visa 80).<ref name=":1" /> Meanwhile, [[Dieudonné Kabongo]], Dizzy Mandjeku, and [[Ntesa Dalienst]] rose to prominence due to the bankruptcy of Belgian record label Fonior!, which prompted many Zairean artists like [[Orchestre Stukas|Lita Bembo]] and Matima to seek reputable distribution entities in Belgium, while others found solace in performing in religious choirs, which frequently toured [[Holland]].<ref name=":1" />
-The influx of Zairean artists to France catalyzed the proliferation of Parisian studios as epicenters for soukous production, with an increasing reliance on synthesizers and [[Electronic musical instrument|electronic instruments]]. Some artists continued to record for the Congolese market, but others abandoned the demands of the Kinshasa public and set out to pursue new audiences.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":17" /> A sizable Zairean community established itself in France and [[Switzerland]], with Zairean artists conducting training programs in the country.<ref name=":1" /> Artists like [[Papa Wemba]] maintained dual bands, with [[Viva La Musica]] focusing on soukous and another group featuring French session players for international [[Pop music|pop]].<ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&q=congolese+rumba+on+the+river |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2020-05-05 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last1=Vogel |first1=Christoph |last2=Network |first2=part of the Guardian Africa |date=2013-08-23 |title=Say my name: How 'shout-outs' keep Congolese musicians in the money |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/23/congo-musicians-kinshasa-rumba |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> Additionally, musicians like So Kalmery and Armando experimented with binary rhythms.<ref name=":1" /> [[Kanda Bongo Man]], another Paris-based artist, pioneered fast, short tracks conducive for play on dance floors worldwide, popularly known as [[kwassa kwassa]], after the dance moves popularized in his and other artists' music videos. This music appealed to Africans and to new audiences as well. Artists like [[Diblo Dibala]], [[Aurlus Mabélé]], Tchicl Tchicaya, Jeannot Bel Musumbu, [[M'bilia Bel]], [[Yondo Sister]], Tinderwet, [[Loketo]], [[Rigo Star]], [[Madilu System]], Soukous Stars and veterans like [[Pépé Kallé]] and [[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]] followed suit. Soon Paris became home to talented studio musicians who recorded for the African and Caribbean markets and filled out bands for occasional tours.<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance">{{Cite news |date=September 29, 2014 |title=Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-29418790 |access-date=2023-08-27}}</ref>
+[[File:Nyboma, 1973.jpg|thumb|218x218px|[[Nyboma]] in 1973|left]]
+Soukous was chosen by [[Island Records]] producer [[Ben Mandelson]] and Togolese entrepreneur Richard Dick as the title of a 1982 compilation, ''Sound D'Afrique II: Soukous''. The compilation included music from [[Mali]] and [[Cameroon]] alongside "Madeleina," a track from Pablo 'Porthos' Lubadika's 1981 album ''Ma Coco'', which gained significant attention in Europe.<ref name=":28">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=December 7, 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com |language=en}}</ref> Zaïko Langa Langa introduced the role of a dedicated hypeman—known as ''[[atalaku]]'' or ''[[animateur]]''—into the ensemble of singers, setting a trend that almost every band on the Congolese music scene adopted, making atalakus emblematic of soukous as well as Congolese rumba.<ref name=":28" /> Zaïko Langa Langa achieved significant success, becoming the third generation of Congolese music as many founding members split off to form their own groups, which in turn splintered into more groups: [[Isifi Lokole|Isife Lokole]], Grand Zaïko Wa Wa, [[Langa Langa Stars]], Clan Langa Langa, [[Choc Stars]], and Anti-Choc among them.<ref name=":28" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lavaine |first=Bertrand |date=30 September 2020 |title=Zaïko Langa Langa, une histoire congolaise |trans-title=Zaïko Langa Langa, a Congolese story |url=https://musique.rfi.fr/rumba-congolaise/20200930-zaiko-langa-langa-une-histoire-congolaise |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=RFI Musique |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> [[Papa Wemba]] and [[Viva La Musica]] made the longest-lasting impact, partly due to Wemba's ability to maintain a presence in both Paris and Kinshasa with dual bands, one focusing on soukous and another featuring French session players for international pop. In Parisian studios, the seben guitars blended with the tight drum machines and synths of [[zouk]] and funky disco [[makossa]] on numerous records.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&q=congolese+rumba+on+the+river |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2020-05-05 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last1=Vogel |first1=Christoph |last2=Network |first2=part of the Guardian Africa |date=2013-08-23 |title=Say my name: How 'shout-outs' keep Congolese musicians in the money |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/23/congo-musicians-kinshasa-rumba |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> However, this fusion received criticism for deviating from authentic Congolese styles. Notable critics like [[Nyboma]] argued that the music had become commercialized and lacked emotional depth, calling for a return to the fundamentals of "beautiful melodies and highly tuned voices."<ref name="Stewart">{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Gary |url=https://archive.org/details/rumbaonriverhist00stew |title=Rumba on the river : a history of the popular music of the two Congos |date=2000 |publisher=Verso |isbn=1-85984-744-7 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|384–385}}<ref name="Afropop">Public Radio International, Afropop Worldwide, program on "The Four Stars," recorded February 1996 from KSKA Anchorage.</ref>
+{{Multiple image
+| total_width       = 450
+| image1            = Le groupe Loketo.jpg
+| image2            = Le groupe Loketo en concert, en 1986.jpg
+| footer            = The Loketo group, established by [[Aurlus Mabélé]] and [[Diblo Dibala]], emerged as a prominent soukous band during the 1980s and 1990s.
+| align             = right
+| footer_align      = center
+}}
+The influx of Zairean artists to France catalyzed the proliferation of Parisian studios as epicenters for soukous production, with an increasing reliance on synthesizers and [[Electronic musical instrument|electronic instruments]]. Some artists continued to record for the Congolese market, but others abandoned the demands of the Kinshasa public and set out to pursue new audiences.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":17" /> A sizable Zairean community established itself in France and [[Switzerland]], with Zairean artists conducting training programs in the country.<ref name=":1" /> [[Kanda Bongo Man]], another Paris-based artist, pioneered fast, short tracks conducive for play on dance floors worldwide, popularly known as [[kwassa kwassa]], after the dance moves popularized in his and other artists' music videos. This music appealed to Africans and to new audiences as well. Artists like [[Diblo Dibala]], [[Aurlus Mabélé]], Tchicl Tchicaya, Jeannot Bel Musumbu, [[M'bilia Bel]], [[Yondo Sister]], Tinderwet, [[Loketo]], Rigo Star, Nyboma, [[Madilu System]], Soukous Stars and veterans like [[Pépé Kallé]] and [[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]] followed suit. Soon Paris became home to talented studio musicians who recorded for the African and Caribbean markets and filled out bands for occasional tours.<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance">{{Cite news |date=September 29, 2014 |title=Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-29418790 |access-date=2023-08-27}}</ref><ref name=":29" /> Diblo Dibala and Aurlus Mabélé dominated the clubs with "Africa Moussou", creating a hyperactive style of super-speed soukous, dubbed ''TGV soukous'' by fans, alluding to France's high-speed trains.<ref name=":28" />
 Swede-Swede, an ensemble exclusively employing traditional instruments, operates out of Belgium, while Les Malo, primarily comprising former instructors from the [[National Institute of Arts, Kinshasa|National Institute of Arts]] in Kinshasa, specializes in Afro-jazz in [[Lyon]].<ref name=":1" /> [[Tshala Muana]] gained prominence in Africa and Europe for her [[Luba people|Luba]] traditional hip-swaying dance known as ''mutuashi'', which make waves across African stadiums and earned her the moniker of "Queen of Mutuashi".<ref name=":1" /> Other female vocalists such as Déesse Mukangi, Djena Mandako, Faya Tess, Isa, and Abby Surya garnered widespread recognition.<ref name=":1" />
@@ Line 76: / Line 92: @@
 {{main|Ndombolo}}
-By the late 1990s, musicians such as Radja Kula, [[Wenge Musica]], [[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]], [[Defao|Général Defao]], and Extra Musica metamorphosed soukous into raunchy, frenetic hip-swinging dance music, renaming it ''[[ndombolo]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=22 August 2020 |title=Dancing styles innovator Radja Kula Mbuta takes last bow |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/culture/dancing-styles-innovator-radja-kula-mbuta-takes-last-bow-1923740 |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=Nation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mafuta |first=Masand |date=5 September 2020 |title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila s'engage mordicus pour l'organisation des obsèques de Radja Kula |trans-title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila is committed to organizing the funeral of Radja Kula |url=https://axenordsudmedia.com/2020/09/05/kinshasa-gentiny-ngobila-sengage-mordicus-pour-lorganisation-des-obseques-de-radja-kula/ |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=AxeNordSud Media |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtBj4psmJlcC&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA129 |title=Best Music Writing 2008 |last2=Carr |first2=Daphne |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2612-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Buettner |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QjPDAAAQBAJ&dq=many+congolese+move+to+europe+in+1990s&pg=PA313 |title=Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-59470-4 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |page=313}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makumeno |first=Emery |date=1 July 2022 |title=Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ? |url=https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/c84xqw9ppk1o |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=BBC News Afrique |language=fr}}</ref> This style surged in popularity across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Canada, and the United States.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtBj4psmJlcC&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA129 |title=Best Music Writing 2008 |last2=Carr |first2=Daphne |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2612-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=129}}</ref><ref name=":162">{{Cite book |last=Buettner |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QjPDAAAQBAJ&dq=many+congolese+move+to+europe+in+1990s&pg=PA313 |title=Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-59470-4 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |page=313}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makumeno |first=Emery |date=1 July 2022 |title=Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ? |url=https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/c84xqw9ppk1o |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=BBC News Afrique |language=fr}}</ref> However, by the early 2000s, ndombolo faced scrutiny, with accusations of [[obscenity]] leading to attempts to prohibit it from state media in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, [[Cameroon]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], and [[Kenya]].<ref name="ndb1">"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/851033.stm Anger at Cameroon dance ban; BBC News]", ''BBC News'', July 25, 2000</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite book |last1=Falola |first1=Toyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOTNEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+POPULAR&pg=PT419 |title=Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |last2=Jean-Jacques |first2=Daniel |date=14 December 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=979-8-216-04273-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99x5ea1Gq-cC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA301&dq=ndombolo+ban+in+kenya&hl=en |title=Kenya |date=2002 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-859-8 |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=301 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite news |last=Nzale |first=Félix |date=3 February 2004 |title=Sénégal: Ndombolo, mapuka : ces danses jugées indésirables |trans-title=Senegal: Ndombolo, mapuka: these dances considered undesirable |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200402030685.html |access-date=10 November 2023 |work=Sudquotidien.sn |language=fr}}</ref> In February 2005, ndombolo music videos in the Democratic Republic of the Congo underwent censorship for indecency, which resulted in the banning of videos by Koffi Olomidé, JB MPiana, and [[Werrason]] from airwaves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Newtimes.co.rw}}</ref> Despite the censure, ndombolo record sales surged, remaining popular with new releases dominating discos, bars, and clubs across Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woods |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4t2xDgAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+banned+in+cameroon&pg=PT246 |title=The 50 Greatest Musical Places |date=6 July 2017 |publisher=Icon Books |isbn=978-1-78578-190-2 |location=North Road, London, United Kingdom}}</ref>
+By the late 1990s, musicians such as Radja Kula, [[Wenge Musica]], [[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]], [[Defao|Général Defao]], and [[Extra Musica]] metamorphosed soukous into raunchy, frenetic hip-swinging dance music, renaming it ''[[ndombolo]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=22 August 2020 |title=Dancing styles innovator Radja Kula Mbuta takes last bow |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/culture/dancing-styles-innovator-radja-kula-mbuta-takes-last-bow-1923740 |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=Nation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mafuta |first=Masand |date=5 September 2020 |title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila s'engage mordicus pour l'organisation des obsèques de Radja Kula |trans-title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila is committed to organizing the funeral of Radja Kula |url=https://axenordsudmedia.com/2020/09/05/kinshasa-gentiny-ngobila-sengage-mordicus-pour-lorganisation-des-obseques-de-radja-kula/ |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=AxeNordSud Media |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtBj4psmJlcC&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA129 |title=Best Music Writing 2008 |last2=Carr |first2=Daphne |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2612-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Buettner |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QjPDAAAQBAJ&dq=many+congolese+move+to+europe+in+1990s&pg=PA313 |title=Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-59470-4 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |page=313}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makumeno |first=Emery |date=1 July 2022 |title=Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ? |url=https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/c84xqw9ppk1o |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=BBC News Afrique |language=fr}}</ref> This style surged in popularity across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Canada, and the United States.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtBj4psmJlcC&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA129 |title=Best Music Writing 2008 |last2=Carr |first2=Daphne |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2612-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=129}}</ref><ref name=":162">{{Cite book |last=Buettner |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QjPDAAAQBAJ&dq=many+congolese+move+to+europe+in+1990s&pg=PA313 |title=Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-59470-4 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |page=313}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makumeno |first=Emery |date=1 July 2022 |title=Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ? |url=https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/c84xqw9ppk1o |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=BBC News Afrique |language=fr}}</ref> However, by the early 2000s, ndombolo faced scrutiny, with accusations of [[obscenity]] leading to attempts to prohibit it from state media in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, [[Cameroon]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], and [[Kenya]].<ref name="ndb1">"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/851033.stm Anger at Cameroon dance ban; BBC News]", ''BBC News'', July 25, 2000</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite book |last1=Falola |first1=Toyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOTNEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+POPULAR&pg=PT419 |title=Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |last2=Jean-Jacques |first2=Daniel |date=14 December 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=979-8-216-04273-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99x5ea1Gq-cC&dq=ndombolo+ban+in+kenya&pg=PA301 |title=Kenya |date=2002 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-859-8 |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=301 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite news |last=Nzale |first=Félix |date=3 February 2004 |title=Sénégal: Ndombolo, mapuka : ces danses jugées indésirables |trans-title=Senegal: Ndombolo, mapuka: these dances considered undesirable |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200402030685.html |access-date=10 November 2023 |work=Sudquotidien.sn |language=fr}}</ref> In February 2005, ndombolo music videos in the Democratic Republic of the Congo underwent censorship for indecency, which resulted in the banning of videos by Koffi Olomidé, JB MPiana, and [[Werrason]] from airwaves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Newtimes.co.rw}}</ref> Despite the censure, ndombolo record sales surged, remaining popular with new releases dominating discos, bars, and clubs across Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woods |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4t2xDgAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+banned+in+cameroon&pg=PT246 |title=The 50 Greatest Musical Places |date=6 July 2017 |publisher=Icon Books |isbn=978-1-78578-190-2 |location=North Road, London, United Kingdom}}</ref>
 ==See also==