Gendarmerie of Haiti: Difference between revisions

Haitian Constabulary
Haitian Constabulary
Gendarmerie d'Haïti
	Haitian Gendarmerie
Active	1915–1928
Country	Haiti
Allegiance	United States
Type	Gendarmerie
Role	Military police, light infantry
Size	3,322 (1927)
Engagements	Second Caco War
Commanders
Notable; commanders	Smedley Butler

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The Gendarmerie of Haiti (French: Gendarmerie d'Haïti [ʒɑ̃daʁməʁi da.iti]), also known as the Haitian Constabulary, was a gendarmerie raised by the United States during its occupation of Haiti in the early 20th century. Established in late 1915, the gendarmerie was operational from 1916 until 1928, during which time it was Haiti's only military force, earning a reputation for active interference in civilian government that may have set the stage for the future politicization of Haiti's armed forces.

From 1918 to 1920 the Gendarmerie of Haiti fought the Second Caco War, one of the so-called "Banana Wars". It was reorganized as the Garde d'Haïti in 1928, forming the nucleus of what would evolve into the modern Haitian army.

Early history

Formation

Smedley Butler, shown here wearing U.S. Marine Corps uniform in later life, was Haiti's first commandant of gendarmerie.

The United States invaded Haiti in the last half of 1915. The invasion followed the violation of the French embassy in Port-au-Prince by a mob that seized Haitian president Vilbrun Guillaume Sam, who had earlier fled to the legation owing to popular unrest, and "mutilated his body in the street."^[1] Admiral William Banks Caperton, leading the initial landing force, declared martial law and ordered the Haitian army dissolved.^[1] In the absence of functioning police, U.S. Marines assumed civilian law enforcement duties, but occupation authorities had already set into motion plans to raise a local police force with the Haitian–American Convention, obligating Haiti's American-established interim government to "create without delay an efficient constabulary, urban and rural."^[1]^[2]^[3]

The Gendarmerie of Haiti was formally established in December 1915. It became operational in February of the following year, with Smedley Butler (then a Marine Corps major) assuming the post of commandant of gendarmes and the Haitian rank of major general.^[4]^[5] Officers, non-commissioned officers, and enlisted personnel of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps were initially placed in command of the force, holding officer commissions from the Haitian government while retaining their United States commissions and enlistment status.^[5] The process for commissioning of officers was set out in the Haitian–American Convention:^[3]

All American officers of the gendarmerie shall be appointed by the President of Haiti upon nomination by the President of the United States, and will be replaced by Haitians when they have shown by examination ... that they are fit for command.

Early attempts to establish an officer candidate school to train an indigenous officer corps from among Haiti's educated upper class failed due to a reluctance among potential candidates to be seen collaborating with the American occupation, and by the perception that the methods of American military instruction were demeaning.^[5] Enlisted gendarmes, meanwhile, were recruited from indigenous Haitians who were paid between $10 and $25 per month.^[5]

The gendarmerie was equipped initially with the Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifle.^[6] Uniforms were surplus Marine Corps uniforms with plain buttons in lieu of buttons embossed with the Marine Corps Eagle, Globe, and Anchor.^[7]

Expanding role

Gendarmerie sub-district headquarters at Gros-Morne, Artibonite, pictured in the 1920s

The gendarmerie quickly evolved into the cornerstone of the United States occupation, and gendarmerie officers had practical control over the U.S. client government of Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave; one visiting American observer noted that: "the actual running of the government comes pretty near being vested in General Butler and his young colonels and majors."^[5] On one occasion, the Haitian ambassador to the United States balked at the idea of signing a Butler-inspired compact that would give the gendarmerie control of the nation's postal service. Butler forced the issue by placing an armed guard in President Dartiguenave's office, with instructions to compel Dartiguenave to telegraph the ambassador with orders to sign the agreement "or else".^[7]

Even at the local level, junior officers were virtual "potentates", having not only military and police authority in their jurisdictions, but also being responsible to sit as judges in civil and criminal cases, to collect taxes, to manage prisons, to enforce weights and measures, to register vital statistics, and to audit the financial records of municipal governments.^[8] Interference by gendarmerie officers into local governmental affairs prompted Solon Ménos, the Haitian ambassador to the United States, to file a complaint with the U.S. State Department, observing that: "the American officers of the Haitian gendarmerie ... have extended their powers for the communal councils to such an extent that they wish to act as administrators of the commune and not rest within their powers."^[9]

Second Caco War

Conflict

Some gendarmerie actions, including the enforcement of government press censorship, and the use of conscripted civilian labor for infrastructure development, have been cited as factors leading to the Second Caco War (1918–20), a rebellion by Haitians against the occupation.^[10]

The conflict erupted on October 17, 1918, with an attack by 100 rebel cacos on a gendarmerie barracks. The assault was repulsed with significant loss of life, and commanding officer Lieutenant Patrick Kelly earned Haiti's Médaille militaire and a promotion to captain for his role in the defense of the barracks.^[8] A wave of small-scale rebel attacks on isolated gendarmerie outposts followed; over a six-month period in 1919, the gendarmerie reported more than 130 engagements with cacos.^[8]^[11]

The 1919 Battle of Port-au-Prince saw the first major action between gendarmes and rebels, and after-action dispatches reported the force acquitted itself well. The day following the Battle of Port-au-Prince, a contingent of 12 gendarmes under Lt. Kemp C. Christian overran the cacos' base camp, killing 30 rebels and capturing their only field gun.^[12] Nonetheless, during this period, the gendarmerie was largely dependent on the U.S. Marine Corps to provide the "muscle" for its operations, though by the end of the rebellion gendarmerie units were beginning to operate independently.^[11] By 1919 an experimental gendamerie unit had been raised under the designation "Provisional Company A". Unlike the bulk of gendarmerie units, which garrisoned towns, Provisional Company A was a mobile force organized to conduct preventative patrols.^[13] Chesty Puller, then a gendarmerie officer, was given the captaincy of Provisional Company A. The company's executive officer, Lt. Augustin Brunot, was one of the first indigenous Haitians to receive a commission.^[13]

By the time the Second Caco War ended in 1920, 75 gendarmes had been killed in action.^[8]

Aftermath

A headline in the *Des Moines Register* from 1920 announces the planned probe of U.S. Marine Corps and Haitian Gendarmerie activity during the Second Caco War.

Following the war, the U.S. Senate's Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo convened a series of hearings to investigate the behavior of gendarmes and marines during the conflict.^[14] Several indigenous Haitian gendarmes who were asked to submit testimony to the hearing alleged that gendarmerie officers had executed prisoners.^[14] One gendarme, Eucher Jean, stated that:^[2]

... during the first part of the month of November 1918, while I was a first sergeant in the Gendarmerie d'Haïti, serving in the district of Hinche, Haiti, I saw Lieut. Freeman Lang, Gendarmerie d'Haïti, take a Haitian who was prisoner, named Teka, out of the prison in the town of Hinche, and purposely execute him with a machine-gun rifle.

Despite the sometimes gruesome testimony it was generally believed the hearings were politically motivated and that individual excesses could largely be traced only to Lang and Dorcas Williams, both of whom had been acting under the orders of a Marine Corps officer who had since been committed to an insane asylum.^[14] Both of the accused gendarmerie officers had been indicted by U.S. Navy court-martial prior to the hearings.^[14] A separate inquiry conducted by the Haitian government concluded that, outside of 10 killings attributed to Lang and Williams, the gendarmerie's conduct of the war had been justifiable.^[15]

1924 Olympics

Haiti was represented at the 1924 Olympics by a rifle team composed entirely of black gendarmes. The team won the bronze medal in the team free rifle event, which was the nation's first-ever Olympic medal.^[8]^[16] The team's expenses were paid for from all of the nation's gendarmes contributing five percent of their salary for five months.^[17]

Later history and influence

In 1927, the gendarmerie was reporting a strength of 160 officers, 2,522 gendarmes and 551 rural policemen. Even at this late date only about 40 of the officers were Haitian, the majority being United States Marines and sailors.^[18]

In 1928, the gendarmerie was reorganized as the Garde d'Haïti and became the nucleus of what would eventually evolve into the reconstituted Haitian army.^[4] The later politicization of the Haitian military has been attributed by some to Haiti's early experience with the Gendarmerie d'Haïti.^[8] The gendarmerie's special access to U.S. resources and influence vested in it a measure of social control within Haiti that would become institutionalized in later years.^[19] On the other hand, former Haitian President Prosper Avril has observed that Haiti already had a long tradition of military involvement in government prior to the occupation, with 25 of its 26 pre-occupation presidents being either military officers or leaders of rebel groups. Avril also contends the gendarmerie worked to instill a respect for political neutrality in its men.^[3]

Chain of command

The Commandants were:^[20]

1915–1918 Smedley D. Butler
1918–1919 Alexander S. Williams
1919–1921 Frederic M. Wise
1921 Richard S. Hooker
1921–1925 Douglas C. McDougal
1925–1927 Julius S. Turrill
1927–1930 Frank E. Evans
1930–1933 Richard P. Williams
1933–1934 Clayton B. Vogel

The Gendarmerie was nominally subordinate to the President of the Republic, but in practice the Gendarmerie Commandant had to run everything through American officials, especially during the tenure of High Commissioner John H. Russell Jr. In a March 14, 1927 letter to the Marine Corps Commandant Lejeune, Gendarmerie Commandant Turrill wrote:

When I get any instrutions from the President I always have to get General Russell's approval on such orders before carrying them out... Nothing of importance can be done in the Gendarmerie without General Russell's sanction.^[21]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Heinl, Nancy (1978). Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 406–422. ISBN 0-7618-3177-0.
^ ^a ^b Inquiry Into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo. U.S. Congress. 1920. p. 1761.
^ ^a ^b ^c Avril, Prosper (1999). From Glory to Disgrace: The Haitian Army, 1804–1994. Universal. pp. 108–109. ISBN 1-58112-836-3.
^ ^a ^b "Military In Haitian History". globalsecurity.org. GlobalSecurity.org. Archived from the original on 26 February 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Schmidt, Hans (1995). The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934. Rutgers University Press. pp. 85–90. ISBN 0-8135-2203-X.
^ Ball, Robert W.D. (2 August 2011). Mauser Military Rifles of the World. Gun Digest Books. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-4402-1544-5.
^ ^a ^b Strecker, Mark (2011). Smedley D. Butler, USMC: A Biography. McFarland. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-7864-4807-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Beede, Benjamin (1994). The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898 to 1934: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 198–199. ISBN 0-8240-5624-8.
^ Renda, Mary (2001). Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940. University of North Carolina Press. p. 147. ISBN 0-8078-2628-6.
^ "U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34". history.state.gov. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
^ ^a ^b Daugherty, Leo (2015). Counterinsurgency and the United States Marine Corps: Volume 1. McFarland. pp. 91–94. ISBN 978-0-7864-9698-3.
^ Musicant, Ivan (August 1990). The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama. New York City: Macmillan Publishing Company. p. 215.
^ ^a ^b Hoffman, Jon (2007). Chesty: The Story of Lieutenant General Lewis B. Puller, USMC. Random House. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-0-679-44732-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Clark, George (2014). The United States Military in Latin America. McFarland. pp. 94–96. ISBN 978-0-7864-9448-4.
^ "Investigation Proves Allegations Against Marines Unjustified". Ellensburg Daily Record. 1 December 1920. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
^ Hall, Michael (2012). Historical Dictionary of Haiti. Scarecrow Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-8108-7810-5.
^ "Shooting at the 1924 Paris Summer Games". sports-reference.com. Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 16 November 2015. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
^ "History of the Gendarmerie D'haiti". Leatherneck Magazine. Washington, DC: Headquarters Marine Corps. September 1927.
^ Coupeau, Steve (2008). The History of Haiti. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-313-34089-5.
^ Records of the United States Marine Corps. National Archives Inventory Record Group 127. Compiled by Maizie Johnson. The National Archives Inventory Series No. 2, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, Washington, 1970. Library of Congress Card No. 78-607015
^ Schmidt, Hans (1995), The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934, Rutgers University Press

[heinl-1] Heinl, Nancy (1978). Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 406–422. ISBN 0-7618-3177-0.

[congress-2] Inquiry Into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo. U.S. Congress. 1920. p. 1761.

[prosper-3] Avril, Prosper (1999). From Glory to Disgrace: The Haitian Army, 1804–1994. Universal. pp. 108–109. ISBN 1-58112-836-3.

[gs-4] "Military In Haitian History". globalsecurity.org. GlobalSecurity.org. Archived from the original on 26 February 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2015.

[rutgers-5] Schmidt, Hans (1995). The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934. Rutgers University Press. pp. 85–90. ISBN 0-8135-2203-X.

[Ball2011-6] Ball, Robert W.D. (2 August 2011). Mauser Military Rifles of the World. Gun Digest Books. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-4402-1544-5.

[mark-7] Strecker, Mark (2011). Smedley D. Butler, USMC: A Biography. McFarland. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-7864-4807-4.

[ben-8] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Beede, Benjamin (1994). The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898 to 1934: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 198–199. ISBN 0-8240-5624-8.

[9] Renda, Mary (2001). Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940. University of North Carolina Press. p. 147. ISBN 0-8078-2628-6.

[10] "U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34". history.state.gov. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 6 September 2015.

[counter-11] Daugherty, Leo (2015). Counterinsurgency and the United States Marine Corps: Volume 1. McFarland. pp. 91–94. ISBN 978-0-7864-9698-3.

[12] Musicant, Ivan (August 1990). The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama. New York City: Macmillan Publishing Company. p. 215.

[chesty-13] Hoffman, Jon (2007). Chesty: The Story of Lieutenant General Lewis B. Puller, USMC. Random House. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-0-679-44732-0.

[clark-14] Clark, George (2014). The United States Military in Latin America. McFarland. pp. 94–96. ISBN 978-0-7864-9448-4.

[15] "Investigation Proves Allegations Against Marines Unjustified". Ellensburg Daily Record. 1 December 1920. Retrieved 7 September 2015.

[16] Hall, Michael (2012). Historical Dictionary of Haiti. Scarecrow Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-8108-7810-5.

[17] "Shooting at the 1924 Paris Summer Games". sports-reference.com. Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 16 November 2015. Retrieved 6 September 2015.

[18] "History of the Gendarmerie D'haiti". Leatherneck Magazine. Washington, DC: Headquarters Marine Corps. September 1927.

[19] Coupeau, Steve (2008). The History of Haiti. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-313-34089-5.

[20] Records of the United States Marine Corps. National Archives Inventory Record Group 127. Compiled by Maizie Johnson. The National Archives Inventory Series No. 2, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, Washington, 1970. Library of Congress Card No. 78-607015

[21] Schmidt, Hans (1995), The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934, Rutgers University Press

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Infobox military unit
 | unit_name = Haitian Constabulary
-| native_name = Gendarmerie d'Haïti
+| native_name = {{lang|fr|Gendarmerie d'Haïti}}
 | image = Haitian Gendarmerie.jpg
 | alt =
 | caption = Haitian Gendarmerie
 | dates = 1915–1928
-| country ={{flag|Republic of Haiti (1859–1957)|name=Haiti}}
+| country = Haiti
 | countries =
-| allegiance = {{flagu|United States|1912|size=23px}}
+| allegiance = United States
 | branch =
 | type = [[Gendarmerie]]
@@ Line 84: / Line 84: @@
 | aircraft_general =
 }}
-The '''Gendarmerie of Haiti''' ({{lang-fr|Gendarmerie d'Haïti}} {{IPA-fr|ʒɑ̃daʁməʁi da.iti|}}), also known as the ''Haitian Constabulary'', was a [[Collaborationism|collaborationist]] [[gendarmerie]] raised by the United States during [[United States occupation of Haiti|its occupation of Haiti]] in the early 20th century. Established in late 1915, the gendarmerie was operational from 1916 until 1928, during which time it was Haiti's only military force, earning a reputation for active interference in civilian government that may have set the stage for the future politicization of Haiti's armed forces.
+The '''Gendarmerie of Haiti''' ({{lang-fr|link=no|Gendarmerie d'Haïti}} {{IPA|fr|ʒɑ̃daʁməʁi da.iti|}}), also known as the ''Haitian Constabulary'', was a [[gendarmerie]] raised by the United States during [[United States occupation of Haiti|its occupation of Haiti]] in the early 20th century. Established in late 1915, the gendarmerie was operational from 1916 until 1928, during which time it was Haiti's only military force, earning a reputation for active interference in civilian government that may have set the stage for the future politicization of Haiti's armed forces.
 From 1918 to 1920 the Gendarmerie of Haiti fought the [[Caco War|Second Caco War]], one of the so-called "[[Banana Wars]]". It was reorganized as the [[Armed Forces of Haiti|Garde d'Haïti]] in 1928, forming the nucleus of what would evolve into the modern [[Military of Haiti|Haitian army]].
@@ Line 91: / Line 91: @@
 ===Formation===
 [[File:SmedleyButler.jpeg|thumb|150px|left|Smedley Butler, shown here wearing U.S. Marine Corps uniform in later life, was Haiti's first commandant of gendarmerie.]]
-The United States invaded Haiti in the last half of 1915. The invasion followed the violation of the French [[embassy]] in [[Port-au-Prince]] by a mob that seized Haitian president [[Vilbrun Guillaume Sam]], who had earlier fled to the legation owing to popular unrest, and "mutilated his body in the street."<ref name="heinl">{{cite book|last1=Heinl|first1=Nancy|title=Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971|date=1978|isbn=0-7618-3177-0|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|pages=[https://archive.org/details/writteninbloodst00hein/page/406 406–422]|url=https://archive.org/details/writteninbloodst00hein/page/406}}</ref> Admiral [[William Banks Caperton]], leading the initial landing force, declared [[martial law]] and ordered the Haitian army dissolved.<ref name="heinl"/> In the absence of functioning police, [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] assumed civilian law enforcement duties, but occupation authorities had already set into motion plans to raise a local police force with the [[Haitian–American Convention]], obligating Haiti's American-established interim government to "create without delay an efficient constabulary, urban and rural."<ref name="heinl"/><ref name="congress" /><ref name="prosper" />
+The United States invaded Haiti in the last half of 1915. The invasion followed the violation of the French embassy in [[Port-au-Prince]] by a mob that seized Haitian president [[Vilbrun Guillaume Sam]], who had earlier fled to the legation owing to popular unrest, and "mutilated his body in the street."<ref name="heinl">{{cite book|last1=Heinl|first1=Nancy|title=Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971|date=1978|isbn=0-7618-3177-0|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|pages=[https://archive.org/details/writteninbloodst00hein/page/406 406–422]|url=https://archive.org/details/writteninbloodst00hein/page/406}}</ref> Admiral [[William Banks Caperton]], leading the initial landing force, declared [[martial law]] and ordered the Haitian army dissolved.<ref name="heinl"/> In the absence of functioning police, [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] assumed civilian law enforcement duties, but occupation authorities had already set into motion plans to raise a local police force with the [[Haitian–American Convention]], obligating Haiti's American-established interim government to "create without delay an efficient constabulary, urban and rural."<ref name="heinl"/><ref name="congress" /><ref name="prosper" />
 The Gendarmerie of Haiti was formally established in December 1915. It became operational in February of the following year, with [[Smedley Butler]] (then a Marine Corps [[major (rank)|major]]) assuming the post of commandant of gendarmes and the Haitian rank of [[major general]].<ref name="gs">{{cite web|title=Military In Haitian History|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/haiti/military-history.htm|website=globalsecurity.org|publisher=GlobalSecurity.org|access-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226195330/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/haiti/military-history.htm|archive-date=26 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="rutgers">{{cite book|last1=Schmidt|first1=Hans|title=The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934|date=1995|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=0-8135-2203-X|pages=85–90}}</ref> Officers, [[non-commissioned officers]], and enlisted personnel of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] and Marine Corps were initially placed in command of the force, holding officer commissions from the Haitian government while retaining their United States commissions and enlistment status.<ref name="rutgers" /> The process for commissioning of officers was set out in the Haitian–American Convention:<ref name="prosper" />
@@ Line 102: / Line 102: @@
 ===Expanding role===
-[[File:HaitiGendarmerieHQ.png|thumb|right|gendarmerie sub-District headquarters at [[Gros-Morne, Artibonite]] pictured in the 1920s]]
+[[File:HaitiGendarmerieHQ.png|thumb|right|Gendarmerie sub-district headquarters at [[Gros-Morne, Artibonite]], pictured in the 1920s]]
 The gendarmerie quickly evolved into the cornerstone of the United States occupation, and gendarmerie officers had practical control over the U.S. client government of [[Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave]]; one visiting American observer noted that: "the actual running of the government comes pretty near being vested in General Butler and his young colonels and majors."<ref name="rutgers" /> On one occasion, the Haitian ambassador to the United States balked at the idea of signing a Butler-inspired compact that would give the gendarmerie control of the nation's postal service. Butler forced the issue by placing an armed guard in President Dartiguenave's office, with instructions to compel Dartiguenave to telegraph the ambassador with orders to sign the agreement "or else".<ref name="mark" />
-Even at the local level, junior officers were virtual "potentates", having not only military and police authority in their jurisdictions, but also being responsible to sit as judges in civil and criminal cases, to collect taxes, to manage prisons, to enforce weights and measures, to register vital statistics, and to audit the financial records of municipal governments.<ref name="ben">{{cite book|last1=Beede|first1=Benjamin|title=The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898 to 1934: An Encyclopedia|date=1994|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-8240-5624-8|pages=198–199|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rg6BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA198}}</ref> Interference by gendarmerie officers into local governmental affairs prompted [[Solon Ménos]],  the Haitian [[ambassador]] to the United States, to file a complaint with the [[U.S. State Department]], observing that: "the American officers of the Haitian gendarmerie&nbsp; ... have extended their powers for the communal councils to such an extent that they wish to act as administrators of the commune and not rest within their powers."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Renda|first1=Mary|title=Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940|date=2001|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|isbn=0-8078-2628-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/takinghaiti00mary/page/147 147]|url=https://archive.org/details/takinghaiti00mary/page/147}}</ref>
+Even at the local level, junior officers were virtual "potentates", having not only military and police authority in their jurisdictions, but also being responsible to sit as judges in civil and criminal cases, to collect taxes, to manage prisons, to enforce weights and measures, to register vital statistics, and to audit the financial records of municipal governments.<ref name="ben">{{cite book|last1=Beede|first1=Benjamin|title=The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898 to 1934: An Encyclopedia|date=1994|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-8240-5624-8|pages=198–199|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rg6BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA198}}</ref> Interference by gendarmerie officers into local governmental affairs prompted [[Solon Ménos]],  the Haitian ambassador to the United States, to file a complaint with the [[U.S. State Department]], observing that: "the American officers of the Haitian gendarmerie&nbsp; ... have extended their powers for the communal councils to such an extent that they wish to act as administrators of the commune and not rest within their powers."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Renda|first1=Mary|title=Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940|date=2001|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|isbn=0-8078-2628-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/takinghaiti00mary/page/147 147]|url=https://archive.org/details/takinghaiti00mary/page/147}}</ref>
 ==Second Caco War==
 ===Conflict===
 [[File:Haitian Gendarme.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A Haitian gendarme photographed by [[Harry A. Franck]] in 1920]]
 Some gendarmerie actions, including the enforcement of government press censorship, and the [[Corvée#Haiti|use of conscripted civilian labor]] for infrastructure development, have been cited as factors leading to the [[Caco War|Second Caco War]] (1918–20), a rebellion by Haitians against the occupation.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/haiti|website=history.state.gov|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]|access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>
 The conflict erupted on October 17, 1918, with an attack by 100 rebel ''cacos'' on a gendarmerie barracks. The assault was repulsed with significant loss of life, and commanding officer Lieutenant Patrick Kelly earned Haiti's [[Médaille militaire]] and a promotion to captain for his role in the defense of the barracks.<ref name="ben"/> A wave of small-scale rebel attacks on isolated gendarmerie outposts followed; over a six-month period in 1919, the gendarmerie reported more than 130 engagements with ''cacos''.<ref name="ben"/><ref name="counter"/>
-The [[Battle of Port-au-Prince (1919)|1919 Battle of Port-au-Prince]] saw the first major action between gendarmes and rebels, and after-action dispatches reported the force acquitted itself well. The day following the Battle of Port-au-Prince, a contingent of 12 gendarmes under Lt. Kemp C. Christian overran the ''cacos''{{'}} base camp, killing 30 rebels and capturing their only field gun.<ref>{{cite book|last=Musicant|first=Ivan|title=The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama|date=August 1990|publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company|location=New York City|page=215}}</ref> Nonetheless, during this period, the gendarmerie was largely dependent on the U.S. Marine Corps to provide the "muscle" for its operations, though by the end of the rebellion gendarmerie units were beginning to operate independently.<ref name="counter">{{cite book|last1=Daugherty|first1=Leo|title=Counterinsurgency and the United States Marine Corps: Volume 1|date=2015|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-9698-3|pages=91–94|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R_RTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90}}</ref> By 1919 an experimental gendamerie unit had been raised under the designation "Provisional Company A". Unlike the bulk of gendarmerie units, which garrisoned towns, Provisional Company A was a mobile force organized to conduct preventative patrols.<ref name="chesty">{{cite book|last1=Hoffman|first1=Jon|title=Chesty: The Story of Lieutenant General Lewis B. Puller, USMC|date=2007|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-679-44732-0|pages=31–32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O51m1N0CEeUC&q=%22medaille+militaire%22+haiti}}</ref> [[Chesty Puller]], then a gendarmerie officer, was given the captaincy of Provisional Company A. The company's [[executive officer]], Lt. Augustin Brunot, was one of the first indigenous Haitians to receive a commission.<ref name="chesty" />
+The [[Battle of Port-au-Prince (1919)|1919 Battle of Port-au-Prince]] saw the first major action between gendarmes and rebels, and after-action dispatches reported the force acquitted itself well. The day following the Battle of Port-au-Prince, a contingent of 12 gendarmes under Lt. Kemp C. Christian overran the ''cacos''{{'}} base camp, killing 30 rebels and capturing their only field gun.<ref>{{cite book|last=Musicant|first=Ivan|title=The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama|date=August 1990|publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company|location=New York City|page=215}}</ref> Nonetheless, during this period, the gendarmerie was largely dependent on the U.S. Marine Corps to provide the "muscle" for its operations, though by the end of the rebellion gendarmerie units were beginning to operate independently.<ref name="counter">{{cite book|last1=Daugherty|first1=Leo|title=Counterinsurgency and the United States Marine Corps: Volume 1|date=2015|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-9698-3|pages=91–94|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R_RTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90}}</ref> By 1919 an experimental gendamerie unit had been raised under the designation "Provisional Company A". Unlike the bulk of gendarmerie units, which garrisoned towns, Provisional Company A was a mobile force organized to conduct preventative patrols.<ref name="chesty">{{cite book|last1=Hoffman|first1=Jon|title=Chesty: The Story of Lieutenant General Lewis B. Puller, USMC|date=2007|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-679-44732-0|pages=31–32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O51m1N0CEeUC&q=%22medaille+militaire%22+haiti}}</ref> [[Chesty Puller]], then a gendarmerie officer, was given the captaincy of Provisional Company A. The company's executive officer, Lt. Augustin Brunot, was one of the first indigenous Haitians to receive a commission.<ref name="chesty" />
 By the time the Second Caco War ended in 1920, 75 gendarmes had been killed in action.<ref name="ben"/>
@@ Line 120: / Line 123: @@
 ===Aftermath===
 [[File:Wantonkillinghaiti.png|thumb|upright|A headline in the ''[[Des Moines Register]]'' from 1920 announces the planned probe of U.S. Marine Corps and Haitian Gendarmerie activity during the Second Caco War.]]
 Following the war, the [[U.S. Senate]]'s Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo convened a series of hearings to investigate the behavior of gendarmes and marines during the conflict.<ref name="clark">{{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=George|title=The United States Military in Latin America|date=2014|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-9448-4|pages=94–96}}</ref> Several indigenous Haitian gendarmes who were asked to submit testimony to the hearing alleged that gendarmerie officers had executed prisoners.<ref name="clark" /> One gendarme, Eucher Jean, stated that:<ref name="congress">{{cite book|title=Inquiry Into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo|date=1920|publisher=[[U.S. Congress]]|page=1761}}</ref>
@@ Line 127: / Line 131: @@
 ==1924 Olympics==
-Haiti was represented at the [[Shooting at the 1924 Summer Olympics|1924 Olympics]] by a rifle team composed entirely of Black gendarmes. The team won the [[bronze medal]] in the [[Shooting at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's team free rifle|team free rifle event]], which was the nation's first-ever Olympic medal.<ref name="ben" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=Michael|title=Historical Dictionary of Haiti|date=2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7810-5|pages=68–69}}</ref> The team's expenses were paid for from all of the nation's gendarmes contributing five percent of their salary for five months.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shooting at the 1924 Paris Summer Games |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1924/SHO/mens-free-rifle-400-600-and-800-metres-team.html |website=sports-reference.com |publisher=Sports Reference |access-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116143113/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1924/SHO/mens-free-rifle-400-600-and-800-metres-team.html |archive-date=16 November 2015 }}</ref>
+Haiti was represented at the [[Shooting at the 1924 Summer Olympics|1924 Olympics]] by a rifle team composed entirely of black gendarmes. The team won the [[bronze medal]] in the [[Shooting at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's team free rifle|team free rifle event]], which was the nation's first-ever Olympic medal.<ref name="ben" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=Michael|title=Historical Dictionary of Haiti|date=2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7810-5|pages=68–69}}</ref> The team's expenses were paid for from all of the nation's gendarmes contributing five percent of their salary for five months.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shooting at the 1924 Paris Summer Games |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1924/SHO/mens-free-rifle-400-600-and-800-metres-team.html |website=sports-reference.com |publisher=Sports Reference |access-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116143113/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1924/SHO/mens-free-rifle-400-600-and-800-metres-team.html |archive-date=16 November 2015}}</ref>
 ==Later history and influence==
-In 1927 the gendarmerie was reporting a strength of 160 officers, 2,522 gendarmes and 551 rural policemen. Even at this late date only about 40 of the officers were Haitian, the majority being United States Marines and sailors.<ref>{{cite news|title=History of the Gendarmerie D'haiti|url=https://www.mca-marines.org/leatherneck/1927/09/history-gendarmerie-dhaiti|work=Leatherneck|date=September 1927}}</ref>
+In 1927, the gendarmerie was reporting a strength of 160 officers, 2,522 gendarmes and 551 rural policemen. Even at this late date only about 40 of the officers were Haitian, the majority being United States Marines and sailors.<ref>{{cite news|title=History of the Gendarmerie D'haiti|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_leatherneck_1927-09_10_9/page/n9/mode/2up|work=[[Leatherneck Magazine]]|publisher=Headquarters Marine Corps|location=Washington, DC|date=September 1927}}</ref>
 In 1928, the gendarmerie was reorganized as the [[Armed Forces of Haiti|Garde d'Haïti]] and became the nucleus of what would eventually evolve into the reconstituted Haitian army.<ref name="gs"/> The later politicization of the Haitian military has been attributed by some to Haiti's early experience with the Gendarmerie d'Haïti.<ref name="ben" /> The gendarmerie's special access to U.S. resources and influence vested in it a measure of social control within Haiti that would become institutionalized in later years.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Coupeau|first1=Steve|title=The History of Haiti|date=2008|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-34089-5|page=87|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tA-XfYZFNvkC&pg=PA87}}</ref> On the other hand, former Haitian President [[Prosper Avril]] has observed that Haiti already had a long tradition of military involvement in government prior to the occupation, with 25 of its 26 pre-occupation presidents being either military officers or leaders of rebel groups. Avril also contends the gendarmerie worked to instill a respect for political neutrality in its men.<ref name="prosper">{{cite book|last1=Avril|first1=Prosper|title=From Glory to Disgrace: The Haitian Army, 1804–1994|date=1999|publisher=Universal|isbn=1-58112-836-3|pages=108–109|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGFG4iWXzKYC&q=%22haitian+army%22+occupation+1915+generals}}</ref>
+==Chain of command==
+[[File:Col. Douglas C. McDougal & Haiti rifle team LCCN2014717564.jpg|thumb|Gendarmes, members of the Haitian rifle team at the 1924 Olympics, with their commandant, Colonel Douglas C. McDougal.]]
+The Commandants were:<ref>Records of the United States Marine Corps.  National Archives Inventory Record Group 127.  Compiled by Maizie Johnson.  The National Archives Inventory Series No. 2, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, Washington, 1970. Library of Congress Card No. 78-607015</ref>
+* 1915–1918 [[Smedley Butler|Smedley D. Butler]]
+* 1918–1919 Alexander S. Williams
+* 1919–1921 Frederic M. Wise
+* 1921 Richard S. Hooker
+* 1921–1925 [[Douglas C. McDougal]]
+* 1925–1927 [[Julius S. Turrill]]
+* 1927–1930 [[Frank Evans (general)|Frank E. Evans]]
+* 1930–1933 Richard P. Williams
+* 1933–1934 [[Clayton Barney Vogel|Clayton B. Vogel]]
+The Gendarmerie was nominally subordinate to the [[President of Haiti|President of the Republic]], but in practice the Gendarmerie Commandant had to run everything through American officials, especially during the tenure of [[High commissioner#United States|High Commissioner]] [[John H. Russell Jr.]]  In a March 14, 1927 letter to the [[Commandant of the United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps Commandant]] [[John A. Lejeune|Lejeune]], Gendarmerie Commandant Turrill wrote: {{blockquote |text=When I get any instrutions from the President I always have to get General Russell's approval on such orders before carrying them out... Nothing of importance can be done in the Gendarmerie without General Russell's sanction.<ref>{{Citation |last=Schmidt |first=Hans |title= The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 |publisher= Rutgers University Press |year= 1995 }}</ref>}}
 ==See also==
@@ Line 151: / Line 171: @@
 [[Category:United States Marine Corps]]
 [[Category:Defunct law enforcement agencies of Haiti]]
+[[Category:Defunct gendarmeries]]