Late Cretaceous: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Subdivision of Cretaceous Period}} |
{{Short description|Subdivision of Cretaceous Period}} |
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{{More citations needed|date=February 2024}} |
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{{Infobox geologic timespan |
{{Infobox geologic timespan |
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| name = Late/Upper Cretaceous |
| name = Late/Upper Cretaceous |
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| time_start = 100.5 |
| time_start = 100.5 |
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| time_end = 66.0 |
| time_end = 66.0 |
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| image_map = Earth 80.00Ma.png |
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| caption_map = |
| caption_map = Map of Earth as it appeared 80 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous, Campanian stage |
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| lower_gssp_coords = {{Coord|44.3925|N|5.5119|E|display=inline}} |
| lower_gssp_coords = {{Coord|44.3925|N|5.5119|E|display=inline}} |
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| lower_gssp_accept_date = 2002<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=W. |last2=Gale |first2=A. |last3=Lees |first3=J. |last4=Caron |first4=M. |title=The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Cenomanian Stage, Mont Risou, Hautes-Alpes, France |journal=Episodes |date=March 2004 |volume=27 |pages=21–32 |doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i1/003 |url=https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/files/cenomanian.pdf |access-date=13 December 2020}}</ref> |
| lower_gssp_accept_date = 2002<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=W. |last2=Gale |first2=A. |last3=Lees |first3=J. |last4=Caron |first4=M. |title=The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Cenomanian Stage, Mont Risou, Hautes-Alpes, France |journal=Episodes |date=March 2004 |volume=27 |pages=21–32 |doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i1/003 |url=https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/files/cenomanian.pdf |access-date=13 December 2020}}</ref> |
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| upper_boundary_def = [[Iridium]] enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent [[K-Pg extinction event]] |
| upper_boundary_def = [[Iridium]] enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent [[K-Pg extinction event]] |
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| upper_gssp_location = El Kef Section, [[El Kef]], [[Tunisia]] |
| upper_gssp_location = El Kef Section, [[El Kef]], [[Tunisia]] |
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| upper_gssp_coords = {{Coord|36.1537|N|8.6486|E|display=inline}} |
| upper_gssp_coords = {{Coord|36.1537|N|8.6486|E|display=inline}} |
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==Climate== |
==Climate== |
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{{see also| Cretaceous Thermal Maximum}} |
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During the Late Cretaceous, the climate was warmer than present, although throughout the period a cooling trend is evident.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> The [[tropics]] became restricted to equatorial regions and northern [[latitude]]s experienced markedly more seasonal climatic conditions.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> |
During the Late Cretaceous, the climate was warmer than present, although throughout the period a cooling trend is evident.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> The [[tropics]] became restricted to equatorial regions and northern [[latitude]]s experienced markedly more seasonal climatic conditions.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> |
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==Geography== |
==Geography== |
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[[File:LateCretaceousMap.jpg|thumb|left|Late Cretaceous |
[[File:LateCretaceousMap.jpg|thumb|left|Late Cretaceous map ([[Turonian]])]] |
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Due to [[plate tectonics]], the Americas were gradually moving westward, causing the Atlantic Ocean to expand. The [[Western Interior Seaway]] divided North America into eastern and western halves; [[Appalachia (landmass)|Appalachia]] and [[Laramidia]].<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> India maintained a northward course towards Asia.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> In the Southern Hemisphere, Australia and [[Antarctica]] seem to have remained connected and began to drift away from Africa and South America.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous">"Dinosaurs Ruled the World: Late Cretaceous Period |
Due to [[plate tectonics]], the Americas were gradually moving westward, causing the Atlantic Ocean to expand. The [[Western Interior Seaway]] divided North America into eastern and western halves; [[Appalachia (landmass)|Appalachia]] and [[Laramidia]].<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> India maintained a northward course towards Asia.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> In the Southern Hemisphere, Australia and [[Antarctica]] seem to have remained connected and began to drift away from Africa and South America.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous">"Dinosaurs Ruled the World: Late Cretaceous Period". In: Dodson, Peter & Britt, Brooks & Carpenter, Kenneth & Forster, Catherine A. & Gillette, David D. & Norell, Mark A. & Olshevsky, George & Parrish, J. Michael & Weishampel, David B. ''The Age of Dinosaurs''. Publications International, LTD. Pp. 103-104. {{ISBN|0-7853-0443-6}}.</ref> Europe was an island chain.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> Populating some of these islands were endemic [[Insular dwarfism|dwarf]] dinosaur species.<ref name="ageofdinosaurscretaceous"/> |
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==Vertebrate fauna== |
==Vertebrate fauna== |
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[[Spinosauridae|Spinosaurids]] were also present during this time.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Palaeontology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=305–323 |doi=10.1111/1475-4983.00181 |year=2001 |last1=Churcher |first1=C. S |title=A new species of Protopterus and a revision of Ceratodus humei (Dipnoi: Ceratodontiformes) from the Late Cretaceous Mut Formation of eastern Dakhleh Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt |last2=De Iuliis |first2=G |bibcode=2001Palgy..44..305C |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
[[Spinosauridae|Spinosaurids]] were also present during this time.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Palaeontology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=305–323 |doi=10.1111/1475-4983.00181 |year=2001 |last1=Churcher |first1=C. S |title=A new species of Protopterus and a revision of Ceratodus humei (Dipnoi: Ceratodontiformes) from the Late Cretaceous Mut Formation of eastern Dakhleh Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt |last2=De Iuliis |first2=G |bibcode=2001Palgy..44..305C |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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===Birds=== |
===Birds (avian dinosaurs)=== |
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Birds became increasingly common, diversifying in a variety of [[Enantiornithes|enantiornithe]] and [[Ornithurae|ornithurine]] forms. Early [[Neornithes]] such as ''[[Vegavis]]''<ref name="clarkeetal2005">{{cite journal | last1 = Clarke | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Tambussi | first2 = C.P. | last3 = Noriega | first3 = J.I. | last4 = Erickson | first4 = G.M. | last5 = Ketcham | first5 = R.A. | year = 2005 | title = Definitive fossil evidence for the extant avian radiation in the Cretaceous | journal = Nature | volume = 433 | issue = 7023| pages = 305–308 | doi = 10.1038/nature03150 | url = http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Vegavis_iaai/nature03150.pdf | pmid=15662422| bibcode = 2005Natur.433..305C | hdl = 11336/80763 | s2cid = 4354309 }} [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7023/suppinfo/nature03150.html Supporting information]</ref> co-existed with forms as bizarre as ''[[Yungavolucris]]'' and ''[[Avisaurus]]''.<ref name="El-Brete-09">{{cite journal |author=Cyril A. Walker |author2=Gareth J. Dyke |name-list-style=amp |year=2009 |title=Euenantiornithine birds from the Late Cretaceous of El Brete (Argentina) |url=http://www.ria.ie/RIA/files/40/40a4c454-eef2-4de0-922d-48ae0c42037f.pdf |journal=Irish Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=27 |pages=15–62 |doi=10.3318/IJES.2010.27.15 |s2cid=129573066 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320093759/http://www.ria.ie/RIA/files/40/40a4c454-eef2-4de0-922d-48ae0c42037f.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-20 }}</ref> Though mostly small, marine [[Hesperornithes]] became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea.<ref name=Brodavis>{{cite journal |author1=Larry D. Martin |author2=Evgeny N. Kurochkin |author3=Tim T. Tokaryk |year=2012 |title=A new evolutionary lineage of diving birds from the Late Cretaceous of North America and Asia |journal=[[Palaeoworld]] |volume=21|doi=10.1016/j.palwor.2012.02.005 |pages=59–63}}</ref> |
Birds became increasingly common, diversifying in a variety of [[Enantiornithes|enantiornithe]] and [[Ornithurae|ornithurine]] forms. Early [[Neornithes]] such as ''[[Vegavis]]''<ref name="clarkeetal2005">{{cite journal | last1 = Clarke | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Tambussi | first2 = C.P. | last3 = Noriega | first3 = J.I. | last4 = Erickson | first4 = G.M. | last5 = Ketcham | first5 = R.A. | year = 2005 | title = Definitive fossil evidence for the extant avian radiation in the Cretaceous | journal = Nature | volume = 433 | issue = 7023| pages = 305–308 | doi = 10.1038/nature03150 | url = http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Vegavis_iaai/nature03150.pdf | pmid=15662422| bibcode = 2005Natur.433..305C | hdl = 11336/80763 | s2cid = 4354309 }} [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7023/suppinfo/nature03150.html Supporting information]</ref> co-existed with forms as bizarre as ''[[Yungavolucris]]'' and ''[[Avisaurus]]''.<ref name="El-Brete-09">{{cite journal |author=Cyril A. Walker |author2=Gareth J. Dyke |name-list-style=amp |year=2009 |title=Euenantiornithine birds from the Late Cretaceous of El Brete (Argentina) |url=http://www.ria.ie/RIA/files/40/40a4c454-eef2-4de0-922d-48ae0c42037f.pdf |journal=Irish Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=27 |pages=15–62 |doi=10.3318/IJES.2010.27.15 |s2cid=129573066 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320093759/http://www.ria.ie/RIA/files/40/40a4c454-eef2-4de0-922d-48ae0c42037f.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-20 }}</ref> Though mostly small, marine [[Hesperornithes]] became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea.<ref name=Brodavis>{{cite journal |author1=Larry D. Martin |author2=Evgeny N. Kurochkin |author3=Tim T. Tokaryk |year=2012 |title=A new evolutionary lineage of diving birds from the Late Cretaceous of North America and Asia |journal=[[Palaeoworld]] |volume=21|doi=10.1016/j.palwor.2012.02.005 |pages=59–63}}</ref> |
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Several old [[mammal]] groups began to disappear, with the last [[eutriconodont]]s occurring in the [[Campanian]] of [[North America]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1139/z69-196 | volume=47 | issue=6 | title=Studies of Late Cretaceous vertebrates. III. A triconodont mammal from Alberta | year=1969 | journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology | pages=1253–1256 | author=Fox Richard C}}</ref> In the northern hemisphere, [[cimolodont]], [[multituberculates]], [[metatheria]]ns and [[eutherian]]s were the dominant mammals, with the former two groups being the most common mammals in North America. In the southern hemisphere there was instead a more complex fauna of [[dryolestoid]]s, [[gondwanathere]]s and other multituberculates and basal [[eutherian]]s; [[monotreme]]s were presumably present, as was the last of the [[haramiyida]]ns, ''Avashishta''. |
Several old [[mammal]] groups began to disappear, with the last [[eutriconodont]]s occurring in the [[Campanian]] of [[North America]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1139/z69-196 | volume=47 | issue=6 | title=Studies of Late Cretaceous vertebrates. III. A triconodont mammal from Alberta | year=1969 | journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology | pages=1253–1256 | author=Fox Richard C}}</ref> In the northern hemisphere, [[cimolodont]], [[multituberculates]], [[metatheria]]ns and [[eutherian]]s were the dominant mammals, with the former two groups being the most common mammals in North America. In the southern hemisphere there was instead a more complex fauna of [[dryolestoid]]s, [[gondwanathere]]s and other multituberculates and basal [[eutherian]]s; [[monotreme]]s were presumably present, as was the last of the [[haramiyida]]ns, ''Avashishta''. |
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Mammals, though generally small, ranged into a variety of ecological niches, from carnivores ([[Deltatheroida]]), to mollusc-eater ([[Stagodontidae]]), to [[herbivores]] (multituberculates, ''[[Schowalteria]]'', [[Zhelestidae]] and [[Mesungulatidae]]) to highly atypical cursorial forms ([[Zalambdalestidae]], [[Brandoniidae]]). |
Mammals, though generally small, ranged into a variety of ecological niches, from carnivores ([[Deltatheroida]]), to mollusc-eater ([[Stagodontidae]]), to [[herbivores]] (multituberculates, ''[[Schowalteria]]'', [[Zhelestidae]] and [[Mesungulatidae]]) to highly atypical cursorial forms ([[Zalambdalestidae]], [[Brandoniidae]]).{{Citation needed|date=February 2024|reason=Citation needed for the entire above section, where none are provided}} |
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True [[placental]]s evolved only at the very end of the epoch; the same can be said for true [[marsupial]]s. Instead, nearly all known eutherian and metatherian fossils belong to other groups. |
True [[placental]]s evolved only at the very end of the epoch; the same can be said for true [[marsupial]]s. Instead, nearly all known eutherian and metatherian fossils belong to other groups. |
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===Marine life=== |
===Marine life=== |
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In the seas, [[mosasaur]]s suddenly appeared and underwent a spectacular evolutionary radiation. Modern sharks also appeared and penguin-like [[Polycotylidae|polycotylid]] [[plesiosaur]]s (3 meters long) and huge long-necked [[Elasmosauridae|elasmosaurs]] (13 meters long) also diversified. These predators fed on the numerous [[teleost]] fishes, which in turn evolved into new advanced and modern forms ([[Neoteleostei]]). [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[pliosaur]]s, on the other hand, became extinct during the [[Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event]]. |
In the seas, [[mosasaur]]s suddenly appeared and underwent a spectacular evolutionary radiation. Modern sharks also appeared and penguin-like [[Polycotylidae|polycotylid]] [[plesiosaur]]s (3 meters long) and huge long-necked [[Elasmosauridae|elasmosaurs]] (13 meters long) also diversified. These predators fed on the numerous [[teleost]] fishes, which in turn evolved into new advanced and modern forms ([[Neoteleostei]]). [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[pliosaur]]s, on the other hand, became extinct during the [[Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2024|reason=Citation needed for the entire above section, where none are provided}} |
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==Flora== |
==Flora== |
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[[File:Impact event.jpg|thumb|250px|Asteroids of only a few kilometers wide can release the energy of millions of nuclear weapons when colliding with planets ''(artist's impression)''.]] |
[[File:Impact event.jpg|thumb|250px|Asteroids of only a few kilometers wide can release the energy of millions of nuclear weapons when colliding with planets ''(artist's impression)''.]] |
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Non-[[bird|avian]] dinosaur [[fossils]] are found only below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary and became extinct immediately before or during the event.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fastovsky DE, Sheehan PM |year=2005 |title=The extinction of the dinosaurs in North America |journal=GSA Today |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=4–10 |doi=10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015<4:TEOTDI>2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> A very small number of [[dinosaur]] fossils have been found above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, but they have been explained as reworked |
Non-[[bird|avian]] dinosaur [[fossils]] are found only below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary and became extinct immediately before or during the event.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fastovsky DE, Sheehan PM |year=2005 |title=The extinction of the dinosaurs in North America |journal=GSA Today |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=4–10 |doi=10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015<4:TEOTDI>2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> A very small number of [[dinosaur]] fossils have been found above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, but they have been explained as [[reworked fossil]]s, that is, fossils that have been eroded from their original locations then preserved in later [[sedimentary]] layers.<ref name="Sloan">{{cite journal |author1=Sloan RE |author2=Rigby K |author3=Van Valen LM |author4=Gabriel Diane |year=1986 |title=Gradual dinosaur extinction and simultaneous ungulate radiation in the Hell Creek formation |journal=Science |volume=232 |issue=4750 |pages=629–633 |doi= 10.1126/science.232.4750.629|pmid=17781415|bibcode = 1986Sci...232..629S |s2cid=31638639 }}</ref><ref name= "Fassett">{{cite conference|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/impact2000/pdf/3139.pdf |title=Compelling new evidence for Paleocene dinosaurs in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone San Juan Basin, New Mexico and Colorado, USA |vauthors=Fassett JE, Lucas SG, Zielinski RA, Budahn JR |conference=International Conference on Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond|date = 9–12 July 2000|location =Vienna, Austria |volume=1053 |pages=45–46 }}</ref><ref name ="Sullivan">{{cite conference|author=Sullivan RM |title=No Paleocene dinosaurs in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico |url=http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003RM/finalprogram/abstract_47695.htm |journal=Geological Society of America Rocky Mountain - 55th Annual Meeting |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=15 |date = May 8, 2003 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070617091343/http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003RM/finalprogram/abstract_47695.htm|archive-date = 17 June 2007}}</ref> [[Mosasaur]]s, [[plesiosaur]]s, [[pterosaur]]s and many [[species]] of plants and [[invertebrate]]s also became extinct. [[Mammals|Mammalian]] and bird [[clade]]s passed through the boundary with few extinctions, and [[evolutionary radiation]] from those [[Maastrichtian]] clades occurred well past the boundary. Rates of extinction and radiation varied across different clades of organisms.<ref name="MacLeod">{{cite journal|author=MacLeod N, Rawson PF, Forey PL, Banner FT, Boudagher-Fadel MK, Bown PR, Burnett JA, Chambers, P, Culver S, Evans SE, Jeffery C, Kaminski MA, Lord AR, Milner AC, Milner AR, Morris N, Owen E, Rosen BR, Smith AB, Taylor PD, Urquhart E, Young JR |title=The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition |year=1997 |journal=Journal of the Geological Society |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=265–292 |doi= 10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265 |bibcode= 1997JGSoc.154..265M |s2cid=129654916 }}</ref> |
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Many scientists hypothesize that the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinctions were caused by catastrophic events such as the massive [[impact event|asteroid impact]] that caused the [[Chicxulub crater]], in combination with increased [[volcano|volcanic activity]], such as that recorded in the [[Deccan Traps]], both of which have been firmly dated to the time of the extinction event. In theory, these events reduced sunlight and hindered [[photosynthesis]], leading to a massive disruption in Earth's [[ecology]]. A much smaller number of researchers believe the extinction was more gradual, resulting from slower changes in [[sea level]] or [[climate]].<ref name="MacLeod"/> |
Many scientists hypothesize that the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinctions were caused by catastrophic events such as the massive [[impact event|asteroid impact]] that caused the [[Chicxulub crater]], in combination with increased [[volcano|volcanic activity]], such as that recorded in the [[Deccan Traps]], both of which have been firmly dated to the time of the extinction event. In theory, these events reduced sunlight and hindered [[photosynthesis]], leading to a massive disruption in Earth's [[ecology]]. A much smaller number of researchers believe the extinction was more gradual, resulting from slower changes in [[sea level]] or [[climate]].<ref name="MacLeod"/> |
Revision as of 09:02, 22 August 2024
This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2024) |
Late/Upper Cretaceous | |||||||||
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Chronology | |||||||||
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Etymology | |||||||||
Chronostratigraphic name | Upper Cretaceous | ||||||||
Geochronological name | Late Cretaceous | ||||||||
Name formality | Formal | ||||||||
Usage information | |||||||||
Celestial body | Earth | ||||||||
Regional usage | Global (ICS) | ||||||||
Time scale(s) used | ICS Time Scale | ||||||||
Definition | |||||||||
Chronological unit | Epoch | ||||||||
Stratigraphic unit | Series | ||||||||
Time span formality | Formal | ||||||||
Lower boundary definition | FAD of the Planktonic Foraminifer Rotalipora globotruncanoides | ||||||||
Lower boundary GSSP | Mont Risoux, Hautes-Alpes, France 44°23′33″N 5°30′43″E / 44.3925°N 5.5119°E | ||||||||
Lower GSSP ratified | 2002[2] | ||||||||
Upper boundary definition | Iridium enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent K-Pg extinction event | ||||||||
Upper boundary GSSP | El Kef Section, El Kef, Tunisia 36°09′13″N 8°38′55″E / 36.1537°N 8.6486°E | ||||||||
Upper GSSP ratified | 1991 |
The Late Cretaceous (100.5–66 Ma) is the younger of two epochs into which the Cretaceous Period is divided in the geologic time scale. Rock strata from this epoch form the Upper Cretaceous Series. The Cretaceous is named after creta, the Latin word for the white limestone known as chalk. The chalk of northern France and the white cliffs of south-eastern England date from the Cretaceous Period.[3]
Climate
During the Late Cretaceous, the climate was warmer than present, although throughout the period a cooling trend is evident.[4] The tropics became restricted to equatorial regions and northern latitudes experienced markedly more seasonal climatic conditions.[4]
Geography
Due to plate tectonics, the Americas were gradually moving westward, causing the Atlantic Ocean to expand. The Western Interior Seaway divided North America into eastern and western halves; Appalachia and Laramidia.[4] India maintained a northward course towards Asia.[4] In the Southern Hemisphere, Australia and Antarctica seem to have remained connected and began to drift away from Africa and South America.[4] Europe was an island chain.[4] Populating some of these islands were endemic dwarf dinosaur species.[4]
Vertebrate fauna
Non-avian dinosaurs
In the Late Cretaceous, the hadrosaurs, ankylosaurs, and ceratopsians experienced success in Asiamerica (Western North America and eastern Asia). Tyrannosaurs dominated the large predator niche in North America.[4] They were also present in Asia, although were usually smaller and more primitive than the North American varieties.[4] Pachycephalosaurs were also present in both North America and Asia.[4] Dromaeosaurids shared the same geographical distribution, and are well documented in both Mongolia and Western North America.[4] Additionally therizinosaurs (known previously as segnosaurs) appear to have been in North America and Asia. Gondwana held a very different dinosaurian fauna, with most predators being abelisaurids and carcharodontosaurids; and titanosaurs being among the dominant herbivores.[4] Spinosaurids were also present during this time.[5]
Birds (avian dinosaurs)
Birds became increasingly common, diversifying in a variety of enantiornithe and ornithurine forms. Early Neornithes such as Vegavis[6] co-existed with forms as bizarre as Yungavolucris and Avisaurus.[7] Though mostly small, marine Hesperornithes became relatively large and flightless, adapted to life in the open sea.[8]
Pterosaurs
Though primarily represented by azhdarchids, other forms like pteranodontids, tapejarids (Caiuajara and Bakonydraco), nyctosaurids and uncertain forms (Piksi, Navajodactylus) are also present. Historically, it has been assumed that pterosaurs were in decline due to competition with birds, but it appears that neither group overlapped significantly ecologically, nor is it particularly evident that a true systematic decline was ever in place, especially with the discovery of smaller pterosaur species.[9]
Mammals
Several old mammal groups began to disappear, with the last eutriconodonts occurring in the Campanian of North America.[10] In the northern hemisphere, cimolodont, multituberculates, metatherians and eutherians were the dominant mammals, with the former two groups being the most common mammals in North America. In the southern hemisphere there was instead a more complex fauna of dryolestoids, gondwanatheres and other multituberculates and basal eutherians; monotremes were presumably present, as was the last of the haramiyidans, Avashishta.
Mammals, though generally small, ranged into a variety of ecological niches, from carnivores (Deltatheroida), to mollusc-eater (Stagodontidae), to herbivores (multituberculates, Schowalteria, Zhelestidae and Mesungulatidae) to highly atypical cursorial forms (Zalambdalestidae, Brandoniidae).[citation needed]
True placentals evolved only at the very end of the epoch; the same can be said for true marsupials. Instead, nearly all known eutherian and metatherian fossils belong to other groups. [11]
Marine life
In the seas, mosasaurs suddenly appeared and underwent a spectacular evolutionary radiation. Modern sharks also appeared and penguin-like polycotylid plesiosaurs (3 meters long) and huge long-necked elasmosaurs (13 meters long) also diversified. These predators fed on the numerous teleost fishes, which in turn evolved into new advanced and modern forms (Neoteleostei). Ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs, on the other hand, became extinct during the Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event.[citation needed]
Flora
Near the end of the Cretaceous Period, flowering plants diversified. In temperate regions, familiar plants like magnolias, sassafras, roses, redwoods, and willows could be found in abundance.[4]
Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction discovery
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time, approximately 66 million years ago (Ma). It is widely known as the K–T extinction event and is associated with a geological signature, usually a thin band dated to that time and found in various parts of the world, known as the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary). K is the traditional abbreviation for the Cretaceous Period derived from the German name Kreidezeit, and T is the abbreviation for the Tertiary Period (a historical term for the period of time now covered by the Paleogene and Neogene periods). The event marks the end of the Mesozoic Era and the beginning of the Cenozoic Era.[12] "Tertiary" being no longer recognized as a formal time or rock unit by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the K-T event is now called the Cretaceous—Paleogene (or K-Pg) extinction event by many researchers.
Non-avian dinosaur fossils are found only below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary and became extinct immediately before or during the event.[13] A very small number of dinosaur fossils have been found above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, but they have been explained as reworked fossils, that is, fossils that have been eroded from their original locations then preserved in later sedimentary layers.[14][15][16] Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs and many species of plants and invertebrates also became extinct. Mammalian and bird clades passed through the boundary with few extinctions, and evolutionary radiation from those Maastrichtian clades occurred well past the boundary. Rates of extinction and radiation varied across different clades of organisms.[17]
Many scientists hypothesize that the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinctions were caused by catastrophic events such as the massive asteroid impact that caused the Chicxulub crater, in combination with increased volcanic activity, such as that recorded in the Deccan Traps, both of which have been firmly dated to the time of the extinction event. In theory, these events reduced sunlight and hindered photosynthesis, leading to a massive disruption in Earth's ecology. A much smaller number of researchers believe the extinction was more gradual, resulting from slower changes in sea level or climate.[17]
See also
References
- ^ International Commission on Stratigraphy. "ICS - Chart/Time Scale". www.stratigraphy.org.
- ^ Kennedy, W.; Gale, A.; Lees, J.; Caron, M. (March 2004). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Cenomanian Stage, Mont Risou, Hautes-Alpes, France" (PDF). Episodes. 27: 21–32. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i1/003. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
- ^ "Cretaceous Period | Definition, Climate, Dinosaurs, & Map". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2022-07-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Dinosaurs Ruled the World: Late Cretaceous Period". In: Dodson, Peter & Britt, Brooks & Carpenter, Kenneth & Forster, Catherine A. & Gillette, David D. & Norell, Mark A. & Olshevsky, George & Parrish, J. Michael & Weishampel, David B. The Age of Dinosaurs. Publications International, LTD. Pp. 103-104. ISBN 0-7853-0443-6.
- ^ Churcher, C. S; De Iuliis, G (2001). "A new species of Protopterus and a revision of Ceratodus humei (Dipnoi: Ceratodontiformes) from the Late Cretaceous Mut Formation of eastern Dakhleh Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt". Palaeontology. 44 (2): 305–323. Bibcode:2001Palgy..44..305C. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00181.
- ^ Clarke, J.A.; Tambussi, C.P.; Noriega, J.I.; Erickson, G.M.; Ketcham, R.A. (2005). "Definitive fossil evidence for the extant avian radiation in the Cretaceous" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7023): 305–308. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..305C. doi:10.1038/nature03150. hdl:11336/80763. PMID 15662422. S2CID 4354309. Supporting information
- ^ Cyril A. Walker & Gareth J. Dyke (2009). "Euenantiornithine birds from the Late Cretaceous of El Brete (Argentina)" (PDF). Irish Journal of Earth Sciences. 27: 15–62. doi:10.3318/IJES.2010.27.15. S2CID 129573066. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-20.
- ^ Larry D. Martin; Evgeny N. Kurochkin; Tim T. Tokaryk (2012). "A new evolutionary lineage of diving birds from the Late Cretaceous of North America and Asia". Palaeoworld. 21: 59–63. doi:10.1016/j.palwor.2012.02.005.
- ^ Prondvai, E.; Bodor, E. R.; Ösi, A. (2014). "Does morphology reflect osteohistology-based ontogeny? A case study of Late Cretaceous pterosaur jaw symphyses from Hungary reveals hidden taxonomic diversity" (PDF). Paleobiology. 40 (2): 288–321. Bibcode:2014Pbio...40..288P. doi:10.1666/13030. S2CID 85673254. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 20, 2023.
- ^ Fox Richard C (1969). "Studies of Late Cretaceous vertebrates. III. A triconodont mammal from Alberta". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 47 (6): 1253–1256. doi:10.1139/z69-196.
- ^ Halliday Thomas J. D. (2015). "Resolving the relationships of Paleocene placental mammals" (PDF). Biological Reviews. 92 (1): 521–550. doi:10.1111/brv.12242. PMC 6849585. PMID 28075073.
- ^ Fortey R (1999). Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth. Vintage. pp. 238–260. ISBN 978-0375702617.
- ^ Fastovsky DE, Sheehan PM (2005). "The extinction of the dinosaurs in North America". GSA Today. 15 (3): 4–10. doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015<4:TEOTDI>2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Sloan RE; Rigby K; Van Valen LM; Gabriel Diane (1986). "Gradual dinosaur extinction and simultaneous ungulate radiation in the Hell Creek formation". Science. 232 (4750): 629–633. Bibcode:1986Sci...232..629S. doi:10.1126/science.232.4750.629. PMID 17781415. S2CID 31638639.
- ^ Fassett JE, Lucas SG, Zielinski RA, Budahn JR (9–12 July 2000). Compelling new evidence for Paleocene dinosaurs in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone San Juan Basin, New Mexico and Colorado, USA (PDF). International Conference on Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond. Vol. 1053. Vienna, Austria. pp. 45–46.
- ^ Sullivan RM (May 8, 2003). No Paleocene dinosaurs in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Geological Society of America Rocky Mountain - 55th Annual Meeting. Vol. 35, no. 5. p. 15. Archived from the original on 17 June 2007.
- ^ a b MacLeod N, Rawson PF, Forey PL, Banner FT, Boudagher-Fadel MK, Bown PR, Burnett JA, Chambers, P, Culver S, Evans SE, Jeffery C, Kaminski MA, Lord AR, Milner AC, Milner AR, Morris N, Owen E, Rosen BR, Smith AB, Taylor PD, Urquhart E, Young JR (1997). "The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition". Journal of the Geological Society. 154 (2): 265–292. Bibcode:1997JGSoc.154..265M. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265. S2CID 129654916.
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