Pulgasari: Difference between revisions
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* Chang Son Hui |
* Chang Son Hui |
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* Ham Gi Sop |
* Ham Gi Sop |
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* Jong-uk |
* Ri Jong-uk |
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* |
* Ri Gwon |
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* Yong-hok |
* Park Yong-hok |
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* [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] |
* [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] |
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}} |
}} |
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| music = So Jong Gon |
| music = So Jong Gon |
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| cinematography = {{ubl|Cho Myong Hyon| |
| cinematography = {{ubl|Cho Myong Hyon|Park Sung Ho}} |
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| editing = Kim Ryon Sun |
| editing = Kim Ryon Sun |
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| studio = {{Plainlist| |
| studio = {{Plainlist| |
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* Joseon Art Film Studio{{sfn|KMDb}} |
* Joseon Art Film Studio<!--{{sfn|KMDb}}--> |
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* Shin |
* Shin Film<!--{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}--> |
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* [[Toho|Toho Eizo]]{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} |
* [[Toho|Toho Eizo]]<!--{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}--> |
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* Beijing Film Studio |
* Beijing Film Studio |
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}} |
}} |
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| distributor = Twin (1995)<br>Raging Thunder (1998) |
| distributor = Twin (1995)<br>Raging Thunder (1998) |
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| released = {{film date|1995|01|21|VHS|1998|07|04| |
| released = {{film date|1995|01|21|VHS|1998|07|04|Tokyo}} |
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| runtime = 95 minutes{{sfn|KMDb}} |
| runtime = 95 minutes<!--{{sfn|KMDb}}--> |
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| country = {{Plainlist| |
| country = {{Plainlist| |
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* North Korea |
* North Korea |
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}} |
}} |
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| language = Korean |
| language = Korean |
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| budget = |
| budget = {{USD|2–3 million|long=no}} |
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| gross = |
| gross = |
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}} |
}} |
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'''''Pulgasari'''''{{efn|name=Title|{{Korean|불가사리|rr= |
'''''Pulgasari'''''{{efn|name=Title|{{Korean|불가사리|rr=Bulgasali|context=north}}. The film was released in Japan as {{Nihongo|'''''Giant Monster Pulgasari'''''|大怪獣プルガサリ|Daikaijū Purugasari|lead=yes}} and {{Nihongo|'''''Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster'''''|プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣|Purugasari: Densetsu no Daikaijū|lead=yes}} in 1995 and 1998, respectively.{{sfn|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023a}}{{sfn|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023b}}}} is an [[Epic film|epic]] ''[[kaiju]]'' film directed and produced in 1985 by [[Shin Sang-ok]] during [[Abduction of Shin Sang-ok and Choi Eun-hee|his abduction]] in North Korea. A multinational co-production between North Korea, Japan, and China, it is a [[remake]] of the [[Bulgasari|1962 South Korean film]] also depicting the [[Pulgasari (creature)|eponymous creature]] from [[Korean folklore]]. The [[ensemble cast]] includes Chang Son Hui, Ham Gi Sop, Jong-uk Ri, Gwon Ri, and Yong-hok Pak, with [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] as the titular monster. Set during the [[Goryeo|Goryeo Dynasty]], it follows a [[blacksmith]]'s daughter who brings to life a metal-eating monster envisioned by her father to defeat the monarchy. |
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''Pulgasari'' was the last film made by Shin under the orders of [[Kim Jong Il]] (then-heir apparent); Shin and his wife, [[Choi Eun-hee]], had remained in confinement in North Korea since 1978. The film was initially put forward in February 1985. [[Principal photography]] took place in [[Pyongyang]] from June to August 1985, with the support of the North Korean military and |
''Pulgasari'' was the last film made by Shin under the orders of [[Kim Jong Il]] (then-heir apparent); Shin and his wife, [[Choi Eun-hee]], had remained in confinement in North Korea since 1978. The film was initially put forward in February 1985. [[Principal photography]] took place in [[Pyongyang]] from June to August 1985, with the support of the North Korean military and roughly 13,000 extras. A team of 15 [[Toho]] employees handled special effects photography from September to December. With an approximately {{JPY|200–300 million}} ({{USD|2–3 million|long=no}}) budget, ''Pulgasari'' was one of the most expensive films ever produced in North Korea. |
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Initially scheduled for a 1986 worldwide release, ''Pulgasari'' was banned upon Shin and Choi escaping North Korean supervision in March. Shin later worked on an [[Galgameth|American remake]] of the film. ''Pulgasari'' was released on [[VHS]] in Japan on January 21, 1995, and officially debuted |
Initially scheduled for a 1986 worldwide release, ''Pulgasari'' was banned upon Shin and Choi escaping North Korean supervision in March. Shin later worked on an [[Galgameth|American remake]] of the film. ''Pulgasari'' was released on [[VHS]] in Japan on January 21, 1995, and officially debuted in Tokyo on July 4, 1998, to critical acclaim. According to ''[[Cine21]]'', it outperformed ''[[Godzilla (1998 film)|Godzilla]]'' (1998) in Japan and became the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time. In the subsequent years, it has gained an international [[cult following]]. |
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==Plot== |
==Plot== |
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In [[feudal]] [[History of Korea|Korea]], towards the end of the [[Goryeo|Goryeo Dynasty]], a king controls the land with an iron fist, subjecting the peasantry to misery and starvation. The finest [[blacksmith]] in the land, Takse, is imprisoned for defending his people. Shortly before his death, he makes a tiny rice figurine of a monster and asks the gods to make his creation a living creature that protects the rebels and the oppressed. The blacksmith's daughter, Ami, soon receives the figurine and it springs to life upon contact with her blood after she accidentally wounds herself while sewing.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} It becomes a giant metal-eating monster dubbed "[[Pulgasari (creature)|Pulgasari]]" by Ami, which is the name of the mythical monster her father used to mention as an eater of iron and steel.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Pulgasari now shares a special bond with Ami and evolves into a giant and powerful figure after eating some of the farmer's tools. |
In [[feudal]] [[History of Korea|Korea]], towards the end of the [[Goryeo|Goryeo Dynasty]], a king controls the land with an iron fist, subjecting the peasantry to misery and starvation. The finest [[blacksmith]] in the land, Takse, is imprisoned for defending his people. Shortly before his death, he makes a tiny rice figurine of a monster and asks the gods to make his creation a living creature that protects the rebels and the oppressed. The blacksmith's daughter, Ami, soon receives the figurine and it springs to life upon contact with her blood after she accidentally wounds herself while sewing.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} It becomes a giant metal-eating monster dubbed "[[Pulgasari (creature)|Pulgasari]]" by Ami, which is the name of the mythical monster her father used to mention as an eater of iron and steel.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Pulgasari now shares a special bond with Ami and evolves into a giant and powerful figure after eating some of the farmer's tools. |
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After much suffering, the peasants form an army, storm the palace of the region's Governor, and kill him. Soon after the evil king becomes aware that there is a rebellion being planned in the country and he intends to crush it, but he runs into Pulgasari, who fights with the peasant army to overthrow the corrupt [[monarchy]].{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Pulgasari wins many battles because of his unending hunger for all kinds of metal, readily provided by its enemies. Nevertheless, after capturing and executing |
After much suffering, the peasants form an army, storm the palace of the region's Governor, and kill him. Soon after the evil king becomes aware that there is a rebellion being planned in the country and he intends to crush it, but he runs into Pulgasari, who fights with the peasant army to overthrow the corrupt [[monarchy]].{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} Pulgasari wins many battles because of his unending hunger for all kinds of metal, readily provided by its enemies. Nevertheless, after capturing and executing In-dae, the rebellion's leader whom Ami is betrothed to, the king's army threatens to kill Ami if Pulgasari does not surrender. Pulgasari lets itself be trapped to save the woman, and the royal army seemingly kills the creature by burying it under the ground. After escaping, Ami revives Pulgasari by again pouring some of her blood on the burial site. Pulgasari grows strong once more and attacks the king's palace, destroying it and simultaneously killing the king. |
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After the king's defeat, Pulgasari becomes a new problem, since he starts eating the rebels' weapons and farmers' tools given to the creature without objection since the peasants still believe Pulgasari is a benign savior. Ami realizes that Pulgasari's hunger will never stop and that the monster is inadvertently oppressing the people he fought for. She decides to sacrifice herself by hiding inside a big bell that Pulgasari finds and quickly eats. Pulgasari yells in anguish as Ami's presence in its system causes it to turn to stone and crumble into pieces, tragically killing both of them, but saving the people once and for all. |
After the king's defeat, Pulgasari becomes a new problem, since he starts eating the rebels' weapons and farmers' tools given to the creature without objection since the peasants still believe Pulgasari is a benign savior. Ami realizes that Pulgasari's hunger will never stop and that the monster is inadvertently oppressing the people he fought for. She decides to sacrifice herself by hiding inside a big bell that Pulgasari finds and quickly eats. Pulgasari yells in anguish as Ami's presence in its system causes it to turn to stone and crumble into pieces, tragically killing both of them, but saving the people once and for all. |
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==Cast== |
==Cast== |
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{{div col}} |
{{div col}} |
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* Chang Son Hui as Ami, the blacksmith's daughter{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} |
* Chang Son Hui as Ami, the blacksmith's daughter{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} |
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* Ham Gi Sop as |
* Ham Gi Sop as In-dae, Ami's boyfriend{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} |
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* Jong-uk |
* Ri Jong-uk as Ana{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} |
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* |
* Ri Gwon as Takse, the blacksmith{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} |
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* Yong-hok |
* Park Yong-hok as the King{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}} |
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* Riyonun Ri as General Hwang, the King's disciplinary{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} |
* Riyonun Ri as General Hwang, the King's disciplinary{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} |
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* Gyong-ae |
* Yu Gyong-ae as In-dae's mother{{sfn|KMDb}} |
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* Hye-chol |
* Ro Hye-chol as In-dae's brother{{sfn|KMDb}} |
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* Sang-hun |
* Tae Sang-hun as Rebel Forces{{sfn|KMDb}} |
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* Gi-chon |
* Kim Gi-chon as Rebel Forces{{sfn|KMDb}} |
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* In-chol |
* Ri In-chol as Rebel Forces{{sfn|KMDb}} |
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* Pong-ilk |
* Park Pong-ilk as the Governor{{sfn|KMDb}} |
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* [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] as [[Pulgasari (creature)|Pulgasari]] (uncredited){{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}}{{sfn|Jin|1999}}}} |
* [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] as [[Pulgasari (creature)|Pulgasari]] (uncredited){{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}}{{sfn|KMDb}}{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}}{{sfn|Jin|1999}}{{sfn|Edwards|2018|p=208}}}} |
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* Masao Fukazawa as the baby Pulgasari (uncredited){{sfn|Izumi|2013}} |
* Masao Fukazawa as the baby Pulgasari (uncredited){{sfn|Izumi|2013}} |
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{{div col end}} |
{{div col end}} |
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| alt2 = A photograph of Kim Jong Il |
| alt2 = A photograph of Kim Jong Il |
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}} |
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[[Kim Jong Il]] was a lifelong admirer of South Korean filmmaker |
[[Kim Jong Il]] was a lifelong admirer of South Korean filmmaker Shin Sang-ok—who rose to fame in his home country during the 1960s—as well as cinema in general. A collection of around 15,000{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Jackson-Han|2006}} to 20,000{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=1}} titles was reported to be in his possession, with new releases from around the globe being added shortly after opening in theaters.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} In 1978, Kim arranged the kidnapping of Shin and his wife, famed actress [[Choi Eun-hee]], purposely intending for them to make [[propaganda film]]s for the North Korean government and gain North Korean cinema international recognition.{{sfn|Peralta|2011}}{{sfn|Kim|2020}} After being jailed in North Korea for attempting to escape twice, Shin worked in the North Korean film industry from his release in 1983 until his and Choi's escape in 1986. ''Pulgasari'' was Shin's fifth film of 1985 (following ''[[Love, Love, My Love]]'', ''[[Salt (1985 film)|Salt]]'', ''[[The Tale of Shim Chong (film)|The Tale of Shim Chong]]'', and ''Breakwater''),{{sfn|Kim|2020}}{{sfn|Cho}} and last North Korean production altogether.{{sfn|Taylor|2012|p=162}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} |
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''Pulgasari'' was a remake of Kim Myeong-je's 1962 South Korean film, ''[[Bulgasari]]'', with the story itself based around the legendary creature [[Pulgasari (creature)|Pulgasari]] (or "Bulgasari") from [[Korean folklore]].{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Ozaki|2018}}{{sfn|Lind|2014}}{{sfn|Moon|2003}}}} The 1962 film, which is now considered [[Lost film|lost]], was the first ever Korean ''[[kaiju]]'' film, predating ''[[Yongary, Monster from the Deep]]'' and ''[[Space Monster Wangmagwi]]'' by five years.{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}} |
''Pulgasari'' was a remake of Kim Myeong-je's 1962 South Korean film, ''[[Bulgasari]]'', with the story itself based around the legendary creature [[Pulgasari (creature)|Pulgasari]] (or "Bulgasari") from [[Korean folklore]].{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Mo|2018}}{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Ozaki|2018}}{{sfn|Lind|2014}}{{sfn|Moon|2003}}}} The 1962 film, which is now considered [[Lost film|lost]], was the first ever Korean ''[[kaiju]]'' film, predating ''[[Yongary, Monster from the Deep]]'' and ''[[Space Monster Wangmagwi]]'' by five years.{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Wiggins|2022}} |
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===Development=== |
===Development=== |
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Although the planning of ''Pulgasari'' was accredited to Shin,{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} author Paul |
Although the planning of ''Pulgasari'' was accredited to Shin,{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}} author Paul Fischer argued that Shin showed no apparent interest in the Japanese ''kaiju'' genre and never explained who originally conceived the project. Kim, on the other hand, is said to have been a fan of [[Toho]]'s ''[[Godzilla (franchise)|Godzilla]]'' franchise and saw its 1984 reboot ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' since it was the first in the series to receive a Korean-dubbed release.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} He reportedly loved the reboot so much that he sought employees from Toho's [[Tokusatsu|special effects]] department to work on North Korea's very own [[monster film]].{{sfn|Izumi|2013}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=283}} |
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According to [[suit actor]] [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]], the film was pitched in mid-February 1985, |
According to [[suit actor]] [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]], the film was pitched in mid-February 1985, with [[location scouting]] commencing in [[Pyongyang]] and [[Beijing]] that April.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} It soon became a co-production between Joseon Art Film Studio{{sfn|KMDb}} and Shin Film{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} of North Korea, Toho Eizo of Japan,{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} and Beijing Film Studio of China.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 2: "The Night Before Departure"}} Special effects art director Yoshio Suzuki flew to North Korea on April 20, to attend the first meeting between the film's Japanese and North Korean crews, with the help of an interpreter. The meeting was held at a studio near the [[Taedong River]] that produced films about [[Kim Il Sung]] and his family, which had been set up as a temporary office for Shin's production team while a larger studio was under construction for the film. Shin told Suzuki his plans to set the film in China during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period if the historical research and costumes make it "match up well". He also said that if this turned out to be successful, he would start filming on August 15 and "ask the Chinese side to adjust it accordingly".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 10: "Director Shin Sang-ok talks about North Korea's special effects situation"}} Although the film itself would ultimately take place in [[Goryeo]], the King's palace was based on the [[Forbidden City]] complex in [[Beijing]], and the special effects crew specifically referred to it as the [[Hall of Supreme Harmony]] during production.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 8: "The Great Collapse"}} |
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The Japanese crew developed the Pulgasari suit in Japan from April 28 to late May, with Nobuyuki Yasumaru in charge of modeling.{{sfn|''Asahigraph''|1988|p=20}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} |
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Also in April, Shin told Suzuki his plans to set the film in China during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period if the historical research and costumes make it "match up well". He also said that if this turned out to be successful, he would start filming on August 15 and "ask the Chinese side to adjust it accordingly".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 10: "Director Shin Sang-ok talks about North Korea's special effects situation"}} Although the film itself would ultimately take place in [[Goryeo]], the King's palace was based on the [[Forbidden City]] complex in [[Beijing]], and the special effects crew specifically referred to it as the [[Hall of Supreme Harmony]] during production.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 8: "The Great Collapse"}} |
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===Casting=== |
===Casting=== |
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21-year-old Chang Son Hui, who previously starred in ''Love, Love, My Love'',{{sfn|NK chosun|2000b}} played the lead in ''Pulgasari'' |
21-year-old Chang Son Hui, who previously starred in ''Love, Love, My Love'',{{sfn|NK chosun|2000b}} played the lead in ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} Chang was a trainee flight attendant who met Shin at [[Pyongyang International Airport]], and was immediately asked to become a full-time employee at Shin Film.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000b}}{{sfn|Kim|2020}} |
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Kim reportedly praised Satsuma's portrayal of Godzilla in ''The Return of Godzilla'' and thus demanded that he play Pulgasari.{{sfn|Izumi|2013}} He accepted an invite to work on the film in April 1985, having been deceived into believing it would be a Hollywood production.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} |
Kim reportedly praised Satsuma's portrayal of Godzilla in ''The Return of Godzilla'' and thus demanded that he play Pulgasari.{{sfn|Izumi|2013}} He accepted an invite to work on the film in April 1985, having been deceived into believing it would be a Hollywood production.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}}{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} Fischer noted that Satsuma only met Shin once during production; and asked him whether he would ever return to South Korea, to which Shin replied "It would be too complicated, politically, to go back."{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=286}} |
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===Filming and special effects=== |
===Filming and special effects=== |
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[[Principal photography]] took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985 while special effects photography followed from September to December.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} Satsuma later said that the film was produced on an estimated budget of {{JPY|200–300 million}} (equivalent to {{USD|2–3 million|long=no}}), making it one of the largest and most expensive North Korean productions to date.{{sfn|Edwards|2018|p=215}} In addition, some sources described its production budget as "unlimited",{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{sfn|Atsumi|2016}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=[https://tocana.jp/2017/04/post_10154_entry_2.html 2]}} claimed that it was supported by the North Korean military,{{sfn|Atsumi|2016}} and featured 13,000 extras.{{sfn|Lee|2000}} |
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⚫ | Shin recalled that Kim was "very supportive" of ''Pulgasari''<nowiki/>'s production despite never being present during filming.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}}{{efn|In a 1994 interview, Satsuma assumed that Kim produced the film himself.{{sfn|Associated Press|1994|p=3}}}} For Shin to create the film, Kim ordered the construction of Munsu Studio, an immense complex described by Satsuma as a "[[State of the art|state-of-the-art]] film studio", which covered approximately 20,000 ''[[pyeong]]'' (66,000 square meters). The facility featured four studios (the largest two each covered 400 ''pyeong'' while the other two were 200 ''pyeong''), as well as six screening rooms, six [[Recording studio|recording studios]], and around 300 [[Waiting room|waiting rooms]] and other spaces to store art equipment.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea"}} Munsu Studio was still in development when used for special effects photography.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea"}} |
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⚫ | In mid-September, before departing |
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⚫ | Through his Japanese office, Shin invited 15 of Toho's special effects sector staffers, including Satsuma and Nakano, to work on the film.{{sfn|Korean Film Archive}} In mid-September, before departing Japan, the crew filmed the Pulgasari suit wandering around a miniature village in Studio 9 at [[Toho Studios]], but this was omitted from the film's final cut.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} Satsuma and an assistant director flew from [[Tokyo]] to [[Beijing]] via [[Shanghai]], on [[China Airlines]] Flight 930 on September 11, 1985. On September 14, they began working at Beijing Film Studio to prepare the miniature palace and set for the film's climax, which the Chinese crew had already been creating.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 7: "Beijing Film Studio"}} Conflict soon arose between the two crews, with the Chinese believing that the Japanese team "just walked in and started damaging the [Hall of Supreme Harmony] set that we put our heart and soul into building for three months."{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 8: "The Great Collapse"}} Regarding destroying the palace in the Pulgasari suit for the film, Satsuma reflected that he was "impressed that the Chinese government could allow such an ambitious filming, even if it was just a movie".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 2: "The Night Before Departure"}} |
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⚫ | Later, when arriving in North Korea, Satsuma recalled that their passports were confiscated "for our own safety".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} He and the other Japanese were kept as guests at Kim Jong Il's villa for one-and-a-half months to shoot the film, where each of them had a large, well-ventilated, room featuring a bed, TV, bookshelf, and radio.{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=2}} One of the Japanese employees testified that their rooms were [[Covert listening device|bugged]], as evidenced when one of them |
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⚫ | Later, when arriving in North Korea, Satsuma recalled that their passports were confiscated "for our own safety".{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=285}} He and the other Japanese were kept as guests at Kim Jong Il's villa for one-and-a-half months to shoot the film, where each of them had a large, well-ventilated, room featuring a bed, TV, bookshelf, and radio.{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=2}} One of the Japanese employees testified that their rooms were [[Covert listening device|bugged]], as evidenced when one of them was talking to himself while alone in his room about how he missed drinking Japanese beer, only to discover the next day that it had been added to the refrigerator.{{sfn|Izumi|2013}} Kim often visited the villa, but refused to meet the Japanese guests and avoided them.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea"}} Satsuma also said that they were working at Shin's studio around October 1985 and it "felt like mid-winter" because the windows in the building featured no glass.{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=2}} |
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===Post-production=== |
===Post-production=== |
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Post-production on the film reportedly took place in Japan,{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} and |
Post-production on the film reportedly took place in Japan,{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} and was completed in December 1985.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} Having escaped North Korean supervision in 1986, Shin's name was later removed from the credits and replaced by assistant director Chong Gon-jo's.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=84}}{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} Some South Korean sources also credit Chong with having completed the film.{{sfn|Shim|2018}}{{sfn|Lee|2019}}{{sfn|Newsis|2019}} |
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==Release== |
==Release== |
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===Distribution=== |
===Distribution=== |
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[[File:Pulgasary.png|thumb|upright|An English-language poster for the film's canceled worldwide release, which was later published in the 1994 edition of [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]]'s book ''Godzilla's View of North Korea'']] |
[[File:Pulgasary.png|thumb|upright|An English-language poster for the film's canceled worldwide release, which was later published in the 1994 edition of [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]]'s book ''Godzilla's View of North Korea'']] |
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Satsuma cited that ''Pulgasari'' was lauded upon its first screened at [[Toho Studios]] in January 1986.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} On February 16, Shin flew to [[Berlin]] under the supervision of North Korean bodyguards, to offer the film to several Western film distributors at the [[36th Berlin International Film Festival]].{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=294}} The film's 1995 Japanese flyer stated that an unidentified major enterprise acquired ''Pulgasari'' for worldwide distribution.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} However, it was banned both in North Korea and overseas in the wake of Shin and Choi's escape while in [[Vienna]] on March 12.{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=[https://tocana.jp/2017/04/post_10154_entry_2.html 2]}}{{sfn|''Natalie''|2024}}}} The Japanese website ''Tocana'' suggested that it was prepared for release in celebration of [[Kim Il Sung]]'s birthday,{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=1}} which was on April 15. Contrarily, |
Satsuma cited that ''Pulgasari'' was lauded upon its first screened at [[Toho Studios]] in January 1986.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}} On February 16, Shin flew to [[Berlin]] under the supervision of North Korean bodyguards, to offer the film to several Western film distributors at the [[36th Berlin International Film Festival]].{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=294}} The film's 1995 Japanese flyer stated that an unidentified major enterprise acquired ''Pulgasari'' for worldwide distribution.{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}} However, it was banned both in North Korea and overseas in the wake of Shin and Choi's escape while in [[Vienna]] on March 12.{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''|p=2}}{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=[https://tocana.jp/2017/04/post_10154_entry_2.html 2]}}{{sfn|''Natalie''|2024}}}} The Japanese website ''Tocana'' suggested that it was prepared for release in celebration of [[Kim Il Sung]]'s birthday,{{sfn|TOCANA|2017|p=1}} which was on April 15. Contrarily, Fischer contended that the film was released in North Korea a few weeks after Shin's escape and achieved financial success.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|pp=303–304}} Satsuma remarked circa 2007 on his knowledge of the initial cancelation of the film's release: |
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{{blockquote|It was soon decided that the film would be released in Japan. However, in a sudden turn of events, the joyous mood took a turn, and our ''Pulgasari'' was caught up in a political vortex and disappeared from the public eye. And as we all know, 13 years later, the movie, which was thought to have been shelved, miraculously saw the light of day.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}}}} |
{{blockquote|It was soon decided that the film would be released in Japan. However, in a sudden turn of events, the joyous mood took a turn, and our ''Pulgasari'' was caught up in a political vortex and disappeared from the public eye. And as we all know, 13 years later, the movie, which was thought to have been shelved, miraculously saw the light of day.{{sfn|Satsuma|2007|loc=Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?"}}}} |
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In November 1998, [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation]] (MBC) announced it would broadcast ''Pulgasari'' on their [[MBC TV (South Korean TV channel)|television channel]] in 1999.{{sfn|Choi|1998}} Shin subsequently accused MBC of copyright infringement, filed a lawsuit against them, and petitioned for a ban on broadcasting ''Pulgasari'' and ''Love, Love, My Love'' in South Korea.{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Choi|2000}}{{sfn|''MK''|1998}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}}{{sfn|Jin|1999}}}} The following year, Judge {{Ill|Shin Jeong-chi|ko|신정치}} of the [[Supreme Court of Korea|Seoul High Court]] dismissed Shin's request to ban the film in two trails, and concluded that, although Shin holds the [[moral rights]] to the films, the North Korean production company owns the broadcasting rights.{{sfn|Choi|2000}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}} |
In November 1998, [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation]] (MBC) announced it would broadcast ''Pulgasari'' on their [[MBC TV (South Korean TV channel)|television channel]] in 1999.{{sfn|Choi|1998}} Shin subsequently accused MBC of copyright infringement, filed a lawsuit against them, and petitioned for a ban on broadcasting ''Pulgasari'' and ''Love, Love, My Love'' in South Korea.{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Choi|2000}}{{sfn|''MK''|1998}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}}{{sfn|Jin|1999}}}} The following year, Judge {{Ill|Shin Jeong-chi|ko|신정치}} of the [[Supreme Court of Korea|Seoul High Court]] dismissed Shin's request to ban the film in two trails, and concluded that, although Shin holds the [[moral rights]] to the films, the North Korean production company owns the broadcasting rights.{{sfn|Choi|2000}}{{sfn|Yonhap News|1999}} |
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[[Park Jie-won]] of the [[Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism]] declared in May 2000 that the film had been approved for release in South Korea due to a cultural exchange agreement for the [[June 15th North–South Joint Declaration]].{{sfn|Choi|2000}} Thus on July 22,{{sfn|Noh|2000}}{{sfn|Joo|2018}} ''Pulgasari'' became the first North Korean film distributed in South Korean theaters.{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Noh|2000}}{{sfn|Joo|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|BBC|2018}}}} That same month, ''[[Sisa Journal]]'' reported that its release was attracting controversy on whether films from North Korea should be handled as foreign or domestic distributions, and was under consideration to acquire [[Screen quotas#In South Korea|screen quotas]].{{sfn|Noh|2000}} |
[[Park Jie-won]] of the [[Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism]] declared in May 2000 that the film had been approved for release in South Korea due to a cultural exchange agreement for the [[June 15th North–South Joint Declaration]].{{sfn|Choi|2000}} Thus on July 22,{{sfn|Noh|2000}}{{sfn|Joo|2018}} ''Pulgasari'' became the first North Korean film distributed in South Korean theaters.{{efn|Attributed to multiple references:{{sfn|Noh|2000}}{{sfn|Joo|2018}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|BBC|2018}}}} That same month, ''[[Sisa Journal]]'' reported that its release was attracting controversy on whether films from North Korea should be handled as foreign or domestic distributions, and was under consideration to acquire [[Screen quotas#In South Korea|screen quotas]].{{sfn|Noh|2000}} |
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====Other territories==== |
====Other territories==== |
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[[A.D. Vision]] distributed ''Pulgasari'' on VHS in the United States in 2001 through their subsidiary Rubbersuit Productions.{{sfn|Romano|2015}}{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} It subsequently received several screenings in the US, United Kingdom, and Canada.{{sfn|Romano|2015}} In 2006, the film had its New York premiere as part of [[Columbia University]]'s year-long "Godzilla festival."{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} It was also shown in Paris at the [[Jeu de Paume (museum)|Jeu de Paume]] museum on April 11, 2015.{{sfn|Jeu de Paume|2015}} |
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===Festival screenings=== |
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===Box office=== |
===Box office=== |
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In South Korea, the film opened in 50 theaters,{{sfn|Noh|2000}} and was a massive [[box-office bomb]], drawing under 1,000 theatergoers.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|''The Korea Herald''|2003|page=44}} Due to its low number of initial attendees, many theaters decided to pull the film within the first week of its release. Author Johannes Schönherr remarked that contemporary publications cited many reasons for its failure in South Korea, including the unpopularity of Japanese ''kaiju'' movies released there, and the adolescents' lack of interest in films featuring low-budget special effects.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} |
In South Korea, the film opened in 50 theaters,{{sfn|Noh|2000}} and was a massive [[box-office bomb]], drawing under 1,000 theatergoers.{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|''The Korea Herald''|2003|page=44}} Due to its low number of initial attendees, many theaters decided to pull the film within the first week of its release. Author Johannes Schönherr remarked that contemporary publications cited many reasons for its failure in South Korea, including the unpopularity of Japanese ''kaiju'' movies released there, and the adolescents' lack of interest in films featuring low-budget special effects.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} |
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===Critical response=== |
===Critical response=== |
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''Pulgasari'' attained critical acclaim in Japan.{{sfn|Choi|2000}} {{Ill|Jun Edoki|ja|江戸木純}}—one of the film's main advocates—referred to it as "one of the greatest monster movie masterpieces in history, something that neither Hollywood nor Japan can ever replicate".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} According to the ''[[Choson Sinbo]]'', the film was positively compared to ''Godzilla'' (1998) by Japanese reviewers at the time, who believed that ''Pulgasari'' was not "sophisticated" like that film and "reminds the viewers of Japanese monster movies of their good old days".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}} |
''Pulgasari'' attained critical acclaim in Japan.{{sfn|Choi|2000}}{{sfn|Edwards|2018|p=220}} {{Ill|Jun Edoki|ja|江戸木純}}—one of the film's main advocates—referred to it as "one of the greatest monster movie masterpieces in history, something that neither Hollywood nor Japan can ever replicate".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} According to the ''[[Choson Sinbo]]'', the film was positively compared to ''Godzilla'' (1998) by Japanese reviewers at the time, who believed that ''Pulgasari'' was not "sophisticated" like that film and "reminds the viewers of Japanese monster movies of their good old days".{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}} Likewise, Lee Dong-jin of the South Korean newspaper ''[[The Chosun Ilbo]]'' compared the film's technical prowess to ''Godzilla'' (1998). He wrote that ''Pulgasari'' "feels a bit old, but is a fun work that cutely mixes drama and spectacle".{{sfn|Lee|2000}} Some also deemed that the film was more reminiscent of the ''[[Daimajin]]'' trilogy than the ''Godzilla'' series.{{sfn|''Kinema Junpo''|1998|p=179}} |
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Reviewing its initial American video release, ''Film Threat'' noted the film's political background and felt that it should have been parodied in an episode of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]''.{{sfn|Przywara|2002}} |
Reviewing its initial American video release, ''Film Threat'' noted the film's political background and felt that it should have been parodied in an episode of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]''.{{sfn|Przywara|2002}} |
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===Participants' response=== |
===Participants' response=== |
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Satsuma later spoke of how he adored ''Pulgasari'' and remembered performing in it fondly,{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''| |
Satsuma later spoke of how he adored ''Pulgasari'' and remembered performing in it fondly,{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998b}}{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}}{{sfn|''Nikkan Gendai''|2014|p=3}} deeming it to be the "most memorable work in my long acting career".{{sfn|Satsuma|2007}} In October 1988, [[Bungeishunjū]] published a book written by him, titled ''Godzilla's View of North Korea'', which detailed his experiences working on the film.{{sfn|''Asahigraph''|1988|p=19}}{{sfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023|p=3}} He told the ''[[Choson Sinbo]]'' in 1998 that his favorite scene in the film was when the titular monster was caged and set ablaze, and that he wanted to return to North Korea to work on a sequel.{{sfn|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' also claimed that Satsuma considered the film to be better than ''Godzilla'' (1998).{{sfn|Power|2019}} |
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In 2005, Shin articulated to ''[[The New Yorker]]'' that he believed the film's special effects were outdated.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} According |
In 2005, Shin articulated to ''[[The New Yorker]]'' that he believed the film's special effects were outdated.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} According to Fischer, Kim Jong Il considered the film to be a masterpiece.{{sfn|Fischer|2015b}} |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | According to ''[[The Guardian]]'' in 2003, there has been some speculation that the director Shin Sang-ok included a hidden message of his own in the film. The film's titular monster is often interpreted as a metaphor for Kim Il Sung betraying a revolution for his purposes and as a plea to the North Korean people to rise against the Kim regime. This is represented by Pulgasari demanding his subjects feed him more iron even after the former regime has been defeated, leading to the workers turning against and ultimately defeating their former savior.{{sfn|Gorenfeld|2003}} |
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⚫ | Shin disputed interpretations that the film has commentary on North Korea's contemporary [[class conflict]].{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Power|2019}} In 2005, he said that the film is instead a plea for pacifism because "there are limits to what weapons can do".{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} However, a 2019 article in ''The Daily Telegraph'' quoted Shin saying "It was a pure monster film, I didn’t put any ideology in it".{{sfn|Power|2019}} |
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==Remake== |
==Remake== |
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{{Main|Galgameth}} |
{{Main|Galgameth}} |
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In 1995,{{sfn|''Variety''|1995}} Shin (under the [[pseudonym]] "Simon Sheen") worked on a remake of ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} Directed by [[Sean McNamara (filmmaker)|Sean McNamara]] and produced by Sheen Communications, ''[[Galgameth]]'' (1996) told the story of a young prince, aided by a warm-hearted monster, reclaiming his deceased father's [[Middle Ages|medieval kingdom]]. Shin said that ''Galgameth'', along with ''The Gardener'' (1998), "caused me a big financial loss".{{sfn| |
In 1995,{{sfn|''Variety''|1995}} Shin (under the [[pseudonym]] "Simon Sheen") worked on a remake of ''Pulgasari''.{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} Directed by [[Sean McNamara (filmmaker)|Sean McNamara]] and produced by Sheen Communications, ''[[Galgameth]]'' (1996) told the story of a young prince, aided by a warm-hearted monster, reclaiming his deceased father's [[Middle Ages|medieval kingdom]]. Shin said that ''Galgameth'', along with ''The Gardener'' (1998), "caused me a big financial loss".{{sfn|Cho}} |
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==Legacy== |
==Legacy== |
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===Modern reception=== |
===Modern reception=== |
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In the years following its US premiere, Western critics and fans have frequently mocked and overlooked the film.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} |
In the years following its US premiere, Western critics and ''kaiju'' fans have frequently mocked and overlooked the film.{{sfn|Schönherr|2012|p=148}} In 2015, Fischer described it as Shin's worst movie.{{sfn|Fischer|2015a|p=287}} A 2016 review on [[Screen Anarchy]] condemned it as [[propaganda]], and solely praised Shin's efforts and the monster's depiction.{{sfn|Regehr|2016}} Simon Fowler of ''The Guardian'' ranked it the third-best North Korean film ever made, but noted that "it's [easy] to get lost in the ridiculousness of it all".{{sfn|Fowler|2014}} [[Jonathan Ross]] mentioned that ''Pulgasari'' was among the few North Korean films he had seen, and described it as an "enjoyably campy ''kaiju'' flick".{{sfn|Ross|2021}} In March 2024, ''[[Collider (website)|Collider]]'' ranked the film No. 10 on their "10 Best [[Cult film|So-Bad-They're-Good]] Monster Movies" list, and ''[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]]'' called it "quite bad as a film"; both agreed that its behind-the-scenes story is more fascinating than the film itself.{{sfn|Urquhart|2024}}{{sfn|Grebey|2024}} |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | According to ''The Guardian'', there has been some speculation that the director Shin Sang-ok included a hidden message of his own in the film. The film's titular monster is often interpreted as a metaphor for |
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⚫ | Shin disputed interpretations that the film has commentary on North Korea's contemporary [[class conflict]].{{sfn|NK chosun|2000a}}{{sfn|Power|2019}} In 2005, he said that the film is instead a plea for pacifism because "there are limits to what weapons can do".{{sfn|Shapiro|2005}} However, a 2019 article in ''The Daily Telegraph'' quoted Shin saying "It was a pure monster film, I didn’t put any ideology in it".{{sfn|Power|2019}} |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} |
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} |
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* {{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrwJAQAAMAAJ&q=%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9%E3%81%8C%E8%A6%8B%E3%81%9F%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE+1988 |title=アサヒグラフ, Issues 3459-3467 |magazine=[[Asahigraph]] |via=[[Google Books]] |year=1988 |ref={{sfnref|''Asahigraph''|1988}} |language=ja }} |
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* {{Cite web |last=Atsumi |first=Shiho |date=September 23, 2016 |title=拉致された韓国の人気映画監督は、金正日のために北朝鮮版『ゴジラ』を作った(渥美志保) |trans-title=The abducted popular South Korean film director who made a North Korean version of "Godzilla" for Kim Jong-il |url=https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/9d3d19b30988a3f9b40a1b73820fc79053b63500 |access-date=July 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240704051033/https://news.yahoo.co.jp/expert/articles/9d3d19b30988a3f9b40a1b73820fc79053b63500 |archive-date=July 4, 2024 |url-status=live |website=Yahoo! Japan |language=ja}} |
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* {{cite web |last=Choi |first=Yun-jeong |url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/in_focus/32991-20000522.html |title=남한에서 상영될 북한영화 불가사리 |trans-title=North Korean film ''Bulgasari'' to be screened in South Korea |publisher=[[Radio Free Asia]] |date=May 22, 2000 |access-date=July 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708052616/https://www.rfa.org/korean/in_focus/32991-20000522.html |archive-date=July 8, 2024 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite web |title=大ヒット、「プルガサリ」|trans-title=The big hit, ''Pulgasari'' |url=http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |date=1998 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |language=ja |work=[[Choson Sinbo]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705003011/http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |archive-date=July 5, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} }} |
* {{Cite web |title=大ヒット、「プルガサリ」|trans-title=The big hit, ''Pulgasari'' |url=http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |date=1998 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |language=ja |work=[[Choson Sinbo]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705003011/http://korea-np.co.jp/sinboj1998/sinboj98-8/sinboj980818/sinboj98081881.htm |archive-date=July 5, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Choson Sinbo''|1998a}} }} |
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* {{Cite web |title=[신상옥의 북한영화이야기] 춘향역 장선희 |trans-title=Shin Sang-ok's North Korean Film Story: Chang Son Hui as Chunhyang |url=https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |access-date=July 17, 2024 |website=[[The Chosun Ilbo]]/NK chosun |language=ko |date=October 8, 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717051630/https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |archive-date=July 17, 2024 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|NK chosun|2000b}}}} |
* {{Cite web |title=[신상옥의 북한영화이야기] 춘향역 장선희 |trans-title=Shin Sang-ok's North Korean Film Story: Chang Son Hui as Chunhyang |url=https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |access-date=July 17, 2024 |website=[[The Chosun Ilbo]]/NK chosun |language=ko |date=October 8, 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717051630/https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3697 |archive-date=July 17, 2024 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|NK chosun|2000b}}}} |
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* {{Cite web |date=December 27, 2023 |title=ゴジラ俳優「薩摩剣八郎さん」死去 金正日肝いり「怪獣映画」に出演 かつて明かした北朝鮮"極寒の撮影秘話" |trans-title=Godzilla actor Kenpachiro Satsuma passes away; he appeared in Kim Jong-il's "''kaiju'' movie" and once revealed the "secret story of filming in the extreme cold of North Korea" |url=https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=[[Shūkan Shinchō|Daily Shincho]] |publisher=[[Shinchosha]] |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228010013/https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |archive-date=December 28, 2023 |url-status=live |ref={{refsfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}} }} |
* {{Cite web |date=December 27, 2023 |title=ゴジラ俳優「薩摩剣八郎さん」死去 金正日肝いり「怪獣映画」に出演 かつて明かした北朝鮮"極寒の撮影秘話" |trans-title=Godzilla actor Kenpachiro Satsuma passes away; he appeared in Kim Jong-il's "''kaiju'' movie" and once revealed the "secret story of filming in the extreme cold of North Korea" |url=https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=[[Shūkan Shinchō|Daily Shincho]] |publisher=[[Shinchosha]] |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228010013/https://www.dailyshincho.jp/article/2023/12271102/?all=1&page=2 |archive-date=December 28, 2023 |url-status=live |ref={{refsfn|''Daily Shincho''|2023}} }} |
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* {{cite book |editor-last=Edwards |editor-first=Matthew |year=2018 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZcWBAAAQBAJ |title=Film Out of Bounds: Essays and Interviews on Non-Mainstream Cinema Worldwide |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-0780-1 |via=[[Google Books]] |access-date=August 1, 2024 |interviewer=Schönherr, Johannes }} |
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* {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=3899|title=大怪獣プルガサリ|trans-title=''Giant Monster Pulgasari''|work=Eiga Chirashi<!--(Movie Flyers)-->|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031153718/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=3899|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|date=2023|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023a}}}} |
* {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=3899|title=大怪獣プルガサリ|trans-title=''Giant Monster Pulgasari''|work=Eiga Chirashi<!--(Movie Flyers)-->|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031153718/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/view_item.php?titleid=3899|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|date=2023|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|''Eiga Chirashi''|2023a}}}} |
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* {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf |title=大怪獣プルガサリ|trans-title=''Giant Monster Pulgasari''|work=Eiga Chirashi<!--(Movie Flyers)-->|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031160328/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''}}}} |
* {{cite web|url=https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf |title=大怪獣プルガサリ|trans-title=''Giant Monster Pulgasari''|work=Eiga Chirashi<!--(Movie Flyers)-->|language=ja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031160328/https://eiga-chirashi.jp/090212/090212000003.pdf|archive-date=October 31, 2023|access-date=July 2, 2024|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|1995 Japanese flyer for ''Pulgasari''}}}} |
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* {{Cite news |last=Fowler |first=Simon |date=August 15, 2014 |title=The five best North Korean films |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/15/five-best-north-korean-films |access-date=July 2, 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815155627/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/15/five-best-north-korean-films |archive-date=August 15, 2014 |url-status=live }} |
* {{Cite news |last=Fowler |first=Simon |date=August 15, 2014 |title=The five best North Korean films |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/15/five-best-north-korean-films |access-date=July 2, 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815155627/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/15/five-best-north-korean-films |archive-date=August 15, 2014 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite web |last=Gorenfeld |first=John |date=April 3, 2003 |title=Kidnapped by Kim Jong-il: the man who directed the socialist Godzilla |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2003/apr/04/artsfeatures1 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827011332/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2003/apr/04/artsfeatures1 |archive-date=August 27, 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=July 3, 2024 }} |
* {{cite web |last=Gorenfeld |first=John |date=April 3, 2003 |title=Kidnapped by Kim Jong-il: the man who directed the socialist Godzilla |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2003/apr/04/artsfeatures1 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827011332/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2003/apr/04/artsfeatures1 |archive-date=August 27, 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=July 3, 2024 }} |
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* {{cite |
* {{cite magazine |last=Gourevitch |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Gourevitch |title=Alone in the Dark |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2003/09/08/alone-in-the-dark |date=August 31, 2003 |access-date=July 31, 2024 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] }} |
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* {{Cite web |last=Grebey |first=James |date=March 28, 2024 |title=15 Kaiju You Should Know (That Aren't Godzilla or King Kong) |url=https://www.vulture.com/article/best-movie-kaiju-not-godzilla-king-kong.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328181509/https://www.vulture.com/article/best-movie-kaiju-not-godzilla-king-kong.html |archive-date=March 28, 2024 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]] }} |
* {{Cite web |last=Grebey |first=James |date=March 28, 2024 |title=15 Kaiju You Should Know (That Aren't Godzilla or King Kong) |url=https://www.vulture.com/article/best-movie-kaiju-not-godzilla-king-kong.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328181509/https://www.vulture.com/article/best-movie-kaiju-not-godzilla-king-kong.html |archive-date=March 28, 2024 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]] }} |
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* {{cite web |last=Izumi |first=Maki |url=https://japan.techinsight.jp/2013/08/satumakenhatiro-purusagari-miyaneya20130814.html |title=【エンタがビタミン♪】「金正日氏の別荘で過ごした」。北朝鮮・怪獣映画に出演のスーツアクター、現地での待遇明かす。|date=August 30, 2013 |language=ja |trans-title=Entertainment is a Vitamin♪: 'I spent time at Kim Jong-il's villa'; a suit actor appearing in a North Korean ''kaiju'' movie reveals how he was treated there. |work=[[:ja:Techinsight|Techinsight]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801055203/https://japan.techinsight.jp/2013/08/satumakenhatiro-purusagari-miyaneya20130814.html |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |access-date=August 1, 2024 }} |
* {{cite web |last=Izumi |first=Maki |url=https://japan.techinsight.jp/2013/08/satumakenhatiro-purusagari-miyaneya20130814.html |title=【エンタがビタミン♪】「金正日氏の別荘で過ごした」。北朝鮮・怪獣映画に出演のスーツアクター、現地での待遇明かす。|date=August 30, 2013 |language=ja |trans-title=Entertainment is a Vitamin♪: 'I spent time at Kim Jong-il's villa'; a suit actor appearing in a North Korean ''kaiju'' movie reveals how he was treated there. |work=[[:ja:Techinsight|Techinsight]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801055203/https://japan.techinsight.jp/2013/08/satumakenhatiro-purusagari-miyaneya20130814.html |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |access-date=August 1, 2024 }} |
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* {{cite web |last=Jackson-Han |first=Sarah |title=North Korean Feature Film Gets International Exposure |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/nkorea_film-20061030.html |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |date=October 30, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413111257/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/nkorea_film-20061030.html |archive-date=April 13, 2023 |url-status=live }} |
* {{cite web |last=Jackson-Han |first=Sarah |title=North Korean Feature Film Gets International Exposure |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/nkorea_film-20061030.html |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |date=October 30, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413111257/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/nkorea_film-20061030.html |archive-date=April 13, 2023 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite web |last= |
* {{cite web |last=Jeu de Paume |author-link=Jeu de Paume (museum) |url=https://jeudepaume.org/en/evenement/pulgasari-a-film-by-shin-sang-ok/ |title=''Pulgasari'' a film by Shin Sang-Ok |date=April 11, 2015 |access-date=August 1, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028103905/https://jeudepaume.org/en/evenement/pulgasari-a-film-by-shin-sang-ok/ |archive-date=October 28, 2021 }} |
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* {{cite web |last=Jin |first=Seong-ho |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/1999/01/21/1999012170401.html |title=[미디어 다시보기] 북영화 '불가사리'TV방영 진통 |trans-title=Media Replay: North Korean movie ''Pulgasari'' TV broadcast pains |language=ko |work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |date=15 August 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801043048/https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/1999/01/21/1999012170401.html |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |access-date=August 1, 2024 }} |
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* {{cite web |last=Joo |first=Seong-cheol |title=북한영화를 아십니까 |trans-title=Do you know North Korean movies? |language=ko |url=http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |date=June 22, 2018 |access-date=July 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240729035552/http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |url-status=live |archive-date=July 29, 2024}} |
* {{cite web |last=Joo |first=Seong-cheol |title=북한영화를 아십니까 |trans-title=Do you know North Korean movies? |language=ko |url=http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |date=June 22, 2018 |access-date=July 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240729035552/http://m.cine21.com/news/view/?mag_id=90476 |url-status=live |archive-date=July 29, 2024}} |
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* {{cite web|last=Kim |first=Joo-won |date=2020 |url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/weekly_program/ae40c528c77cac00c758-c228aca8c9c4-c9c4c2e4/co-su-12312019112243.html |title=북한 신필림영화와 신상옥 부부의 북한탈출 |trans-title=North Korea's Shin |
* {{cite web|last=Kim |first=Joo-won |date=2020 |url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/weekly_program/ae40c528c77cac00c758-c228aca8c9c4-c9c4c2e4/co-su-12312019112243.html |title=북한 신필림영화와 신상옥 부부의 북한탈출 |trans-title=North Korea's Shin Film and Shin Sang-ok and his wife's escape from North Korea |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |access-date=July 17, 2024 |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717053851/https://www.rfa.org/korean/weekly_program/ae40c528c77cac00c758-c228aca8c9c4-c9c4c2e4/co-su-12312019112243.html |archive-date=July 17, 2024}} |
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* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G641AQAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari |title=Film & Video Yearbook 1999 |date=May 14, 1999 |series=[[Kinema Junpo]] |
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G641AQAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari |title=Film & Video Yearbook 1999 |date=May 14, 1999 |series=[[Kinema Junpo]] |language=ja |via=[[Google Books]] |issue=1283 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240704035257/https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=G641AQAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari&dq=Pulgasari&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwizuJqZgPOGAxW7fPUHHabdAM84ChDoAXoECAwQAg |archive-date=July 4, 2024 |url-status=live |quote=<!--プルガサリが、ゴジラというより大魔神なのは、気がつく人はとうに気づいているだろう。だが、その大魔神のルーツが、圧制下のユダヤ人が生んだ伝説*ゴーレム"なのを承知している人は、限られそうだ。--> |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|1999}} }} |
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* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLlNAQAAIAAJ |title=Issues 1265-1268 |series=[[Kinema Junpo]] |language=ja |via=[[Google Books]] |date=1998 |access-date=August 5, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|1998}} }} |
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* {{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rxNAQAAIAAJ&q=%E3%83%97%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AC%E3%82%B5%E3%83%AA%EF%BC%9A%E4%BC%9D%E8%AA%AC%E3%81%AE%E5%A4%A7%E6%80%AA%E7%8D%A3+1998%E5%B9%B4 |title=Issues 1392-1395 |magazine=[[Kinema Junpo]] |year=2003 |language=ja <!--|page=145 |quote=1985 年、日本、中国、北朝鮮の合作で制作され、 98 年に日本公開された「プルガサリ/伝説の大怪獣」。--> |via=[[Google Books]] |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|2003}} }} |
* {{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rxNAQAAIAAJ&q=%E3%83%97%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AC%E3%82%B5%E3%83%AA%EF%BC%9A%E4%BC%9D%E8%AA%AC%E3%81%AE%E5%A4%A7%E6%80%AA%E7%8D%A3+1998%E5%B9%B4 |title=Issues 1392-1395 |magazine=[[Kinema Junpo]] |year=2003 |language=ja <!--|page=145 |quote=1985 年、日本、中国、北朝鮮の合作で制作され、 98 年に日本公開された「プルガサリ/伝説の大怪獣」。--> |via=[[Google Books]] |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|2003}} }} |
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* {{cite web |url=https://www.kinejun.com/cinema/view/30991 |title=プルガサリ |
* {{cite web |url=https://www.kinejun.com/cinema/view/30991 |title=プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣 |trans-title=''Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster'' |work=[[Kinema Junpo]] |access-date=July 31, 2024 |language=ja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801044355/https://www.kinejun.com/cinema/view/30991 |archive-date=August 1, 2024 |ref={{sfnref|''Kinema Junpo''|2024}} }} |
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* {{cite web |last=KMDb |url=http://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180 |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |access-date=July 8, 2024 |work=[[Korean Movie Database]] |publisher=[[Korean Film Archive]] }} |
* {{cite web |last=KMDb |url=http://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180 |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |access-date=July 8, 2024 |work=[[Korean Movie Database]] |publisher=[[Korean Film Archive]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304014928/http://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180 |archive-date=March 4, 2019}} |
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* {{cite web |
** {{cite web |url=https://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180/credit |title=크레디트 |trans-title=Credits |language=ko |access-date=August 2, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240802000850/https://www.kmdb.or.kr/db/kor/detail/movie/F/07180/credit |archive-date=August 2, 2024 }} |
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* {{Cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44a6AAAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari |title=Korea Now |date=2003 |volume=32 |newspaper=[[The Korea Herald]] |via=[[Google Books]] |ref={{sfnref|''The Korea Herald''|2003}} }} |
* {{Cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44a6AAAAIAAJ&q=Pulgasari |title=Korea Now |date=2003 |volume=32 |newspaper=[[The Korea Herald]] |via=[[Google Books]] |ref={{sfnref|''The Korea Herald''|2003}} }} |
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* {{cite web |last= |
* {{cite web |last=Korean Film Archive |author-link=Korean Film Archive |url=https://www.koreafilm.or.kr/movie/PM_002095 |title=불가사리 |trans-title=''Pulgasari'' |access-date=August 1, 2024 |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801234834/https://www.koreafilm.or.kr/movie/PM_002095/ |archive-date=August 1, 2024 }} |
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* {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Dong-jin |date=July 18, 2000 |title=민중 위해 싸우는 괴수 '불가사리' |trans-title=''Pulgasari'', a monster fighting for the people |url=https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2000/07/18/2000071870364.html |work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240728235532/https://www.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2000/07/18/2000071870364.html |archive-date=July 28, 2024 |access-date=July 28, 2024 }} |
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* {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Do-yeon |date=April 29, 2019 |title=무주산골영화제 개막작은 북한 영화 '불가사리' |trans-title=The North Korean film ''Pulgasari'' is the opening film of the Muju Mountain Film Festival |url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030040344/https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |archive-date=October 30, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |website=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |language=ko }} |
* {{cite web |last=Lee |first=Do-yeon |date=April 29, 2019 |title=무주산골영화제 개막작은 북한 영화 '불가사리' |trans-title=The North Korean film ''Pulgasari'' is the opening film of the Muju Mountain Film Festival |url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030040344/https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20190429085700005 |archive-date=October 30, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |website=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |language=ko }} |
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* {{Cite web |last=Lind |first=Maria |date=February 18, 2014 |title=Magnus Bärtås |url=https://artreview.com/66-future-greats-magnus-brts/ |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=[[ArtReview]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702034025/https://artreview.com/66-future-greats-magnus-brts/ |archive-date=July 2, 2024 }} |
* {{Cite web |last=Lind |first=Maria |date=February 18, 2014 |title=Magnus Bärtås |url=https://artreview.com/66-future-greats-magnus-brts/ |access-date=July 2, 2024 |website=[[ArtReview]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702034025/https://artreview.com/66-future-greats-magnus-brts/ |archive-date=July 2, 2024 }} |
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* {{Cite web |last=Wiggins |first=Brent |date=October 13, 2022 |title=''Pulgasari'': A Look at the North Korean Kaiju Movie |url=https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013125909/https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |website=[[MovieWeb]] }} |
* {{Cite web |last=Wiggins |first=Brent |date=October 13, 2022 |title=''Pulgasari'': A Look at the North Korean Kaiju Movie |url=https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013125909/https://movieweb.com/pulgasari-north-korean-kaiju-movie/ |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |access-date=October 30, 2022 |website=[[MovieWeb]] }} |
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* {{cite book|last=Yamada|first=Masami|title=大ゴジラ図鑑2|trans-title=Pictorial Book of Godzilla 2|date=December 1995|publisher=[[Hobby Japan]]|page=152|isbn=4-89425-117-5|language=ja}} |
* {{cite book|last=Yamada|first=Masami|title=大ゴジラ図鑑2|trans-title=Pictorial Book of Godzilla 2|date=December 1995|publisher=[[Hobby Japan]]|page=152|isbn=4-89425-117-5|language=ja}} |
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* {{cite web |last=Yonhap News |author-link=Yonhap News Agency |url=https://www.incheonilbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=30644 |title= |
* {{cite web |last=Yonhap News |author-link=Yonhap News Agency |url=https://www.incheonilbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=30644 |title="신상옥씨 영화 北에 저작권 있어" 서울고법, 신감독 항고기각 |trans-title='North Korea owns the copyright to Mr. Shin Sang-ok’s movies' Seoul High Court dismisses director Shin’s appeal |date=October 19, 1999 |work=Incheon Ilbo |language=ko |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731011544/https://www.incheonilbo.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=30644 |archive-date=July 31, 2024 |access-date=July 31, 2024 }} |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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[[Category:1980s dark fantasy films]] |
Revision as of 02:40, 28 August 2024
Pulgasari | |
---|---|
Directed by |
|
Written by | Kim Se Ryun |
Based on | Bulgasari (1962) by Kim Myeong-je |
Produced by | Shin Sang-ok (uncredited) |
Starring |
|
Cinematography |
|
Edited by | Kim Ryon Sun |
Music by | So Jong Gon |
Production companies |
|
Distributed by | Twin (1995) Raging Thunder (1998) |
Release dates |
|
Running time | 95 minutes |
Countries | |
Language | Korean |
Budget | $2–3 million |
Pulgasari[a] is an epic kaiju film directed and produced in 1985 by Shin Sang-ok during his abduction in North Korea. A multinational co-production between North Korea, Japan, and China, it is a remake of the 1962 South Korean film also depicting the eponymous creature from Korean folklore. The ensemble cast includes Chang Son Hui, Ham Gi Sop, Jong-uk Ri, Gwon Ri, and Yong-hok Pak, with Kenpachiro Satsuma as the titular monster. Set during the Goryeo Dynasty, it follows a blacksmith's daughter who brings to life a metal-eating monster envisioned by her father to defeat the monarchy.
Pulgasari was the last film made by Shin under the orders of Kim Jong Il (then-heir apparent); Shin and his wife, Choi Eun-hee, had remained in confinement in North Korea since 1978. The film was initially put forward in February 1985. Principal photography took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985, with the support of the North Korean military and roughly 13,000 extras. A team of 15 Toho employees handled special effects photography from September to December. With an approximately ¥200–300 million ($2–3 million) budget, Pulgasari was one of the most expensive films ever produced in North Korea.
Initially scheduled for a 1986 worldwide release, Pulgasari was banned upon Shin and Choi escaping North Korean supervision in March. Shin later worked on an American remake of the film. Pulgasari was released on VHS in Japan on January 21, 1995, and officially debuted in Tokyo on July 4, 1998, to critical acclaim. According to Cine21, it outperformed Godzilla (1998) in Japan and became the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time. In the subsequent years, it has gained an international cult following.
Plot
In feudal Korea, towards the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, a king controls the land with an iron fist, subjecting the peasantry to misery and starvation. The finest blacksmith in the land, Takse, is imprisoned for defending his people. Shortly before his death, he makes a tiny rice figurine of a monster and asks the gods to make his creation a living creature that protects the rebels and the oppressed. The blacksmith's daughter, Ami, soon receives the figurine and it springs to life upon contact with her blood after she accidentally wounds herself while sewing.[4] It becomes a giant metal-eating monster dubbed "Pulgasari" by Ami, which is the name of the mythical monster her father used to mention as an eater of iron and steel.[5] Pulgasari now shares a special bond with Ami and evolves into a giant and powerful figure after eating some of the farmer's tools.
After much suffering, the peasants form an army, storm the palace of the region's Governor, and kill him. Soon after the evil king becomes aware that there is a rebellion being planned in the country and he intends to crush it, but he runs into Pulgasari, who fights with the peasant army to overthrow the corrupt monarchy.[5] Pulgasari wins many battles because of his unending hunger for all kinds of metal, readily provided by its enemies. Nevertheless, after capturing and executing In-dae, the rebellion's leader whom Ami is betrothed to, the king's army threatens to kill Ami if Pulgasari does not surrender. Pulgasari lets itself be trapped to save the woman, and the royal army seemingly kills the creature by burying it under the ground. After escaping, Ami revives Pulgasari by again pouring some of her blood on the burial site. Pulgasari grows strong once more and attacks the king's palace, destroying it and simultaneously killing the king.
After the king's defeat, Pulgasari becomes a new problem, since he starts eating the rebels' weapons and farmers' tools given to the creature without objection since the peasants still believe Pulgasari is a benign savior. Ami realizes that Pulgasari's hunger will never stop and that the monster is inadvertently oppressing the people he fought for. She decides to sacrifice herself by hiding inside a big bell that Pulgasari finds and quickly eats. Pulgasari yells in anguish as Ami's presence in its system causes it to turn to stone and crumble into pieces, tragically killing both of them, but saving the people once and for all.
Cast
- Chang Son Hui as Ami, the blacksmith's daughter[4][6]
- Ham Gi Sop as In-dae, Ami's boyfriend[6]
- Ri Jong-uk as Ana[6]
- Ri Gwon as Takse, the blacksmith[4][6]
- Park Yong-hok as the King[6][7]
- Riyonun Ri as General Hwang, the King's disciplinary[6]
- Yu Gyong-ae as In-dae's mother[7]
- Ro Hye-chol as In-dae's brother[7]
- Tae Sang-hun as Rebel Forces[7]
- Kim Gi-chon as Rebel Forces[7]
- Ri In-chol as Rebel Forces[7]
- Park Pong-ilk as the Governor[7]
- Kenpachiro Satsuma as Pulgasari (uncredited)[b]
- Masao Fukazawa as the baby Pulgasari (uncredited)[12]
Production
Crew
- Shin Sang-ok – director, producer (uncredited)[c]
- Chong Gon-jo – director[c]
- Teruyoshi Nakano – special effects director (uncredited)[4]
- Roh Dong-cheon – lighting[7]
- Lee In-beom – lighting[7]
- Lee Doik – art director[6]
- Park Jeong-gil – special effects art director[6]
- Yoshio Suzuki – special effects art director (uncredited)[6]
- Kim Deukho – special effects cinematographer[6]
- Kenichi Eguchi – special effects cinematographer (uncredited)[6]
- Kohei Mikami – special effects lighting (uncredited)[6]
- Nobuyuki Yasumaru – Pulgasari suit modeler (uncredited)[4]
Context
Kim Jong Il was a lifelong admirer of South Korean filmmaker Shin Sang-ok—who rose to fame in his home country during the 1960s—as well as cinema in general. A collection of around 15,000[22][23] to 20,000[4][24] titles was reported to be in his possession, with new releases from around the globe being added shortly after opening in theaters.[4] In 1978, Kim arranged the kidnapping of Shin and his wife, famed actress Choi Eun-hee, purposely intending for them to make propaganda films for the North Korean government and gain North Korean cinema international recognition.[25][26] After being jailed in North Korea for attempting to escape twice, Shin worked in the North Korean film industry from his release in 1983 until his and Choi's escape in 1986. Pulgasari was Shin's fifth film of 1985 (following Love, Love, My Love, Salt, The Tale of Shim Chong, and Breakwater),[26][27] and last North Korean production altogether.[28][29]
Pulgasari was a remake of Kim Myeong-je's 1962 South Korean film, Bulgasari, with the story itself based around the legendary creature Pulgasari (or "Bulgasari") from Korean folklore.[d] The 1962 film, which is now considered lost, was the first ever Korean kaiju film, predating Yongary, Monster from the Deep and Space Monster Wangmagwi by five years.[17][33]
Development
Although the planning of Pulgasari was accredited to Shin,[21] author Paul Fischer argued that Shin showed no apparent interest in the Japanese kaiju genre and never explained who originally conceived the project. Kim, on the other hand, is said to have been a fan of Toho's Godzilla franchise and saw its 1984 reboot The Return of Godzilla since it was the first in the series to receive a Korean-dubbed release.[34] He reportedly loved the reboot so much that he sought employees from Toho's special effects department to work on North Korea's very own monster film.[12][22][34]
According to suit actor Kenpachiro Satsuma, the film was pitched in mid-February 1985, with location scouting commencing in Pyongyang and Beijing that April.[35] It soon became a co-production between Joseon Art Film Studio[7] and Shin Film[4] of North Korea, Toho Eizo of Japan,[4] and Beijing Film Studio of China.[36] Special effects art director Yoshio Suzuki flew to North Korea on April 20, to attend the first meeting between the film's Japanese and North Korean crews, with the help of an interpreter. The meeting was held at a studio near the Taedong River that produced films about Kim Il Sung and his family, which had been set up as a temporary office for Shin's production team while a larger studio was under construction for the film. Shin told Suzuki his plans to set the film in China during the Three Kingdoms period if the historical research and costumes make it "match up well". He also said that if this turned out to be successful, he would start filming on August 15 and "ask the Chinese side to adjust it accordingly".[37] Although the film itself would ultimately take place in Goryeo, the King's palace was based on the Forbidden City complex in Beijing, and the special effects crew specifically referred to it as the Hall of Supreme Harmony during production.[38]
The Japanese crew developed the Pulgasari suit in Japan from April 28 to late May, with Nobuyuki Yasumaru in charge of modeling.[39][35]
Casting
21-year-old Chang Son Hui, who previously starred in Love, Love, My Love,[40] played the lead in Pulgasari.[4] Chang was a trainee flight attendant who met Shin at Pyongyang International Airport, and was immediately asked to become a full-time employee at Shin Film.[40][26]
Kim reportedly praised Satsuma's portrayal of Godzilla in The Return of Godzilla and thus demanded that he play Pulgasari.[12] He accepted an invite to work on the film in April 1985, having been deceived into believing it would be a Hollywood production.[35][29] Fischer noted that Satsuma only met Shin once during production; and asked him whether he would ever return to South Korea, to which Shin replied "It would be too complicated, politically, to go back."[41]
Filming and special effects
Principal photography took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985 while special effects photography followed from September to December.[4][35] Satsuma later said that the film was produced on an estimated budget of ¥200–300 million (equivalent to $2–3 million), making it one of the largest and most expensive North Korean productions to date.[42] In addition, some sources described its production budget as "unlimited",[20][43][44] claimed that it was supported by the North Korean military,[43] and featured 13,000 extras.[45]
Shin recalled that Kim was "very supportive" of Pulgasari's production despite never being present during filming.[20][e] For Shin to create the film, Kim ordered the construction of Munsu Studio, an immense complex described by Satsuma as a "state-of-the-art film studio", which covered approximately 20,000 pyeong (66,000 square meters). The facility featured four studios (the largest two each covered 400 pyeong while the other two were 200 pyeong), as well as six screening rooms, six recording studios, and around 300 waiting rooms and other spaces to store art equipment.[46] Munsu Studio was still in development when used for special effects photography.[4][46]
Through his Japanese office, Shin invited 15 of Toho's special effects sector staffers, including Satsuma and Nakano, to work on the film.[47] In mid-September, before departing Japan, the crew filmed the Pulgasari suit wandering around a miniature village in Studio 9 at Toho Studios, but this was omitted from the film's final cut.[35] Satsuma and an assistant director flew from Tokyo to Beijing via Shanghai, on China Airlines Flight 930 on September 11, 1985. On September 14, they began working at Beijing Film Studio to prepare the miniature palace and set for the film's climax, which the Chinese crew had already been creating.[48] Conflict soon arose between the two crews, with the Chinese believing that the Japanese team "just walked in and started damaging the [Hall of Supreme Harmony] set that we put our heart and soul into building for three months."[38] Regarding destroying the palace in the Pulgasari suit for the film, Satsuma reflected that he was "impressed that the Chinese government could allow such an ambitious filming, even if it was just a movie".[36]
Later, when arriving in North Korea, Satsuma recalled that their passports were confiscated "for our own safety".[29] He and the other Japanese were kept as guests at Kim Jong Il's villa for one-and-a-half months to shoot the film, where each of them had a large, well-ventilated, room featuring a bed, TV, bookshelf, and radio.[49] One of the Japanese employees testified that their rooms were bugged, as evidenced when one of them was talking to himself while alone in his room about how he missed drinking Japanese beer, only to discover the next day that it had been added to the refrigerator.[12] Kim often visited the villa, but refused to meet the Japanese guests and avoided them.[46] Satsuma also said that they were working at Shin's studio around October 1985 and it "felt like mid-winter" because the windows in the building featured no glass.[49]
Post-production
Post-production on the film reportedly took place in Japan,[4] and was completed in December 1985.[21][35] Having escaped North Korean supervision in 1986, Shin's name was later removed from the credits and replaced by assistant director Chong Gon-jo's.[14][20] Some South Korean sources also credit Chong with having completed the film.[16][17][18]
Release
Distribution
Satsuma cited that Pulgasari was lauded upon its first screened at Toho Studios in January 1986.[35] On February 16, Shin flew to Berlin under the supervision of North Korean bodyguards, to offer the film to several Western film distributors at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival.[50] The film's 1995 Japanese flyer stated that an unidentified major enterprise acquired Pulgasari for worldwide distribution.[4] However, it was banned both in North Korea and overseas in the wake of Shin and Choi's escape while in Vienna on March 12.[f] The Japanese website Tocana suggested that it was prepared for release in celebration of Kim Il Sung's birthday,[24] which was on April 15. Contrarily, Fischer contended that the film was released in North Korea a few weeks after Shin's escape and achieved financial success.[52] Satsuma remarked circa 2007 on his knowledge of the initial cancelation of the film's release:
It was soon decided that the film would be released in Japan. However, in a sudden turn of events, the joyous mood took a turn, and our Pulgasari was caught up in a political vortex and disappeared from the public eye. And as we all know, 13 years later, the movie, which was thought to have been shelved, miraculously saw the light of day.[35]
Japan
On January 21, 1995, Pulgasari was released by Twin on VHS in Japan;[8][53] its flyer proclaimed it was the film's first public distribution in any format.[4] According to the Associated Press, Twin's president Yoshimitsu Yoshitsuru claimed to have acquired permission from Shin for the release.[8] Nevertheless, Tocana later declared this release was pirated.[44] Critic Takashi Monma reported in 1996 that several Japanese film festivals had attempted to screen the film but were all turned down.[54] The film's official premiere[6] took place at the Kineca Ōmori theater in Tokyo on July 4. It remained playing there until September due to high demand,[55] and was also released in several other Japanese cinemas and on home video later that same year.[g]
South Korea
In November 1998, Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation (MBC) announced it would broadcast Pulgasari on their television channel in 1999.[56] Shin subsequently accused MBC of copyright infringement, filed a lawsuit against them, and petitioned for a ban on broadcasting Pulgasari and Love, Love, My Love in South Korea.[h] The following year, Judge Shin Jeong-chi of the Seoul High Court dismissed Shin's request to ban the film in two trails, and concluded that, although Shin holds the moral rights to the films, the North Korean production company owns the broadcasting rights.[57][59]
Park Jie-won of the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism declared in May 2000 that the film had been approved for release in South Korea due to a cultural exchange agreement for the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration.[57] Thus on July 22,[60][61] Pulgasari became the first North Korean film distributed in South Korean theaters.[i] That same month, Sisa Journal reported that its release was attracting controversy on whether films from North Korea should be handled as foreign or domestic distributions, and was under consideration to acquire screen quotas.[60]
The film was later screened at the 22nd Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival in July 2018,[16] and on June 5 of the ensuing year, opened the 7th Muju Film Festival.[17]
Other territories
A.D. Vision distributed Pulgasari on VHS in the United States in 2001 through their subsidiary Rubbersuit Productions.[22][62] It subsequently received several screenings in the US, United Kingdom, and Canada.[22] In 2006, the film had its New York premiere as part of Columbia University's year-long "Godzilla festival."[20] It was also shown in Paris at the Jeu de Paume museum on April 11, 2015.[64]
Box office
Pulgasari achieved several box office records in Japan,[55][65] attracting around 18,000 attendees during its theatrical run at Kineca Ōmori alone.[60][45] In 2018, Joo Seong-cheol of Cine21 stated that Pulgasari outgrossed TriStar's Godzilla (1998) at the Japanese box office and held the record for the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time.[61]
In South Korea, the film opened in 50 theaters,[60] and was a massive box-office bomb, drawing under 1,000 theatergoers.[21][66] Due to its low number of initial attendees, many theaters decided to pull the film within the first week of its release. Author Johannes Schönherr remarked that contemporary publications cited many reasons for its failure in South Korea, including the unpopularity of Japanese kaiju movies released there, and the adolescents' lack of interest in films featuring low-budget special effects.[62]
Reception
Critical response
Pulgasari attained critical acclaim in Japan.[57][67] Jun Edoki —one of the film's main advocates—referred to it as "one of the greatest monster movie masterpieces in history, something that neither Hollywood nor Japan can ever replicate".[55] According to the Choson Sinbo, the film was positively compared to Godzilla (1998) by Japanese reviewers at the time, who believed that Pulgasari was not "sophisticated" like that film and "reminds the viewers of Japanese monster movies of their good old days".[9] Likewise, Lee Dong-jin of the South Korean newspaper The Chosun Ilbo compared the film's technical prowess to Godzilla (1998). He wrote that Pulgasari "feels a bit old, but is a fun work that cutely mixes drama and spectacle".[45] Some also deemed that the film was more reminiscent of the Daimajin trilogy than the Godzilla series.[68]
Reviewing its initial American video release, Film Threat noted the film's political background and felt that it should have been parodied in an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000.[69]
Participants' response
Satsuma later spoke of how he adored Pulgasari and remembered performing in it fondly,[9][55][65] deeming it to be the "most memorable work in my long acting career".[70] In October 1988, Bungeishunjū published a book written by him, titled Godzilla's View of North Korea, which detailed his experiences working on the film.[71][72] He told the Choson Sinbo in 1998 that his favorite scene in the film was when the titular monster was caged and set ablaze, and that he wanted to return to North Korea to work on a sequel.[55] The Daily Telegraph also claimed that Satsuma considered the film to be better than Godzilla (1998).[73]
In 2005, Shin articulated to The New Yorker that he believed the film's special effects were outdated.[20] According to Fischer, Kim Jong Il considered the film to be a masterpiece.[74]
Interpretations
According to The Guardian in 2003, there has been some speculation that the director Shin Sang-ok included a hidden message of his own in the film. The film's titular monster is often interpreted as a metaphor for Kim Il Sung betraying a revolution for his purposes and as a plea to the North Korean people to rise against the Kim regime. This is represented by Pulgasari demanding his subjects feed him more iron even after the former regime has been defeated, leading to the workers turning against and ultimately defeating their former savior.[5]
Shin disputed interpretations that the film has commentary on North Korea's contemporary class conflict.[21][73] In 2005, he said that the film is instead a plea for pacifism because "there are limits to what weapons can do".[20] However, a 2019 article in The Daily Telegraph quoted Shin saying "It was a pure monster film, I didn’t put any ideology in it".[73]
Remake
In 1995,[75] Shin (under the pseudonym "Simon Sheen") worked on a remake of Pulgasari.[20] Directed by Sean McNamara and produced by Sheen Communications, Galgameth (1996) told the story of a young prince, aided by a warm-hearted monster, reclaiming his deceased father's medieval kingdom. Shin said that Galgameth, along with The Gardener (1998), "caused me a big financial loss".[27]
Legacy
Pulgasari is now considered a "cult classic" and has become Shin's best-known film and the most widely seen North Korean film internationally, partly due to its involvement in his abduction by North Korea.[j] According to Fischer, the film "defined [Shin's] career and changed his life".[79]
Modern reception
In the years following its US premiere, Western critics and kaiju fans have frequently mocked and overlooked the film.[62] In 2015, Fischer described it as Shin's worst movie.[79] A 2016 review on Screen Anarchy condemned it as propaganda, and solely praised Shin's efforts and the monster's depiction.[80] Simon Fowler of The Guardian ranked it the third-best North Korean film ever made, but noted that "it's [easy] to get lost in the ridiculousness of it all".[81] Jonathan Ross mentioned that Pulgasari was among the few North Korean films he had seen, and described it as an "enjoyably campy kaiju flick".[82] In March 2024, Collider ranked the film No. 10 on their "10 Best So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies" list, and Vulture called it "quite bad as a film"; both agreed that its behind-the-scenes story is more fascinating than the film itself.[83][84]
See also
References
Footnotes
- ^ Korean: 불가사리; RR: Bulgasali. The film was released in Japan as Giant Monster Pulgasari (Japanese: 大怪獣プルガサリ, Hepburn: Daikaijū Purugasari) and Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster (Japanese: プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣, Hepburn: Purugasari: Densetsu no Daikaijū) in 1995 and 1998, respectively.[2][3]
- ^ Attributed to multiple references:[4][6][7][8][9][10][11]
- ^ a b Many publications have claimed that North Korean assistant director Chong Gon-jo—who received the sole directorial credit in the film itself[13]—finished the film on behalf of Shin.[14][15][16][17][18] However, some contended that Chong's name was merely used to replace Shin's in the credits after he escaped in March 1986,[19][20] and Shin maintained to have directed the entire film himself.[21]
- ^ Attributed to multiple references:[15][16][17][30][31][32]
- ^ In a 1994 interview, Satsuma assumed that Kim produced the film himself.[8]
- ^ Attributed to multiple references:[4][22][44][51]
- ^ Attributed to multiple references:[1][21][44][55]
- ^ Attributed to multiple references:[57][58][59][10]
- ^ Attributed to multiple references:[60][61][62][63]
- ^ Attributed to multiple references:[23][74][76][77][78]
Citations
- ^ a b c Kinema Junpo 2003, p. 145.
- ^ Eiga Chirashi 2023a.
- ^ Eiga Chirashi 2023b.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q 1995 Japanese flyer for Pulgasari, p. 2.
- ^ a b c Gorenfeld 2003.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Kinema Junpo 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k KMDb.
- ^ a b c d Associated Press 1994, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Choson Sinbo 1998b.
- ^ a b Jin 1999.
- ^ Edwards 2018, p. 208.
- ^ a b c d Izumi 2013.
- ^ Kinema Junpo 1999, p. 192.
- ^ a b Schönherr 2012, p. 84.
- ^ a b Mo 2018.
- ^ a b c d Shim 2018.
- ^ a b c d e Lee 2019.
- ^ a b Newsis 2019.
- ^ Yamada 1995, p. 152.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Shapiro 2005.
- ^ a b c d e f NK chosun 2000a.
- ^ a b c d e Romano 2015.
- ^ a b Jackson-Han 2006.
- ^ a b TOCANA 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Peralta 2011.
- ^ a b c Kim 2020.
- ^ a b Cho.
- ^ Taylor 2012, p. 162.
- ^ a b c Fischer 2015a, p. 285.
- ^ Ozaki 2018.
- ^ Lind 2014.
- ^ Moon 2003.
- ^ Wiggins 2022.
- ^ a b Fischer 2015a, p. 283.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Satsuma 2007, Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?".
- ^ a b Satsuma 2007, Part 2: "The Night Before Departure".
- ^ Satsuma 2007, Part 10: "Director Shin Sang-ok talks about North Korea's special effects situation".
- ^ a b Satsuma 2007, Part 8: "The Great Collapse".
- ^ Asahigraph 1988, p. 20.
- ^ a b NK chosun 2000b.
- ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 286.
- ^ Edwards 2018, p. 215.
- ^ a b Atsumi 2016.
- ^ a b c d TOCANA 2017, p. 2.
- ^ a b c Lee 2000.
- ^ a b c Satsuma 2007, Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea".
- ^ Korean Film Archive.
- ^ Satsuma 2007, Part 7: "Beijing Film Studio".
- ^ a b Daily Shincho 2023, p. 2.
- ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 294.
- ^ Natalie 2024.
- ^ Fischer 2015a, pp. 303–304.
- ^ 1995 Japanese flyer for Pulgasari, p. 1.
- ^ Monma 1996, p. 203.
- ^ a b c d e f Choson Sinbo 1998a.
- ^ Choi 1998.
- ^ a b c d Choi 2000.
- ^ MK 1998.
- ^ a b Yonhap News 1999.
- ^ a b c d e Noh 2000.
- ^ a b c Joo 2018.
- ^ a b c d Schönherr 2012, p. 148.
- ^ BBC 2018.
- ^ Jeu de Paume 2015.
- ^ a b Nikkan Gendai 2014, p. 3.
- ^ The Korea Herald 2003, p. 44.
- ^ Edwards 2018, p. 220.
- ^ Kinema Junpo 1998, p. 179.
- ^ Przywara 2002.
- ^ Satsuma 2007.
- ^ Asahigraph 1988, p. 19.
- ^ Daily Shincho 2023, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Power 2019.
- ^ a b Fischer 2015b.
- ^ Variety 1995.
- ^ Schönherr 2012, pp. 82, 84.
- ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 282.
- ^ Gourevitch 2003.
- ^ a b Fischer 2015a, p. 287.
- ^ Regehr 2016.
- ^ Fowler 2014.
- ^ Ross 2021.
- ^ Urquhart 2024.
- ^ Grebey 2024.
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External links
- 1995 films
- 1980s dark fantasy films
- 1980s Japanese films
- 1980s Korean-language films
- 1980s monster movies
- 1985 fantasy films
- 1985 films
- 1985 horror films
- 1985 science fiction films
- 1980s supernatural horror films
- ADV Films
- Chinese action thriller films
- Chinese epic films
- Chinese fantasy films
- Chinese fantasy action films
- Chinese propaganda films
- Chinese remakes of South Korean films
- Epic fantasy films
- Films directed by Shin Sang-ok
- Films set in Korea
- Films set in Goryeo
- Films shot in Beijing
- Giant monster films
- Historical epic films
- Japanese epic films
- Japanese fantasy films
- Japanese propaganda films
- Japanese remakes of South Korean films
- Kaiju films
- Kim Jong Il
- North Korean epic films
- North Korean fantasy films
- North Korean horror films
- Propaganda in North Korea
- Remakes of South Korean films
- Toho films
- Toho tokusatsu films
- Tokusatsu films