Arawakan languages

This article is about the Maipurean languages, or Arawakan proper. For the Araucanian language family spoken in the Patagonia, see Araucanian languages.

Arawakan
Maipurean
Geographic distribution	Extant in every country in South America, except for Ecuador, Uruguay and Chile, as well as in Central America. Formerly spoken in the Caribbean.
Linguistic classification	Macro-Arawakan ? Arawakan
Proto-language	Proto-Arawakan
Subdivisions	Northern Southern
Language codes
ISO 639-5	awd
Glottolog	araw1281
Maipurean languages in South America (Caribbean and Central America not included): North-Maipurean (pale blue) and South-Maipurean (deeper blue). Spots represent location of extant languages, and shadowed areas show probable earlier locations.

Arawakan (Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper), also known as Maipurean (also Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre), is a language family that developed among ancient indigenous peoples in South America. Branches migrated to Central America and the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being Ecuador, Uruguay, and Chile. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical Macro-Arawakan stock.

Name

The name Maipure was given to the family by Filippo S. Gilii in 1782, after the Maipure language of Venezuela, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important Arawak language a century later. The term Arawak took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader Macro-Arawakan proposal. At that time, the name Maipurean was resurrected for the core family. See Arawakan vs Maipurean for details.

Dispersal

The Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis (ALMH) suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a trade language or lingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002) and Eriksen (2014). Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages. On the other hand, Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the Austronesian and Austroasiatic language families in Southeast Asia.

Language contact

As one of the most geographically widespread language families in all of the Americas, Arawakan linguistic influence can be found in many language families of South America. Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawa, Bora-Muinane, Guahibo, Harakmbet-Katukina, Harakmbet, Katukina-Katawixi, Irantxe, Jaqi, Karib, Kawapana, Kayuvava, Kechua, Kwaza, Leko, Macro-Jê, Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru, Mapudungun, Mochika, Mura-Matanawi, Nambikwara, Omurano, Pano-Takana, Pano, Takana, Puinave-Nadahup, Taruma, Tupi, Urarina, Witoto-Okaina, Yaruro, Zaparo, Saliba-Hodi, and Tikuna-Yuri language families due to contact. However, these similarities could be due to inheritance, contact, or chance.

Languages

Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are extinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:

• Ta-Maipurean = Caribbean Arawak / Ta-Arawak = Caribbean Maipuran,
• Upper Amazon Maipurean = North Amazonian Arawak = Inland Maipuran,
• Central Maipurean = Pareci–Xingu = Paresí–Waurá = Central Maipuran,
• Piro = Purus,
• Campa = Pre-Andean Maipurean = Pre-Andine Maipuran.

An early contrast between Ta-Arawak and Nu-Arawak, depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; nu- is the ancestral form for the entire family, and ta- is an innovation of one branch of the family.

Kaufman (1994)

The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:

• Shebaye (†)
• Lapachu (†)
• Morique (also known as Morike) (†)

Another language is also mentioned as "Arawakan":

• Salumã (also known as Salumán, Enawené-Nawé)

Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now extinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao, Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.

• Maipurean
  • Northern Maipurean
    • Upper Amazon branch
    • Maritime branch
      • Aruán (Aroã) †
      • Wapixana (also known as Wapishana): Atorada (also known as Atoraí), Mapidian (also known as Maopidyán), Wapishana
      • Ta-Maipurean
      • Palikur
        • Palikur (also known as Palikúr)
        • Marawán †
  • Southern Maipurean
    • Western branch
      • Amuesha (also known as Amoesha, Yanesha')
      • Chamicuro (also known as Chamikuro)
    • Central branch
    • Southern Outlier branch
      • Terêna (dialects: Kinikinao, Terena, Guaná, Chané)
      • Moxos group (also known as Moho)& Trinitario)
        • Baure
        • Paunaka (also known as Pauna–Paikone)
      • Piro group
    • Campa branch (also known as Pre-Andean)

Kaufman does not report the extinct Magiana of the Moxos group.

Aikhenvald (1999)

Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the Southern Outlier and Western branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('Apolista') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the Maritime branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the North Amazonian branch of Northern Maipurean.

The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's:

• Maipurean
  • North Arawak = Northern Maipurean
    • Rio Branco = Kaufman's Wapishanan (2) [with Mapidian under the name "Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect]
    • Palikur = Kaufman's Palikur + Aruán (3)
    • Caribbean = Ta-Maipurean (8) [incl. Shebaye]
    • North Amazonian = Upper Amazon (17 attested)
  • South and South-Western Arawak = Southern Maipurean
    • South Arawak = Terena + Kaufman's Moxos group + Salumã + Lapachu ['Apolista'] (11)
    • Pareci–Xingu = Central Maipurean (6)
    • South-Western Arawak = Piro (5)
    • Campa (6)
    • Amuesha (1)
    • Chamicuro (1)

Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.

Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies Mawayana with Wapishana together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).

Ramirez (2001)

Internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2001):

2 subgroups, 10 divisions († = extinct)

• Arawakan
  • unclassified: Yanesha, Chamicuro
  • Western
    • unclassified: † Yumana, † Passé
    • Japurá-Colombia division
      • Piapoko, Achagua; Baniwa-Koripako, Tariana; Warekena, Mandawaka; Kabiyari; Yukuna, Wainumá-Mariaté
      • † Kauixana
      • Resígaro
    • Upper Rio Negro division
      • † Baré, † Guinau, † Anauyá-Yabahana
    • Upper Orinoco division
      • † Pareni, Yavitero
      • † Maipure
    • Negro-Roraima division
      • † Arua
      • † Manao, † Wirina, † Bahuana, † Cariaí
      • Wapixana, Atorai
      • † Mawayana
    • Juruá-Jutaí division
      • † Marawa
      • † Waraiku
    • Purus-Ucayali division
      • Apurinã; Piro, Kuniba, Kanamari, Manxineri
      • Kampa
    • Bolivia-Mato Grosso division
      • Baure, Mojeño
      • Tereno, † Kinikinao
    • Caribe-Venezuela division
      • Lokono; Iñeri, Garífuna; † Taino; † Caquetio
      • Guajiro, † Paraujano
  • Eastern
    • Amapá division
      • Palikur, † Marawá
    • Xingu-Tapajós division
      • Waurá, Mehinaku; Yawalapiti
      • Pareci, † Sarave

Walker & Ribeiro (2011)

Walker & Ribeiro (2011), using Bayesian computational phylogenetics, classify the Arawakan languages as follows.

Arawakan	Northeast South Western Amazonia Amuesha, Chamicuro Circum-Caribbean Central Brazil Central Amazonia Northwest Amazonia

The internal structures of each branch is given below. Note that the strictly binary splits are a result of the Bayesian computational methods used.

• Arawakan
  • Northeast
    • Marawan, Palikúr
  • South
    • Kinikinau, Terena
    • • Baure
      • Moxos: Trinitario, Ignaciano
  • Western Amazonia
    • • Apurinã
      • • Iñapari
        • Piro, Manxineri
    • • Caquinte
      • • Asheninka
        • • Machiguenga, Nomatsiguenga
  • Amuesha, Chamicuro
  • Circum-Caribbean
    • Waraicu, Marawa
    • (Core branch)
      • (Island branch)
        • Taíno
        • Island Carib, Garífuna
      • Lokono
      • Paraujano, Guajiro
  • Central Brazil
    • • Saraveka
      • Enawene Mawe, Paresí
    • • Yawalapití
      • Waurá, Mehináku
  • Central Amazonia
    • • Anauyá
      • Guinau, Baré
    • • Bahuana, Manao
      • • Arua
        • • Cabiai
          • Mawayana, Wapixana
  • Northwest Amazonia
    • • Maipure
      • • Yavitero
        • Baniva, Warekena
    • • Pasé, Yumana
      • • Resígaro
        • Cabiyari
          • Kauixana
            • Yukuna
            • Mariaté, Wainumá
      • • Achagua, Piapoco
        • • Mandawaka, Guarekena
          • • Tariana
            • • Kurripako
              • Baniwa, Karutana

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):

(† = extinct)

• Arawak
  • Yanesha
  • Western
    • Aguachile †
    • Chamikuro
    • Mamoré-Paraguai
      • Mamoré-Guaporé (Portuguese article)
        • Mojo-Paunaka
          • Mojo: Ignaciano; Trinitario
          • Paunaka
        • Baure-Paikoneka
          • Baure: Baure; Joaquiniano; Muxojeone †
          • Paikoneka †
      • Terena: Chane †; Guana †; Kinikinau; Terena
    • Negro-Putumayo
      • Jumana-Pase: Jumana †; Pase †
      • Kaishana †
      • Nawiki
        • Kabiyari
        • Karu-Tariana
          • Karu: Baniwa; Kuripako
          • Tariana
        • Mepuri †
        • Piapoko-Achagua: Achagua; Piapoko
        • Wainambu †
        • Warekena-Mandawaka: Warekena; Mandawaka †
        • Yukuna-Wainuma: Mariate †; Wainuma †; Yukuna
      • Resigaro
      • Wirina †
    • Orinoco
      • Yavitero-Baniva: Baniva; Yavitero †
      • Maipure †
    • Pre-Andine
      • Ashaninka-Nomatsigenga
        • Nomatsigenga
        • Machiguenga-Nanti
        • Ashaninka-Kakinte
          • Kakinte
          • Ashaninka-Asheninka
            • Ashaninka: Ashaninka
            • Asheninka: Asheninka Pajonal; Asheninka Perene; Asheninka Pichis; Asheninka Ucayali; Ashininka
    • Purus
      • Apurinã
      • Iñapari
      • Piro-Manchineri: Kanamare †; Kuniba †; Manchineri; Mashko Piro; Yine
  • Eastern
    • Lower Amazon
      • Atlantic: Marawan †; Palikur
      • Guaporé-Tapajós
        • Saraveka †
        • Tapajós: Enawene-Nawe; Paresi
      • Xingu
        • Kustenau †
        • Waura-Mehinako: Mehinaku; Waura
        • Yawalapiti
      • Waraiku: Waraiku †
    • Solimões-Caribbean: Marawan †; Palikur
      • Marawa †
      • Caribbean
        • Kaketio †
        • Wayuu-Añun
          • Añun
          • Wayuu
        • Lokono-Iñeri
          • Iñeri: Garifuna; Kalhiphona †
          • Lokono
        • Shebayo †
        • Taino †
      • Negro-Branco
        • Arua †
        • Mainatari †
        • Negro
          • Bare-Guinao: Bare; Guinao †
          • Bawana-Kariai-Manao: Bawana †; Kariai †; Manao †
          • Yabaana †
        • Branco
          • Mawayana
          • Wapishana-Parawana: Aroaki †; Atorada; Parawana †; Wapishana

Nikulin & Carvalho (2019)

Internal classification by Nikulin & Carvalho (2019: 270):

• Arawakan
  • Yanesha'
  • Chamicuro
  • Palikur
  • Maritime
    • Island Carib; Garífuna
    • Lokono; Wayuunaiki, Añun
  • Rio Branco
    • Wapixana
    • Mawayana
  • Japurá-Colômbia
    • Piapoco
    • Achagua
    • Yucuna
    • Resígaro
    • Tariana
    • Baniwa-Koripako
    • Warekena Antigo
  • Orinoco
    • Baré
    • Yavitero
    • Baniva of Guainia
    • Maipure
    • Warekena of Xié
  • Central
    • Paresí
    • Enawenê-Nawê
    • Xingu
      • Yawalapití
      • Waurá; Mehináku
  • Purus
    • Apurinã
    • Iñapari; Yine/Manxinéru
  • Campa
    • Nomatsiguenga
    • Matsiguenga
    • Nanti
    • Caquinte
    • Asháninka
    • Ashéninka
  • Bolívia-Paraná
    • Baure; Carmelito; Joaquiniano
    • Terena; Paunaka; Mojeño (Trinitário, Ignaciano, Loretano, Javeriano)

Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches:

• Maritime: loss of medial Proto-Arawakan *-n-.
  • Lokono-Wayuu: first person singular prefix *ta- replacing *nu-. Carvalho also reconstructs the suffix *-ja (possibly a deictic) and *kabɨnɨ 'three' as characteristic of this subgroup.
• Campa: lexical innovations such as *iNʧato 'tree', *-taki 'bark', *-toNki 'bone', etc. There are also typological innovations due to contact with Andean languages such as Quechua.

Ramirez (2020)

The internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2020) is as follows. This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).

12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) († = extinct)

• Arawakan
  • Japurá-Colombia (Portuguese article)
    • † Mepuri
    • † Yumana, † Passé
    • † Kauixana
    • Peripheral
      • † Mandawaka, Warekena (do San Miguel); Baniwa-Koripako
      • Piapoco, Achagua; Kabiyari
      • † Resígaro
      • † Wainumá-Mariaté
      • Yukuna
  • Upper Orinoco
    • Baniva de Maroa
    • † Pareni-Yavitero
    • † Maipure
  • Central-Amazon-Antilles ? (probable branch)
    • Amazon-Antilles
      • Guajiro, † Paraujano
      • † Taino, Iñeri, Loko, † Marawá
      • ? † Waraiku
      • ? † Wirina
    • Middle Rio Negro
      • † Baré
      • † Guinau
      • † Anauyá; † Mainatari, † Yabahana
    • Central
      • † Bahuana; † Manao, † Cariaí
      • † Aruã
      • Pidjanan
        • † Mawayana
        • Wapixana, † Parawana, † Aroaqui
      • ? † Shebayo
  • Mato Grosso-Palikur ? (probable branch)
    • Amapá
      • Palikur
    • Mato Grosso
      • Xingu
        • Waurá
        • Yawalapiti
      • Xaray
        • Salumã
        • Pareci
        • † Sarave
  • Bolivia-Purus-Kampa-(Amuesha) ? (probable branch)
    • Bolivia
      • Baure
      • Pauna; Mojeño, Tereno
    • Purus
      • † Iñapari
      • Piro
      • Apurinã
      • † Cararí
    • Pre-Andine
      • Kampa
    • Pozuzo
      • Amuesha
  • Lower Ucayali
    • † Chamicuro
    • ? † Moríque

Varieties

Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.

Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)

Island languages Taino / Nitaino - once spoken in the Conquest days on the Greater Antilles Islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Dialects are: Taino of Haiti and Quisqueya - extinct language of the island were Dominican Republic and The Republic of Haiti. Taino of Cuba - once spoken on the island of Cuba; in the nineteenth century only in the villages of Jiguaní, Bayano, and Quivicán; now the last descendants speak only Spanish. Borinquen - once spoken on the island of Puerto Rico. Yamaye - once spoken on the island of Jamaica. Lucaya - once spoken on the Bahamas Islands. Eyed / Allouage - once spoken in the Lesser Antilles. Nepuya - spoken on the eastern part of the island of Trinidad. Naparina - once spoken on the island of Trinidad. (Unattested.) Caliponau - language spoken by the women of the Carib tribes in the Lesser Antilles. Guiana language Arawak / Aruaqui / Luccumi / Locono - spoken in the Guianas. Dialects are: Western - spoken in Guyana. Eastern - spoken in French Guiana on the Curipi River and Oyapoque River. Central group Wapishana / Matisana / Wapityan / Uapixana - spoken on the Tacutu River, Mahú River, and Surumú River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil, and in the adjoining region in Guyana. Amariba - once spoken at the sources of the Tacutu River and Rupununi River, Guyana. (Unattested.) Atorai / Attaraye / Daurí - spoken between the Rupununi River and Kuyuwini River, Guyana. Mapidian group Mapidian / Maotityan - spoken at the sources of the Apiniwau River, Guyana, now perhaps extinct. Mawakwa - once spoken on the Mavaca River, Venezuela. Goajira group Goajira / Uáira - language spoken on the Goajira Peninsula in Colombia and Venezuela with two dialects, Guimpejegual and Gopujegual. Paraujano / Parancan / Parawogwan / Pará - spoken by a tribe of lake dwellers on Lake Maracaibo, Zulia state, Venezuela. Alile - once spoken on the Guasape River, state of Zulia, Venezuela. (Unattested.) Onota - once spoken between Lake Maracaibo and the Palmar River in the same region, Zulia state, Venezuela. (Unattested.) Guanebucán - extinct language once spoken on the Hacha River, department of Magdalena, Colombia. (Unattested.) Cosina / Coquibacoa - extinct language of a little known tribe of the Serranía Cosina, Goajira Peninsula, Colombia. (Unattested.) Caquetío group Caquetío - extinct language once spoken on the islands of Curaçao and Aruba near the Venezuelan coast, on the Yaracuy River, Portuguesa River, and Apure River, Venezuela. (only several words) Ajagua - once spoken on the Tocuyo River near Carera, state of Lara, Venezuela. (only two words and patronyms.) Quinó - once spoken in the village of Lagunillas, state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Nothing.) Tororó / Auyama - once spoken in the village of San Cristóbal, state of Táchira. (Febres Cordero 1921, pp. 116–160 passim, only six words.) Aviamo - once spoken on the Uribante River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.) Tecua - once spoken on the Lengupa River and in the village of Teguas, department of Boyacá, Colombia. (Unattested.) Yaguai - once spoken on the Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.) Cocaima - once spoken between the Setenta River and Matiyure River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.) Chacanta - once spoken on the Mucuchachi River, state of Mérida. (Unattested.) Caparo - once spoken on the Caparo River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) Támud - once spoken northeast of the Sagamoso River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) Burgua - once spoken near San Camilo on the Burgua River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) Cuite - once spoken on the Cuite River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.) Queniquea - once spoken in the same hill region in Colombia on the Pereno River. (Unattested.) Chucuna - once spoken between the Manacacías River and Vichada River, territories of Meta and Vichada, Colombia. (Unattested.) Guayupe - spoken on the Güejar River and Ariari River, Meta territory. Sae - once spoken by the neighbors of the Guayupe tribe in the same region. (Unattested.) Sutagao - spoken once on the Pasca River and Sumapaz River, Meta territory. (Unattested.) Chocue / Choque - once spoken on the Herorú River and Guayabero River, Meta territory. (Unattested.) Eperigua - once spoken at the sources of the Güejar River and near San Juan de los Llanos, Meta territory. (Unattested.) Aricagua - once spoken in the state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Unattested.) Achagua - spoken on the Apure River and Arauca River in the department of Boyacá and territory of Meta, Colombia. Piapoco / Mitua / Dzáse - spoken on the Guaviare River, territory of Vaupés, Colombia. Cabere / Cabre - once spoken on the Teviare River and Zama River, Vichada territory. Maniba / Camaniba - spoken by a little known tribe that lived on the middle course of the Guaviare River, Vaupés territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) Amarizana - extinct language once spoken on the Vera River and Aguas Blancas River, territory of Meta. Maypure group Maypure - extinct language once spoken in the village of Maipures, Vichada territory, Colombia. Inhabitants now speak only Spanish. Avani / Abane - once spoken on the Auvana River and Tipapa River, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. (Gilij 1780-1784, vol. 3, p. 383, only six words.) Guinau group Baníva - language spoken on the Orinoco River, especially in the village of San Fernando de Atabapo, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. Yavitero / Pareni / Yavitano - spoken on the Atabapo River in the village of Yavita. Guinau group Guinau / Inao / Guniare / Temomeyéme / Quinhau - once spoken at the sources of the Caura River and Merevari River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela, now perhaps extinct. Baré group Baré / Ihini / Arihini - spoken on the Casiquiare River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela, and on the upper course of the Negro River, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Uarequena - spoken on the Guainía River, Vaupés territory, Colombia. Adzáneni / Adyána / Izaneni - spoken at the sources of the Caiarí River and on the Apui River, frontier of Colombia and Brazil. Carútana / Corecarú / Yauareté-tapuya - spoken on the frontier between Colombia and Brazil on the Içana River. Katapolítani / Acayaca / Cadaupuritani - spoken on the Içana River in the village of Tunuhy, Brazil. Siusí / Ualíperi-dákeni / Uereperidákeni - spoken on the lower course of the Caiarí River and Içana River and on the middle course of the Aiari River, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Moriwene / Sucuriyú-tapuya - spoken on the Içana River in the village of Seringa Upita, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Mapanai / Ira-tapuya - spoken on the Içana River near Cachoeira Yandú, state of Amazonas. Hohodene / Huhúteni - spoken on the Cubate River, state of Amazonas. Maulieni / Káua-tapuya - spoken on the Aiari River, state of Amazonas. Ipéca group Ipéca / Kumada-mínanei / Baniva de rio Içana - spoken on the Içana River near the village of San Pedro, frontier region of Brazil and Colombia. Payualiene / Payoariene / Pacu-tapuya - spoken in the same frontier region on the Arara-paraná River. Curipaco - spoken on the Guainía River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. Kárro - spoken in the territory of Amazonas on the Puitana River. Kapité-Mínanei / Coatí-tapuya - spoken at the sources of the Içana River, Vaupés territory, Colombia. Tariana group Tariana / Yavi - spoken in the villages of Ipanoré and Yauareté on the Caiarí River, Vaupés Territory, Colombia. Iyäine / Kumandene / Yurupary-tapuya - spoken in the same region north of the Tariana tribe. Now only Tucano is spoken. (Unattested.) Cauyari / Acaroa / Cabuyarí - once spoken on the Cananari River and on the middle course of the Apaporis River, territory of Amazonas, Colombia. Now perhaps extinct. Mandauáca group Mandauáca / Maldavaca - spoken on the Baria River, Capabury River, and Pasimoni River, Amazonas territory, Venezuela. Cunipúsana - once spoken in Amazonas territory on the Siapa River. (Unattested.) Manáo group Manáo / Oremanao / Manoa - extinct language once spoken around the modern city of Manaus on the Negro River, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Arina - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Marauiá River, Amazonas state. (Unattested.) Cariay / Carihiahy - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River, Araçá River, and Padauari River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil. Bahuana - spoken between the Padauari River and Araçá River. (Unattested.) Uaranacoacena - extinct language once spoken between the Branco River, Negro River, and Araçá River, Amazonas. (Unattested.) Arauaqui - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River and Uatuma River. A few descendants now speak only Lingua Geral or Portuguese. (Unattested.) Dapatarú - once spoken between the Uatuma River and Urubu River and on the island of Saracá, Amazonas. (Unattested.) Aniba - once spoken on the Aniba River and around Saracá lagoon. (Unattested.) Caboquena - once spoken on the Urubu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.) Caburichena - once spoken on the right bank of the Negro River. (Unattested.) Seden - once spoken between the Uatuma River and Negro River. (Unattested.) Uirina group Uirina - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Marari River, territory of Rio Branco. Yabaána / Jabâ-ana / Hobacana - language of a tribe in the territory of Rio Branco, on the Marauiá River and Cauaburi River. Anauyá - spoken by a little known tribe on the Castaño River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. Chiriána group Chiriána / Barauána - spoken between the Marari River and Demini River, territory of Rio Branco. Yukúna group Yukúna - spoken on the Miritíparaná River, Amazonas territory, Colombia. Matapí - spoken in the same region, Amazonas territory, near Campoamor. (Unattested.) Guarú / Garú - spoken on the Mamurá River, Cuama River, and Meta River, territory of Caquetá, Colombia. Resigaro group Resigaro / Rrah~nihin / Rosigaro - spoken by a few families on the Igaraparaná River near Casa Arana. Araicú group Marawa / Maragua - spoken in the nineteenth century between the Juruá River and Jutai River, now in a single village at the mouth of the Juruá River, Amazonas. Araicú group Araicú / Waraikú - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Jandiatuba River and on the right bank of the Jutai River, Amazonas. Uainumá group Uainumá / Ajuano / Wainumá / Inabishana / Uainamby-tapuya / Uaypi - extinct language once spoken on the Upi River, a tributary of the Içá River, Amazonas. Mariaté / Muriaté - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the Içá River. Jumana group Jumana / Shomana - extinct language once spoken on the Puruê River and Juami River, Amazonas state. Passé / Pazé - extinct language once spoken between the Negro River, Japurá River, and Içá River. The few descendants now speak only Portuguese. Cauishana group Cauishana / Kayuishana / Noll-hína - now spoken by a few families on the Tocantins River and on Lake Mapari, Amazonas. Pariana - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Marauiá River. (Unattested.) Pre-Andine group Campa / Anti / Atzíri / Thampa / Kuruparia - spoken on the Urubamba River and Ucayali River, department of Cuzco, Peru. Machiganga / Ugunichire / Mashigango - spoken in the department of Cuzco on the Mantaro River, Apurimac River, Urubamba River, and Paucartambo River. Dialects are: Chanchamayo - spoken on the Perené River. Catongo - spoken on the Tambo River. Machiringa - spoken on the Apurimac River and Ene River. (Unattested.) Piro / Simirinche - spoken in the department of Loreto on the Inuya River. Chontaquiro - spoken on the Iaco River, Caeté River, and Chandless River, territory of Acre, Brazil. Mashco / Sirineiri / Moeno - spoken on the Pilcopata River, department of Madre de Dios, Peru. Curia - spoken on the Murú River and Embira River, Acre, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) Quirineri - spoken on the Paucartambo River and Manu River, department of Cuzco (Oppenheim 1948). Maneteneri - extinct language from the Purus River, Aquirí River, Caspatá River, and Araçá River, Acre territory. Inapari / Mashco Piro - spoken between the Tacutimani River and Amigo River, department of Madre de Dios, now perhaps extinct. Huachipairi - extinct language once spoken on the Cosñipata River and Pilcopata River, department of Madre de Dios. Kushichineri / Cushitineri - spoken in Acre territory on the Curumaha River by a small tribe. Cuniba - extinct language once spoken between the Juruazinho River and Jutaí River and on the Mapuá River, state of Amazonas. Puncuri - spoken on the Puncuri River, Acre. (Unattested.) Kanamare / Canamirim - spoken in the same territory on the Acre, Irariapé River and Abuña River, now probably extinct. Epetineri - once spoken on the Pijiria River, tributary of the Urubamba River, Peru. (Unattested.) Pucapucari - once spoken on the Camisia River and Tunquini River, Peru. (Unattested.) Tucurina - spoken by a few individuals on the Igarapé Cuchicha River, a tributary of the Chandless River, Acre. (Unattested.) Ipurina group Ipurina / Apurimã / Kangiti - spoken along the Purus River from the mouth of the Sepatiní River to the mouth of the Yaco River, Amazonas. Casharari - spoken by a little known tribe inhabiting the tropical forests between the Abuña River and Ituxí River and on the tributaries, Curequeta River and Iquirí River, in Acre. (Unattested.) Apolista group Apolista / Lapachu / Aguachile - extinct language once spoken in the old mission of Apolobamba, province of La Paz, Bolivia. Mojo group Mojo / Ignaciano / Morocosi - spoken on the Mamoré River and on the plains of Mojos, Beni province, Bolivia. Baure / Chiquimiti - spoken on the Blanco River and around the city of Baures in the same region. Muchojeone - extinct language once spoken at the old mission El Carmen in Beni province, Bolivia. Suberiono - extinct language once spoken west of the Mamoré River and the Guapay River, Bolivia. (Unattested.) Pauna - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Baures River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia. Paicone - extinct language from the sources of the Paragúa River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia. Paresi group Sarave / Zarabe - spoken on the Verde River and Paragúa River, Santa Cruz province, Bolivia, now perhaps extinct. Parecí / Arití / Maimbari / Mahibarez - language with dialects: Caxinití - spoken on the Sumidouro River, Sepotuba River, and Sucuriú River, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Waimaré - spoken in Mato Grosso on the Verde River and Timalatía River. Kozariní / Pareci-Cabixi - spoken in Mato Grosso on the Juba River, Cabaçal River, Jaurú River, Guaporé River, Verde River, Papagaio River, Burití River, and Juruena River. Uariteré - spoken on the Pimenta Bueno River, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.) Chané group Chané / Izoceño - formerly spoken on the Itiyuro River, Salta province, Argentina, but now the tribe speaks only a language of the Tupi stock and the old language serves only for religious ceremonies. (only a few words.) Guaná / Layano - once spoken on the Yacaré River and Galván River, Paraguay, now on the Miranda River, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Terena - spoken in Mato Grosso on the Miranda River and Jijui River. Echoaladí / Choarana - extinct language once spoken in Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) Quiniquinao / Equiniquinao - once spoken near Albuquerque, now by only a few families on the Posto Cachoeirinha near Miranda, Mato Grosso do Sul. Waurá group Waurá - spoken on the Batoví River (a tributary of the Xingú River) Mato Grosso. Kustenáu - spoken in the same region, Mato Grosso, on the Batoví River and Jatobá River Yaulapíti / Yawarapiti / Ualapiti - spoken between the Meinacu River and Curisevú River, Mato Grosso. Mehináku / Meinacu / Mináko - spoken between the Batoví River and Curisevú River. Agavotocueng - spoken by an unknown tribe between the Curisevú River and Culuene River. (Unattested.) Marawan group Marawan / Maraon - spoken on the Oiapoque River and Curipi River, Amapá territory. Caripurá / Karipuere - spoken in Amapá territory on the Urucauá River. Palicur / Parikurú - once spoken on the middle course of the Calçoene River and on the upper course of the Casipore River, now on the Urucauá River in Amapá territory. Caranariú - once spoken on the Urucauá River, now extinct. (Unattested.) Tocoyene - once spoken in Amapá territory on the Uanarí River. (Unattested.) Macapá - once spoken on the Camopi River and Yaroupi River, French Guiana, later on the upper course of the Pará River, state of Pará, Brazil; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) Tucujú - once spoken on the Jarí River, territory of Amapá, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) Mapruan - once spoken on the Oiac River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.) Aruan group Aruan / Aroã - originally spoken on the north coast of Marajó Island, Pará, later on the Uaçá River, Amapá territory. A few descendants now speak only a French creole dialect. Sacaca - extinct language once spoken in the eastern part of Marajó Island. Moríque group Moríque / Mayoruna - spoken on the border of Brazil and Peru, on the Javarí River. Chamicuro group Chamicuro - spoken on the Chamicuro River, department of Loreto, Peru. Chicluna - extinct language once spoken in the same region east of the Aguano tribe. (Unattested.) Aguano / Awáno - extinct language of a tribe that lived on the lower course of the Huallaga River. The descendants, in the villages of San Lorenzo, San Xavier, and Santa Cruz, now speak only Quechua. (Unattested.) Maparina - once spoken in the same region on the lower course of the Ucayali River and at the old mission of Santiago. (Unattested.) Cutinana - once spoken on the Samiria River, Loreto. (Unattested.) Tibilo - once spoken in San Lorenzo village, Loreto region. (Unattested.) Lorenzo group Amoishe / Amlsha / Amuescha / Amage / Lorenzo - once spoken on the Paucartambo River and Colorado River, department of Cuzco, Peru; now mainly Quechua is spoken. Chunatahua - once spoken at the mouth of the Chinchao River, department of Huánuco, Peru. (Unattested.) Panatahua - spoken in the same region on the right bank of the Huallaga River between Coyumba and Monzón, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) Chusco - once spoken in the same region as Panatahua near Huánuco. (Unattested.) Guahibo group Guahibo - language spoken by many tribes in Colombia and Venezuela on the Meta River, Arauca River, Vichada River, and Orinoco River. Dialects: Cuiloto - spoken on the Cuiloto River and Cravo Norte River, Arauca territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) Cuiva - spoken on the Meta River, Vichada territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) Amorúa - spoken in the same region on the Bita River. (Unattested.) Chiricoa - spoken on the Ele River and Lipa River, department of Arauca, on the Cravo Norte River and Arauca River, Arauca territory, Colombia, and on the Cinaruquito River, Cinamco River, Capanaparo River, and Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Hildebrandt ms.) Sicuane - spoken on the Tuparro River, Vichada territory, Colombia. (Unattested.) Cuiapo Pihibi - spoken on the Tomo River, Vichada territory. (Unattested.) Yamu - spoken on the right bank of the Ariari River, Meta territory. (Unattested.) Catarro - spoken in the Meta territory on the Yucavo River and in the old mission of San Miguel de Salivas. (Unattested.) Chumya / Bisanigua - language, now probably extinct, once spoken on the Güejar River and in El Piñal. Guayabero / Guyaverun - spoken in the Meta territory on the Guayabero River.

Arawakan vs. Maipurean

In 1783, the Italian priest Filippo Salvatore Gilii recognized the unity of the Maipure language of the Orinoco and Moxos of Bolivia; he named their family Maipure. It was renamed Arawak by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) after Arawak in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents are Maipurean or Maipuran and Arawak or Arawakan.

The term Arawakan is now used in two senses. South American scholars use Aruák for the family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding the Guajiboan and Arawan families. In North America, scholars use the name Maipurean to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes called core Arawak(an) or Arawak(an) proper instead.

Kaufman (1990: 40) relates the following:

[The Arawakan] name is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all the living Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.

Characteristics

The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefix nu-, but Arawak proper has ta-. Other commonalities include a second-person singular pi-, relative ka-, and negative ma-.

The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana.

Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: the Quinquinaos, the Layanas, etc. (This is the Moho-Mbaure group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, the Aruan people spoke an Arawak dialect. The Guajira Peninsula (north of Venezuela) is occupied by the Wayuu tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Guajira peninsula.

C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson's British Guiana manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.

Phonology

Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999):

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Lamino-(alveo)- palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop	voiced	(b)	d			ɡ
	voiceless	p	t			k	(ʔ)
	voiceless aspirated	(pʰ)	(tʰ)			(kʰ)
Affricate				ts	tʃ
Fricative		(ɸ)		s	ʃ		h
Lateral					l
Vibrant					r
Nasal		m		n	ɲ
Glide		w			j

	Front	Central	Back
High	i iː	ɨ ɨː	u uː
Mid		e eː
Low		a aː

For more detailed notes on specific languages see Aikhenvald (1999) pp. 76–77.

Shared morphological traits

General morphological type

Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.

Alienable and inalienable possession

Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed. This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below:

no-tiho

1SG-face

no-tiho

1SG-face

my face

tiho-ti

face-ALIEN

tiho-ti

face-ALIEN

(someone's) face

Classifiers

Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase. The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause:

ha-dapana

DEM.INAN-CL:HOUSE

pa-dapana

one-CL:HOUSE

na-tape-dapana

3PL-medicine-CL:HOUSE

na-ya-dapana

3PL-POSS-CL:HOUSE

hanu-dapana

big-CL:HOUSE

heku

wood

na-ni-ni-dapana-mahka

3PL-make-TAV-CL:HOUSE-REC.PST.NVIS

ha-dapana pa-dapana na-tape-dapana na-ya-dapana hanu-dapana heku na-ni-ni-dapana-mahka

DEM.INAN-CL:HOUSE one-CL:HOUSE 3PL-medicine-CL:HOUSE 3PL-POSS-CL:HOUSE big-CL:HOUSE wood 3PL-make-TAV-CL:HOUSE-REC.PST.NVIS

‘This one big hospital of theirs has been made of wood’

Subject and object cross-referencing on the verb

Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb. The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment:

ri-kapa-ni

3SG.NFEM.AG-see-3SG.NFEM.PAT

ri-kapa-ni

3SG.NFEM.AG-see-3SG.NFEM.PAT

'He sees him/it.'

ri-emhani

3SG.NFEM.AG-walk

ri-emhani

3SG.NFEM.AG-walk

'He walks.'

hape-ka-ni

be.cold-DECL-3SG.NFEM.PAT

hape-ka-ni

be.cold-DECL-3SG.NFEM.PAT

'He/it is cold.'

The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:

	Prefixes (mark agent)		Suffixes (mark patient)
person	SG	PL	SG	PL
1	*nu- or *ta-	*wa-	*-na, *-te	*-wa
2	*(p)i-	*(h)i-	*-pi	*-hi
3NFEM	*ri-, *i-	*na-	*-ri, *-i	*-na
3FEM	*thu-, *u-	*na-	*-thu, *-u	*-na
impersonal	*pa-
non-focused agent	*i-, *a-
dummy patient			*-ni

Some examples

The Arawak word for maize is marisi, and various forms of this word are found among the related languages:

Lokono, marisi, Guyana.

Taíno, mahisi or mahis, Greater Antilles.

Cauixana, mazy, Rio Jupura.

Wayuu, maiki, Goajira Peninsula.

Passes, mary, Lower Jupura.

Puri, maky, Rio Paraiba.

Wauja, mainki, Upper Xingu River.

Geographic distribution

Arawak is the largest family in the Americas with the respect to number of languages. The Arawakan languages are spoken by peoples occupying a large swath of territory, from the eastern slopes of the central Andes Mountains in Peru and Bolivia, across the Amazon basin of Brazil, northward into Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago and Colombia on the northern coast of South America, and as far north as Nicaragua, Honduras, Belize and Guatemala. The languages used to be found in Argentina and Paraguay as well.

Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago, settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of the Cusabo and Congaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.

Taíno, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. A few Taino words are still used by English, Spanish, or Haitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be the Wayuu language, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taíno refugees, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.

Garífuna (or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent. It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and Belize combined.

Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recent Ta-Arawakan (Ta-Maipurean) groups: Wayuu [Goajiro], with about 300,000 speakers; and Garifuna, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next; Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comes Terêna, with 10,000 speakers; and Yanesha' [Amuesha] with 6–8,000.

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Arawakan languages.

Language	Branch	one	two	three	head	eye	hand	foot
Amoishe	Lorenzo	pachía	epá	mapá	yo-ói	net	n-not
Guahibo	Guahibo	kaí	nahuaxu	akuoíebi	pe-matána	pe-wánto	pi-tahúto
Churuya	Guahibo	kai	kabale	omopesiva
Guayabero	Guahibo	kayen			magneten	buán	fuʔuten
Marawan	Marawan	paxa	tsálie	mpána	pi-tiui	pi-taibi	pu-aku
Caripurá	Marawan	pabereː	yaná	pána	i-tiuti	pi-taibi	pu-áko
Palicur	Marawan	phát	pitána	mpána	teuti	i-teibi	i-wak-ti
Aruan	Aruan	auseire	dekuráma	nkeduke	p-küue	pe-xinháku	pe-aynáu
Moríque	Moríque	akápastoi	shikará	shika-bená	p-dóko	p-dái	pi-ó
Chamicuro	Chamicuro	padláka	maʔa póxta	kídlko	o-káski	ax-chái	u-chíxpa
Waurá	Waurá	pauá	mepiáua	kamaukula	nu-teurzata	nu-titái	nu-kapi
Mehináku	Waurá	pauítsa	mepiáma	kamayukule	nu-tau	nu-titái	nu-kapu
Kustenau	Waurá	paúdza	mepiáma	kamaukula	nu-téu	nu-titái	ni-uríko
Yaulapíti	Waurá	pauá	purziñama	kamayunkula	nu-kurzyu	nu-ritä	nu-irika
Sarave	Paresí	atia	iñama	anahama	no-eve	no-he	aui-kachi
Paresí	Paresí	hatita	inamá	anamá	no-seurí	nu-dúse	nu-kau
Waimare	Paresí	hakida	hiːnamaː	hanámaː	no-tseːri	nu-zoːtse	nu-kahe
Chané	Chané
Guaná	Chané	posha	piá	mopoá	do-otí	u-ké	u-oú
Terena	Chané	paisuan	piá	mopuá	do-otí	u-né	u-oú
Quiniquinao	Apolista	poikuá	piá	mopuá	do-otí	u-nhé	w-oú
Lapachu	Apolista	eto	api	mopo	ya-tuni		hua-nia
Mojo	Mojo	ikapia	apisá	impúse	nu-xuti	yu-ki	nu-bupe
Baure	Mojo				ni-póã	i-kise	nu-ake
Pauna	Mojo					i-huike
Paicone	Mojo	ponotsiko	baniki		i-pe	ni-kis	i-vuaki
Ipurina	Ipurina	hatiká	ipíka	mapáka	i-kiwi	o-kí	oa-kutí
Campa	Preandine I	apáro	apíti	máhua	a-ito	a-oki	a-kó
Machiganga	Preandine I	pániro	api	mahuani	no-yito	no-ki	nä-ko
Chanchamayo	Preandine I		kipachi		nu-china	o-eki	a-eu
Quirineri	Preandine I	aparu	piti	mana	pi-hita	po-ke
Maneteneri	Preandine I
Piro	Preandine I	sape	epi	mapa	we-iwé	xali	hue-mio
Chontaquiro	Preandine I	suriti	apíri	nokiri	hue-xixua	we-ari	hua-mianuta
Inapari	Preandine II
Kushichineri	Preandine II	sátepia	hépi		u-shiwe	no-yate	nó-min
Cuniba	Preandine II				yi-hwö	wi-bere	wö-miu
Kanamaré	Preandine II	satibika	hepü	mapa	nu-xüi	nu-xü	nu-muyú
Huachipairi	Preandine II	ruña	gundupa			ya-kuk
Mashco	Preandine II	ruña	gundupa
Uainumá	Uainumá	apágeri	macháma	matsüke	ba-ita	no-tóhi	no-gápi
Mariaté	Uainumá	apakeri	mechema	atapo	no-bida	no-doi	no-ghapi
Jumana	Jumana	aphla	liágua	mabäʔagua	n-úla	un-ló	no-gabí
Passé	Jumana	apeala	pakéana	mapeana	ni-óla	chi-ló	nu-ghapóle
Cauishana	Cauishana	bälämo	mätalá	bämä bikaka	na-oá	nó-ló	na-gúbi
Yukúna	Yukúna	paxlúasa	hiamá	uesikiéle	nu-ilá	nux-lú	no-yola
Guarú	Yukúna	pagluachima	xeyama	uzíkele			yatela-chima
Resigaro	Resigaro	apaːhapené	eytzaːmo	eitzaːmoapo	whe-bühe	wa-tnih	waː-kí
Marawa	Marawa	ukvashumu	piá	ghebeñ	ni-siuy	na-kosi	no-kabesui
Araicú	Araicú	etetu	puyabana	mayba	ghi	no-ki	ni-kabu
Manáo	Manáo	panimu	piarukuma	pialukipaulo	nu-küuna	nu-kurika	nu-kaité
Cariay	Manáo	nyoi	püthairama	tükahui	nu-küuy	nu-kuniki	nu-ghai
Uirina	Uirina				shishi-kaba	na-kuke	li-kaue
Yabaána	Uirina				fuiu-dagu	ná-ui	nu-khapi
Anauya	Uirina	ahiari	mahoren	marahunaka	nun-huída	nau-hini	nun-kapi
Chiriána	Chiriána				nu-kiwída	nu-ái	nu-nái
Ipéca	Ipéca	apáda	yamada	madarida	nú-wida	nu-tí	nu-kápi
Payualiene	Ipéca	apádacha	yamáda	madalída	nu-wida	nu-thí	nu-kápí
Curipaco	Ipéca	ápe	yamáde	madálda	lyi-wida	nó-ti	h'no-kápi
Kárro	Ipéca	pádda	yamádda	madaridda	húida	nó-ti	no-kápi
Kapitémínaneí	Ipéca	aphépai	yamhépa	madelipa	ni-wirechipa	nú-ti	nu-kápi
Tariana	Tariana	páda	yamáite	mandalite	pax-huída	pa-tída	kopi-vana
Cauyari	Tariana				no-üte	no-tu	nu-kapi
Baré	Baré I	bakunákali	pekúname	klikúname	hua-dósie	hua-oíti	hua-kabi
Uarequena	Baré I	apáhesa	dauntása	nabaitalísa	nó-iua	nó-bui	no-kapi
Adzáneni	Baré I	apékutsa	dzámana	mandalípa	nu-wída	nu-thi	nu-kapi
Carútana	Baré I	aʔapetsa	ntsáme	mádali	nú-ita	nu-thi	no-kopü
Katapolítani	Baré I	apadátsa	dzamáta	mádali	ní-wida	au-thí	nu-kápi
Siusí	Baré II	apaíta	dzamá	mandalíapa	ni-uíta	nú-ti	nu-kapi
Moriwene	Baré II	apáda	zamáda	madálida	n-iwida	nu-thí	nu-kapi
Mapanai	Baré II	páda	dzamáda	madalída	ni-wída	nu-tí	nu-kápi
Hohodene	Baré II	apáda	dzamhépa	mandalhípa	hi-wída	nu-thi	nu-kápi
Máulieni	Baré II	apahede	dzamáde	madalíde	nhe-wída	nu-thi	nu-kápi
Achagua	Caquetio	abai	chamay	matavi	nú-rita	nu-tói	nu-kuhe
Piapoco	Caquetio	abéri	putsíba	maísiba	nú-wita	nu-tui	nu-kapi
Amarizana	Caquetio				nu-ita	no-tuy	nu-kagi
Maypure	Maypure	papeta	apanum	apekiva	nu-kibukú	nu-puriki	nu-kapi
Baníva	Baníva	peyaːlo	enaːba	yabébuli	no-bóhu	na-bólihi	naː-bipo
Yavitero	Baníva	hasiáua	tsináha		nu-síhu	na-hólitsi	no-kabuhi
Guinau	Guinau	abamédzya	abiamáka		in-chéue	na-uízyi	n-kábi
Wapishána	Central	bayadap	yaitam	dikinerda	aita-ma	ung-wawin	kai
Atorai	Central	petaghpa	pauitegh	ihikeitaub	uruei	na-win	un-kei
Mapidian	Mapidian	chioñi	asagu	dikiñerda	un-ku	un-oso	un-chigya
Mawakwa	Mapidian	apaura	woaraka	tamarsa	un-kaua	ng-oso	ng-nkowa
Goajira	Goajira	wanee	piama	apünüin	te-kii	to-'u	ta-japü	to-o'ui
Paraujano	Goajira	mánei	pími	apáni	tó-ki	tá-i	táp
Taino	Island				zimu	aku		u-gúti
T. Cusa	Island
Caliponam-Eyeri	Island	aban	biama		ishöké	áku	nu-kabo	nu-guti
Arawak West	Guiana	aba	biama		da-shi	da-kusi	ue-babuhu	da-kosai
Arawak East	Guiana				da-shi	da-kushi	da-kapo	da-kuti

Language	Branch	water	fire	sun	maize	house	tapir	bird
Amoishe	Lorenzo	óñ	tsó	yumpór	trop	bakü	atók
Guahibo	Guahibo	méra	isóto	ikatia	hetsóto	bó	métsaha
Churuya	Guahibo	minta	ixito	mshaxaint	xesá
Guayabero	Guahibo	minta	giptan		hes	baːh	mesa
Marawan	Marawan	uni	tiketi	kamui		paiti	oldogri
Caripurá	Marawan	oneː	tiketí	kamuí	maikí	paití	arudeika
Palicur	Marawan	úne	tikéti	kamoí	mahikí	paitipin	aludpikli
Aruan	Aruan	unü	díha	hámo		údi	müle
Moríque	Moríque	ón	ashkómi	ñóki	náshi	anár	háwuits
Chamicuro	Chamicuro	uníxsa	káxchi	mosóxko	náchi	axkóchi	maxtódli
Waurá	Waurá	une	itséi	kame	máiki	pae	täme
Mehináku	Waurá	óne	tsé	kame	máiki	pai	täme
Kustenau	Waurá	one	tséi	xámi	maikí	pae	täme
Yaulapíti	Waurá	u	zyro	káme	máiki	pa	tsama
Sarave	Paresí	une	rikiai	káʔane	kozeheo		kuti
Paresí	Paresí	óni	irikati	kámai	kózoto	hati	kótui
Waimare	Paresí	uné	irigate	kamái	kozeːtoː	haːtí	koːtuí
Chané	Chané	úne	yuku		sopóro
Guaná	Chané	une	yukú	kaché	tsoporo	petí	kamó
Terena	Chané	une	yukú	kaché	soporó	ovongu	gamó
Quiniquinao	Apolista	uné	yukú	kadzyé	osopóro	péti
Lapachu	Apolista	chani	yuó	íti	tái	pina	yáma
Mojo	Mojo	uni	yuku	sáche	suru	nupena	samo
Baure	Mojo	ine	yaki	pari		sóhmo	choro
Pauna	Mojo	ené	yukĩ	sache		sese
Paicone	Mojo	ina	shaki	isésé	tiolo
Ipurina	Ipurina	wünü	chaminá	atokantí	kemi	aikó	kíamá
Campa	Preandine I	naña	chichi	tawánti	sínki	pangótsi	kemáli
Machiganga	Preandine I	nía	chichi	buriente	sinki	imbako	kemari
Chanchamayo	Preandine I	niya	paneni	pahuasi	siinki	panguchik
Quirineri	Preandine I	nixa	pishironta	shantoshi	shinki	pangocha
Maneteneri	Preandine I	húni	ashi	kashi	is		xama
Piro	Preandine I	une	chichi	kachi	sixi	panchi	siema
Chontaquiro	Preandine I	uné	chichi	kachi	sizyi	panchi	siemo
Inapari	Preandine II	uni	titi	takuati			chema
Kushichineri	Preandine II	une	titi	takachi	shihi	panti	sema
Cuniba	Preandine II	uné	titi	tʔkati	chihi	panti	hyema
Kanamaré	Preandine II	wenü		ghasirü	shishie	panichi	nuyeshuata
Huachipairi	Preandine II			tak	sinka
Mashco	Preandine II			ne	abati	kichäpo	siema
Uainumá	Uainumá	auni	icheba	ghamui	pexkia	panísi	äma
Mariaté	Uainumá	uni	ichepa	gamui	pékye	panisi	zema
Jumana	Jumana	uhú	oyé	sömanlú	irari	pana	zema
Passé	Jumana	oy	heghüe	aguma	niari	pána	séma
Cauishana	Cauishana	auví	ikiö	mawoaká	mási	banö	sema
Yukúna	Yukúna	úni	tsiá	kamú	kaéru	pási	emam
Guarú	Yukúna			kaʔamu
Resigaro	Resigaro	hoːní	ketse	hahi	weheːx		adnoːhoki
Marawa	Marawa	uni	irisi	kumétu	uati	kakoaka	gama
Araicú	Araicú	uni	ighé	ghuma	mechi	peyʔ
Manáo	Manáo	unua	ghügati	gamuy	auati	nuanu	ghema
Cariay	Manáo	toni	apai	ghamui	yuanati	nuána	ghema
Uirina	Uirina	une	yishe	kamoé	auati	bakué	kamá
Yabaána	Uirina	úni	ikági
Anauya	Uirina	uni	ríkari	ahiri
Chiriána	Chiriána	úni	pái	áyer	makanáu	páinti	kéma
Ipéca	Ipéca	úni	tiyé	körzyi	kána	pánthi	hema
Payualiene	Ipéca	úni	tüye	hözi	kána	pánti	héma
Curipaco	Ipéca	óni	notapíkata	héri			héma
Kárro	Ipéca	óni	tie	hérsi
Kapitémínaneí	Ipéca	úuni	tíye	höri	kána	pánti	héma
Tariana	Tariana	úni	chiána	kéri	kána	pánishi	héma
Cauyari	Tariana	uni	hirari	eri		panetí	emá
Baré	Baré I	óni	gaméni	ghamú	makanashi	páni	tema
Uarequena	Baré I	óni	ixsíde	kamói	makanáshi	panízi	éma
Adzáneni	Baré I	úni	dzídze	gámui	kána	pánte	héma
Carútana	Baré I	úni	tídzye	kámui	makanáchi	pánishi	héma
Katapolítani	Baré I	úni	tídze	gamui	kána	pánti	héma
Siusí	Baré II	úni	tídze	gámui	kána	pánti	héma
Moriwene	Baré II	uni	tidzé	kamui	kána	pánti	héma
Mapanai	Baré II	úni	tiidzé	kamói	kána	panti	hema
Hohodene	Baré II	úni	tidze	kámui	kána	panti	héma
Máulieni	Baré II	úni	tídze	kámoi	kána	panítsi	héma
Achagua	Caquetio	uni	chichái	erri	kana	banísi	ema
Piapoco	Caquetio	úni	kichéi	éri	kanái	kapí	éma
Amarizana	Caquetio	sietai	eriepi	keybin		kaxü
Maypure	Maypure	ueni	kati	kamosi	dzyomuki	panití
Baníva	Baníva	wéni	aːshi	amoːshi	makanátsi	paníshi	eːma
Yavitero	Baníva	wéni	káthi	kámothi	kána	fanisi	ema
Guinau	Guinau	úne	chéke	gamũhũ	yúnu	báni	zéma
Wapishána	Central	wéne	tiker	kamo	marik	kaburn	kudui
Atorai	Central	win	tikir	kamu
Mapidian	Mapidian	win	hikesia		mariki		kudui
Mawakwa	Mapidian	wune	chikasi	kamu
Goajira	Goajira	wüin	siki	ka'i	maiki	m/piichi	kama	wuchii
Paraujano	Goajira	wín	chigigá	kakai	mái	xála
Taino	Island	ama	kuyo	boinial	maiz	bohio		bogiael
T. Cusa	Island			kochi	maysi	bohio		ipis
Caliponam-Eyeri	Island	one	iléme	káshi		tuhonoko		narguti
Arawak West	Guiana	vuniabu	iki	hadali	marisi	bahü		kudibiu
Arawak East	Guiana	wúini	hikiki	hadali		baʔache

Proto-language

Proto-Arawakan
Reconstruction of	Arawakan languages

Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Aikhenvald (2002):

Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Aikhenvald (2002)

gloss Proto-Arawak 'manioc, sweet potato' *kali 'moon' *kahɨ(tɨ) 'water (n)' *hu(ː)ni 'sun, heat' *kamui 'sun' *ketʃi 'hammock' *maka 'long thing objects classifier' *-pi 'snake' *api 'road; limited space; hollow objects classifier' *-(a)pu 'path' *(a)pu 'leaflike objects classifier' *-pana 'leaf' *pana 'thin, powder-like classifier' *-phe 'dust' *phe 'arm' *dana 'hand, shoulder, arm' *wahku 'blood' *itha-hna 'bone' *apɨ 'breast, milk' *tenɨ 'snout, nose' *t(h)aku 'snout, nose' *kɨri 'fingernail, claw' *huba 'excrement' *(i)tika 'ear' *da-keni 'eye' *ukɨ/e 'flesh, meat' *eki 'flesh, meat' *ina 'flesh, meat' *ipe 'foot' *kipa 'hair' *isi 'hand' *k(h)apɨ 'head' *kiwɨ 'horn' *tsiwi 'leg' *kawa 'tongue' *nene 'lip, tongue' *tʃɨra 'mouth' *numa 'skin' *mata 'tail' *(i)di(-pi) 'ash' *pali-ši 'earth' *kɨpa 'lake' *kaɨlesa 'night' *tʃapu 'salt' *(i)dɨwɨ 'smoke' *kɨtʃa(li) 'stone' *k(h)iba 'agouti' *p(h)ɨkɨ-li 'animal' *pɨra 'ant' *manaci 'armadillo' *yeti 'bee, honey' *maba 'bird' *kudɨ-pɨra 'crocodile' *kasi/u 'coati' *k(h)ape-di 'chigoe flea' *iditu 'fish' *kopaki 'fish' *hima 'flea, cockroach' *k(h)aya(pa?) 'hummingbird' *pimi 'dog, jaguar' *tsinu/i 'dog' *auli 'lizard' *dupu 'louse' *(i)ni 'monkey' *pude 'mosquito' *hainiyu 'peccary' *a(h)bɨya 'mouse, rat' *kɨhi(ri) 'tapir' *kema 'termite' *kamatha/ra 'toad' *ki(h)pa(ru) 'tortoise' *si(n)pu 'tortoise' *hiku(li) 'turkey, guan' *mara-di 'wasp' *hani/e 'achiote' *(a)binki-thi 'manioc, cassava' *kani 'medicine, medicinal grass' *pini/a 'firewood' *dika 'firewood' *tsɨma 'flower' *dewi 'grass' *katʃau 'leaf' *pana 'pepper' *atʃɨ (di/ɨ) 'root' *pale 'seed' *(a)ki 'tobacco' *yɨma 'tree' *a(n)da 'people, body' *mina 'man, person' *(a)šeni/a 'man, person' *(a)dia(-li) 'brother' *p(h)e 'people, man' *kaki(n) 'wife, female relative' *ɨnu 'woman' *tʃɨ na(-ru) 'uncle, father-in-law' *kuhko 'fan' *hewi 'house' *pe, *pana/i 'dream' *tapu 'path' *(ah)tɨnɨ 'above, sky' *(y)enu(hʔ) 'bad' *ma(h)tʃi 'bitter' *kep(h)idi 'black, dirty' *k(h)u(e)re 'cold' *kipa/e 'green, blue, unripe' *šɨpule 'new' *wada(li) 'painful' *katʃi(wi) 'red' *kɨra 'sweet' *putsi 'to arrive' *kau 'to sweep' *pɨ(da) 'to give' *po 'to give' *da 'to cry' *(i)ya 'to be sick, die' *kama 'to drink' *itha 'to fly' *ara 'to hear, understand' *kema 'to wash' *kiba 'to eat' *nika 'to stand' *dɨma 'to dig' *kika '1st person; someone, another' *pa- '2nd person' *(a)pi '2nd person' *yama

For lists of Proto-Arawakan reconstructions by Jolkesky (2016) and Ramirez (2019), see the corresponding Portuguese article.

See also

• Arawak peoples
• English words of Arawakan origin
• Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas

References

• Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (1999). The Arawak language family. In R. M. W. Dixon & A. Y. Aikhenvald (Eds.), The Amazonian languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57021-2; ISBN 0-521-57893-0.
• de Goeje, C. H., (1928). The Arawak language of Guiana, Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Afdeling Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks.
• Deniker, Joseph. (1900). The races of man: an outline of anthropology and ethnography.
• Garifuna. (2015). In M. P. Lewis, G. F. Simmons, & C. D. Fennig (Eds.), Ethnologue: Languages of the world (18th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International.
• Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70414-3.
• Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R.E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
• Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Arawakan". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
• Rudes, Blair A. "Pre-Columbian Links to the Caribbean: Evidence Connecting Cusabo to Taino", paper presented at Language Variety in the South III conference, Tuscaloosa, AL, 16 April 2004.
• Walker, R. S.; Ribeiro, L. A. (2011). "Bayesian phylogeography of the Arawak expansion in lowland South America". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 278 (1718): 2562–2567. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2579. PMC 3136831. PMID 21247954.

Further reading

• Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
• Derbyshire, Desmond C. (1992). "Arawakan languages". In Bright, W. (ed.). International encyclopedia of linguistics. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 102–105.
• Migliazza, Ernest C.; Campbell, Lyle (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América. Vol. 10. Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia. p. 223.
• Payne, David (1991). "A classification of Maipuran (Arawakan) languages based on shared lexical retentions". In Derbyshire, D. C.; Pullum, G. K. (eds.). Handbook of Amazonian languages. Vol. 3. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 355–499.
• Solís Fonseca, Gustavo (2003). Lenguas en la amazonía peruana. Lima: edición por demanda.
• Zamponi, Raoul (2003). Maipure. Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-232-0.

Lexicons

• Cadete, C. (1991). Dicionário Wapichana-Português/Português-Wapishana. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
• Captain, D. M.; Captain, L. B. (2005). Diccionario Basico: Ilustrado; Wayuunaiki-Espanol ; Espanol-Wayuunaiki. Bogota: Edit. Fundación para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Marginados.
• Corbera Mori, A. (2005). As línguas Waurá e Mehinakú do Brasil Central. In: A. S. A. C. Cabral & S. C. S. de Oliveira (eds.), Anais do IV Congresso Internacional da ABRALIN, 795-804. Brasília: Associação Brasileira de Lingüística, Universidade de Brasília.
• Couto, F. P. (2012). Contribuições para a fonética e fonologia da língua Manxineru (Aruák). Brasília: Universidade de Brasília. (Masters dissertation).
• Couto, F. P. (n.d.). Dados do manxineri. (Manuscript).
• Crevels, M.; Van Der Voort, H. (2008). The Guaporé-Mamoré region as a linguistic area. In: P. Muysken (ed.), From linguistic areas to areal linguistics (Studies in Language Companion Series, 90), 151-179. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
• de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913b). Linguistique Bolivienne: La langue Lapaču ou Apolista. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 45:512-531.
• de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913c). Linguistique bolivienne. La langue Saraveka. Journal de la Sociétè des Americanistes de Paris, 10:497-540.
• Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, A. (eds.) (1999). The Amazonian Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Duff-Tripp, M. (1998). Diccionario: Yanesha' (Amuesha) - Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47.) Lima: Inst. Lingüístico de Verano.
• Ekdahl, E. M.; Butler, N. E. (1969). Terêna dictionary. Brasília: SIL. ELIAS ORTIZ, S. (1945). Los Indios Yurumanguíes. Acta Americana, 4:10-25.
• Facundes, S. Da S. (2000). The Language of the Apurinã People of Brazil (Maipure/Arawak). University of New York at Buffalo. (Doctoral dissertation).
• Farabee, W. C. (1918). The Central Arawaks (University Museum Anthropological Publication, 9). Philadelphia: University Museum.
• Fargetti, C. M. (2001). Estudo Fonológico e Morfossintático da Língua Juruna. Campinas: UNICAMP. (Doctoral dissertation).
• Gill, W. (1993 [1970]). Diccionario Trinitario-Castellano y Castellano-Trinitario. San Lorenzo de Mojos: Misión Evangélica Nuevas Tribus.
• Green, D.; Green, H. G. (1998). Yuwit kawihka dicionário Palikúr - Português. Belém: SIL.
• Jolkesky, M. P. V. (2016). Uma reconstrução do proto-mamoré-guaporé (família arawak). LIAMES, 16.1:7-37.
• Kindberg, L. D. (1980). Diccionario asháninca (Documento de Trabajo, 19). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Mehináku, M. (n.d.). Vocabulário mehinaku. (Manuscript).
• Mosonyi, J. C. (1987). El idioma yavitero: ensayo de gramática y diccionario. Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela. (Doctoral dissertation).
• Nies, J., et alii (1986). Diccionario Piro. Tokanchi Gikshijikowaka-Steno (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 22). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Ott, W.; Burke de Ott, R. (1983). Diccionario Ignaciano y Castellano: con apuntes gramaticales. Cochabamba: Inst. Lingüístico de Verano.
• Parker, S. (1995). Datos de la lengua Iñapari. (Documento de Trabajo, 27). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Parker, S. (2010). Chamicuro data: exhaustive list. (SIL Language and Culture Documentation and Description, 12). SIL International.
• Payne, D. L. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakian) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In: D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullun (orgs.), Handbook of Amazonian languages, 355-499. The Hague: Mouton.
• Ramirez, H. (2001a). Dicionário Baniwa-Portugues. Manaus: Universidade do Amazonas.
• Ramirez, H. (2001b). Línguas Arawak da Amazônia Setentrional. Manaus: EDUA.
• Shaver, H. (1996). Diccionario nomatsiguenga-castellano, castellano-nomatsiguenga (Serie Linguística Peruana, 41). Pucallpa: Ministerio de Educación & Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Snell, B. (1973). Pequeño diccionario machiguenga-castellano. Yarinacocha: SIL.
• Solís, G.; Snell, B. E. (2005). Tata onkantakera niagantsipage anianeegiku (Diccionario escolar Machiguenga). Lima, Perú: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Souza, I. (2008). Koenukunoe emo'u: A língua dos índios Kinikinau. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. (Doctoral dissertation).
• Suazo, S. (2011). Lila Garifuna: Diccionario Garífuna: Garifuna - Español. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Litografía López.
• Trevor R. A. (1979). Vocabulario Resígaro (Documento de Trabajo, 16). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Tripp, M. D. (1998). Diccionario Yanesha' (Amuesha)-Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47). Lima: Ministerio de Educación / Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Wapishana Language Project. (2000). Scholars's dictionary and grammar of the Wapishana language. Porto Velho: SIL International.
• Durbin, M.; Seijas, H. (1973). A Note on Panche, Pijao, Pantagora (Palenque), Colima and Muzo. International Journal of American Linguistics, 39:47-51.

Data sets

• Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018, November 27). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon et al.'s "Diversity of Arawakan Languages" from 2019 (Version v1.0.1). Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1564336
• Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Arawakan and Tukanoan contacts in Northwest Amazonia prehistory" from 2017 (Version v1.1) [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1322713
• Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Annotated Swadesh Lists for Arawakan Languages" from 2017 (Version v1.0.1) [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1318200

Reconstructions

• Matteson, Esther (1972). "Proto Arawakan". In Matteson, Esther (ed.). Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages. Mouton. pp. 160–242.
• Noble, G. Kingsley (1965). Proto-Arawakan and its descendants. Publications of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. Vol. 38. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. OCLC 344482.
• Valenti, Donna Marie (1986). A Reconstruction of the Proto-Arawakan Consonantal System (PhD thesis). New York University.

External links

• Arawak Languages - Linguistics - Oxford Bibliographies
• South American Phonological Inventory Database