Naqada III: Difference between revisions
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{{Other uses|Naqada (disambiguation)}} |
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{{short description|Last phase of the Naqada culture of ancient Egyptian prehistory}} |
{{short description|Last phase of the Naqada culture of ancient Egyptian prehistory}} |
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{{Infobox archaeological culture |
{{Infobox archaeological culture |
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|name = Naqada III |
|name = Naqada III |
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|map = {{Location map+| |
|map = {{Location map+|Egypt#Nile|relief=yes|float=center|width=300 |
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|places= |
|places= |
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{{Location map~| |
{{Location map~|Egypt#Nile|lat=25.9|long=32.716667|position=left |label_size=75 |label=[[Naqada]]}} |
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}} |
}} |
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|map_caption = |
|map_caption = |
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|region = Egypt |
|region = Egypt |
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|period = Early Bronze I |
|period = Early Bronze I |
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|dates = |
|dates = {{circa|3,300 BC – 2,900 BC}}<ref name="SH64">{{cite journal |last1=Hendrickx |first1=Stan |title=The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities|editor-last=Spencer|editor-first=A.J.| journal=Aspects of Early Egypt|location=London |publisher=British Museum Press|year=1996|page=64 |url=https://www.academia.edu/526195 |language=en}}</ref> |
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|typesite = |
|typesite = |
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|majorsites = [[Naqada]] |
|majorsites = [[Naqada]], [[Tarkhan (Egypt)|Tarkhan]], [[Nekhen]] |
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|extra = |
|extra = |
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|precededby = [[Gerzeh culture|Naqada II]] |
|precededby = [[Gerzeh culture|Naqada II]] |
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[[File:Narmer Palette serpopard side.jpg|thumb|The [[Narmer Palette]], thought to mark the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt; note the images of the goddess [[Bat (goddess)|Bat]] at the top, as well as the [[serpopard]]s that form the central intertwined image.]] |
[[File:Narmer Palette serpopard side.jpg|thumb|The [[Narmer Palette]], thought to mark the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt; note the images of the goddess [[Bat (goddess)|Bat]] at the top, as well as the [[serpopard]]s that form the central intertwined image.]] |
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'''Naqada III''' is the last phase of the [[Naqada culture]] of ancient [[Prehistoric Egypt|Egyptian prehistory]], dating from approximately |
'''Naqada III''' is the last phase of the [[Naqada culture]] of ancient [[Prehistoric Egypt|Egyptian prehistory]], dating from approximately 3200 to 3000 BC.{{Sfn | Shaw|2000|p=479}} It is the period during which the process of [[state formation]], which began in [[Naqada II]], became highly visible, with named kings heading powerful [[polities]]. Naqada III is often referred to as '''Dynasty 0''' or the '''Protodynastic Period'''{{Sfn | Shaw | 2000 | p = 479}} to reflect the presence of kings at the head of influential states, although, in fact, the kings involved would not have been a part of a dynasty. In this period, those kings' names were inscribed in the form of [[serekh]]s on a variety of surfaces including pottery and tombs. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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The Protodynastic Period in ancient Egypt was characterised by an ongoing process of political unification, culminating in the formation of a single state to begin the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]]. Furthermore, it is during this time that the [[Egyptian language]] was first recorded in [[Egyptian hieroglyph |hieroglyphs]]. There is also strong archaeological evidence of Egyptian settlements in southern [[Canaan]] during the Protodynastic Period, which are regarded as [[Colony|colonies]] or trading ''[[entrepôt]]s''. |
The Protodynastic Period in ancient Egypt was characterised by an ongoing process of political unification, culminating in the formation of a single state to begin the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]]. Furthermore, it is during this time that the [[Egyptian language]] was first recorded in [[Egyptian hieroglyph |hieroglyphs]]. There is also strong archaeological evidence of Egyptian settlements in southern [[Canaan]] during the Protodynastic Period, which are regarded as [[Colony|colonies]] or trading ''[[entrepôt]]s''. |
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State formation began during this era and perhaps even earlier. Various small city-states arose along the [[Nile]]. Centuries of conquest then reduced [[Upper Egypt]] to three major states: [[Thinis]], [[Naqada]], and [[Nekhen]]. Sandwiched between Thinis and Nekhen, Naqada was the first to fall. Thinis then conquered [[Lower Egypt]]. Nekhen's relationship with Thinis is uncertain, but these two states may have merged peacefully, with the Thinite royal family ruling all of Egypt. The Thinite kings were buried at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] in the [[Umm el-Qa'ab]] cemetery. |
State formation began during this era and perhaps even earlier. Various small city-states arose along the [[Nile]]. Centuries of conquest then reduced [[Upper Egypt]] to three major states: [[Thinis]], [[Naqada]], and [[Nekhen]]. Sandwiched between Thinis and Nekhen, Naqada was the first to fall. Thinis then conquered [[Lower Egypt]]. Nekhen's relationship with Thinis is uncertain, but these two states may have merged peacefully, with the Thinite royal family ruling all of Egypt. The Thinite kings were buried at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] in the [[Umm el-Qa'ab]] cemetery.{{fact|date=July 2024}} |
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Early Egyptologists such as [[Flinders Petrie]] were proponents of the [[Dynastic race theory]] which hypothesised that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Derry |first=D.E. |title=The Dynastic Race in Egypt |journal=[[Journal of Egyptian Archaeology]] |volume=42 |date=1956|pages=80–85 |doi=10.1177/030751335604200111 |s2cid=194596267}}</ref> but this view has been abandoned among modern scholars.<ref name="Early dynastic Egypt">{{cite book |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Toby |title=Early dynastic Egypt |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0415186331 |pages=15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Yurco, Frank (1996). "An Egyptological Review". |title=Black Athena revisited |date=1996 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=0807845558 |pages=62–100}}</ref><ref name="Sonia R. Zakrzewski 2007">{{cite book|author-last=Zakrzewski|author-first=Sonia R.|title=Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state|date=2007|publisher=Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton|location=Highfield, Southampton}}</ref><ref>*Pg33-"Early Nile Valley populations were primarily coextensive with indigenous African populations. Linguistic and archaeological data provide key supporting evidence for a primarily African origin".{{cite book |last1=Shomarka Keita and A.J. Boyce "The Geographic and Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". Celenko Theodore (ed). |title=Egypt in Africa |date=1996 |publisher=Indianapolis Museum of Art |location=Indianapolis, Ind. |isbn=0936260645 |pages=20–33}}</ref><ref>*Pg84-85 "major burial sites of those founding locales of ancient Egypt in the fourth millennium BCE, notably El-Badari as well as Naqada, show no demographic indebtedness to the Levant. They reveal instead a population with cranial and dental features with closest parallels to those of other longtime populations of the surrounding areas of northeastern Africa, such as Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa".{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |pages=83-86, 167-169|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ&q=ancient+africa:+a+global+history,+to+300+ce+christopher+ehret |language=en}}</ref> |
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⚫ | Most [[Egyptologist]]s consider [[Narmer]] to be both the last king of this period and the first king of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]]. He was possibly preceded over some parts of Upper Egypt by [[Crocodile (pharaoh)|Crocodile]], [[Iry-Hor]], [[Ka (pharaoh)|Ka]], and perhaps by the king [[Scorpion II |
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⚫ | Most [[Egyptologist]]s consider [[Narmer]] to be both the last king of this period and the first king of the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]]. He was possibly preceded over some parts of Upper Egypt by [[Crocodile (pharaoh)|Crocodile]], [[Iry-Hor]], [[Ka (pharaoh)|Ka]], and perhaps by the king [[Scorpion II]], whose name may refer to, or be derived from, the goddess [[Serket]], a special early protector of other deities and the rulers.{{Sfn | Shaw | 2000 | p = 71}} |
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Naqada III extended all over [[Egypt]] and was characterized by some notable firsts: |
Naqada III extended all over [[Egypt]] and was characterized by some notable firsts: |
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*The first graphical narratives on [[Cosmetic palette|palettes]] |
*The first graphical narratives on [[Cosmetic palette|palettes]] |
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*The first regular use of [[serekh]]s |
*The first regular use of [[serekh]]s |
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*The first truly royal cemeteries |
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*Possibly the first example of [[irrigation]] |
*Possibly the first example of [[irrigation]] |
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And at best, a notable second: |
And at best, a notable second: |
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*The invention of [[sail navigation]]<ref>Meza, A.I. (2007) “Neolithic Boats: Ancient Egypt and the Maltese Islands. A Minoan Connection” J-C. Goyon,C. Cardin (Eds.) Actes Du Neuvième Congrès International Des Égyptologues, p. 1287.</ref> ( |
*The invention of [[sail navigation]]<ref>Meza, A.I. (2007) “Neolithic Boats: Ancient Egypt and the Maltese Islands. A Minoan Connection” J-C. Goyon,C. Cardin (Eds.) Actes Du Neuvième Congrès International Des Égyptologues, p. 1287.</ref> (derived from its prior invention in the [[Persian Gulf]] 2,000 years earlier)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Robinson |first=D. |year=2012 |title=Review of: Anderson, A., et al. (2010), ''The Global Origins and Development of Seafaring'' |journal=International Journal of Nautical Archaeology |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=206–208 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-9270.2011.00333_2.x |s2cid=162515460 }}</ref> |
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According to the Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities, in February, 2020, Egyptian archaeologists have uncovered 83 tombs dating back to |
According to the Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities, in February, 2020, Egyptian archaeologists have uncovered 83 tombs dating back to 3,000 B.C, known as the Naqada III period. Various small ceramic pots in different shapes and some sea shells, makeup tools, eyeliner pots, and jewels were also revealed in the burial.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Geggel|first=Laura|title=Dozens of ancient Egyptian graves found with rare clay coffins|url=https://www.livescience.com/ancient-egypt-clay-graves.html|access-date=2020-06-28|website=livescience.com|date=21 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-12|title=الكشف عن 83 مقبرة أثرية بمنطقة آثار كوم الخلجان بمحافظة الدقهلية|url=https://www.youm7.com/story/2020/2/12/الكشف-عن-83-مقبرة-أثرية-بمنطقة-آثار-كوم-الخلجان-بمحافظة/4628503|access-date=2020-06-28|website=اليوم السابع}}</ref> |
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===Decorative cosmetic palettes=== |
===Decorative cosmetic palettes=== |
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Many notable decorative palettes are dated to Naqada III, such as the [[Hunters Palette]]. |
Many notable decorative palettes are dated to Naqada III, such as the [[Hunters Palette]]. |
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<gallery widths=" |
<gallery widths="200" heights="200" perrow="4"> |
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File:HuntersPalette-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg|[[Hunters Palette]], circa 3100 |
File:HuntersPalette-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg|[[Hunters Palette]], circa 3100 BC |
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File:Palette with quadrupedes-E 11052-IMG 9460-9470-gradient.jpg|"Four Dogs Palette" ( |
File:Palette with quadrupedes-E 11052-IMG 9460-9470-gradient.jpg|"Four Dogs Palette" (3300–3100 BC) |
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File:Fragment of a ceremonial palette illustrating a man and a type of staff,ca. 3200–3100 BC.jpg|Fragment of a ceremonial palette illustrating a man and a type of staff, ca. 3200–3100 |
File:Fragment of a ceremonial palette illustrating a man and a type of staff,ca. 3200–3100 BC.jpg|Fragment of a ceremonial palette illustrating a man and a type of staff, ca. 3200–3100 BC |
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File:Duck-shaped palette-90000838-IMG 9538-white.jpg|Duck-shaped palette |
File:Duck-shaped palette-90000838-IMG 9538-white.jpg|Duck-shaped palette |
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Palette with Bull-E 11255-IMG 9459-9466-gradient.jpg|[[Bull Palette]], 3100 BC |
File:Palette with Bull-E 11255-IMG 9459-9466-gradient.jpg|[[Bull Palette]], 3100 BC |
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File:The Battlefield Palette 3100 BC - Joy of Museums.jpg|The [[Battlefield Palette]], possibly showing the subjection of the people of the [[Buto-Maadi culture]], by the Egyptian rulers of Naqada III, circa 3100 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |
File:The Battlefield Palette 3100 BC - Joy of Museums.jpg|The [[Battlefield Palette]], possibly showing the subjection of the people of the [[Buto-Maadi culture]], by the Egyptian rulers of Naqada III, circa 3100 BC.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brovarski|first1=Edward|title=REFLECTIONS ON THE BATTLEFIELD AND LIBYAN BOOTY PALETTES|page=89|url=https://www.academia.edu/28433861|language=en}}</ref> |
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File:Fragment of a palette 3200-2800 BCE.jpg|Fragment of a palette, |
File:Fragment of a palette 3200-2800 BCE.jpg|Fragment of a palette, 3200–2800 BC. |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==Other |
==Other artifacts== |
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4"> |
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4"> |
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BaboonDivityBearingNameOfPharaohNarmerOnBase.png|Baboon Divinity bearing name of Pharaoh Narmer on base |
BaboonDivityBearingNameOfPharaohNarmerOnBase.png|Baboon Divinity bearing name of Pharaoh Narmer on base |
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Kingscorpion.jpg|The [[Scorpion Macehead]], [[Ashmolean Museum]]. |
Kingscorpion.jpg|The [[Scorpion Macehead]], [[Ashmolean Museum]]. |
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File:Dynastie 0 Stabaufsatz.jpg|Protodynastic sceptre fragment with royal couple. [[Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst]], Munich |
File:Dynastie 0 Stabaufsatz.jpg|Protodynastic sceptre fragment with royal couple. [[Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst]], Munich |
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File:Hair Comb Decorated with Rows of Wild Animals 3200-3100 BCE Naqada III.jpg |
File:Hair Comb Decorated with Rows of Wild Animals 3200-3100 BCE Naqada III.jpg|Hair Comb Decorated with Rows of Wild Animals 3200–3100 BCE, Naqada III |
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File:Vase mit Vogelfries.jpg|Naqada III vessel |
File:Vase mit Vogelfries.jpg|Naqada III vessel |
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File:Cylindrical Jar MET LC-12 187 5 EGDP026693.jpg|Typical Naqada III cylindrical jar |
File:Cylindrical Jar MET LC-12 187 5 EGDP026693.jpg|Typical Naqada III cylindrical jar |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==See also== |
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*[[Badarian culture]] |
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*[[Early Dynastic Egypt]] |
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*[[First Dynasty of Egypt]] |
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*[[List of Pharaohs]] |
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*[[Naqada culture]] |
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*[[Scorpion II]] |
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*[[Scorpion Macehead]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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*{{cite book |last=Bard |first=Katherine A. |year=2000 |chapter=The Emergence of the Egyptian State |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Shaw |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw/page/61 61–88] |isbn=0-19-815034-2 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw/page/61 }} |
*{{cite book |last=Bard |first=Katherine A. |year=2000 |chapter=The Emergence of the Egyptian State |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Shaw |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw/page/61 61–88] |isbn=0-19-815034-2 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw/page/61 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Midant-Reynes |first=Béatrix |year=2000 |title=The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs |location=Oxford and Malden |publisher=Blackwell |isbn= 0-631-20169-6}} |
*{{cite book |last=Midant-Reynes |first=Béatrix |year=2000 |title=The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs |location=Oxford and Malden |publisher=Blackwell |isbn= 0-631-20169-6}} |
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*{{cite book |
*{{cite book |editor-last=Shaw |editor-first=Ian |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-815034-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw }} |
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*{{cite book |
*{{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Toby Alexander Howard |year=2001 |title=Early Dynastic Egypt |edition=2nd | location =London |publisher=Routledge |isbn= 0-415-18633-1}} |
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*{{cite journal |last=Wright |first=Mary |year=1985 |title=Contacts Between Egypt and Syro-Palestine During the Protodynastic Period |journal=[[Biblical Archaeologist]]|volume=48 |issue=4 |pages= 240–53|doi=10.2307/3209960 |jstor=3209960 }} |
*{{cite journal |last=Wright |first=Mary |year=1985 |title=Contacts Between Egypt and Syro-Palestine During the Protodynastic Period |journal=[[Biblical Archaeologist]]|volume=48 |issue=4 |pages= 240–53|doi=10.2307/3209960 |jstor=3209960 |s2cid=165458408 }} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{Pharaohs}} |
{{Pharaohs}} |
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{{Rulers of the Ancient Near East}} |
{{Rulers of the Ancient Near East}} |
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[[Category:Naqada III| ]] |
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[[Category:4th millennium BC in Egypt]] |
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[[Category:Predynastic Egypt]] |
[[Category:Predynastic Egypt]] |
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[[Category:Archaeological cultures in Egypt]] |
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in Egypt]] |
Latest revision as of 03:32, 22 August 2024
Geographical range | Egypt |
---|---|
Period | Early Bronze I |
Dates | c. 3,300 BC – 2,900 BC[1] |
Major sites | Naqada, Tarkhan, Nekhen |
Preceded by | Naqada II |
Followed by | Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) |
Naqada III is the last phase of the Naqada culture of ancient Egyptian prehistory, dating from approximately 3200 to 3000 BC.[2] It is the period during which the process of state formation, which began in Naqada II, became highly visible, with named kings heading powerful polities. Naqada III is often referred to as Dynasty 0 or the Protodynastic Period[2] to reflect the presence of kings at the head of influential states, although, in fact, the kings involved would not have been a part of a dynasty. In this period, those kings' names were inscribed in the form of serekhs on a variety of surfaces including pottery and tombs.
History
[edit]The Protodynastic Period in ancient Egypt was characterised by an ongoing process of political unification, culminating in the formation of a single state to begin the Early Dynastic Period. Furthermore, it is during this time that the Egyptian language was first recorded in hieroglyphs. There is also strong archaeological evidence of Egyptian settlements in southern Canaan during the Protodynastic Period, which are regarded as colonies or trading entrepôts.
State formation began during this era and perhaps even earlier. Various small city-states arose along the Nile. Centuries of conquest then reduced Upper Egypt to three major states: Thinis, Naqada, and Nekhen. Sandwiched between Thinis and Nekhen, Naqada was the first to fall. Thinis then conquered Lower Egypt. Nekhen's relationship with Thinis is uncertain, but these two states may have merged peacefully, with the Thinite royal family ruling all of Egypt. The Thinite kings were buried at Abydos in the Umm el-Qa'ab cemetery.[citation needed]
Early Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie were proponents of the Dynastic race theory which hypothesised that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin,[3] but this view has been abandoned among modern scholars.[4][5][6][7][8]
Most Egyptologists consider Narmer to be both the last king of this period and the first king of the First Dynasty. He was possibly preceded over some parts of Upper Egypt by Crocodile, Iry-Hor, Ka, and perhaps by the king Scorpion II, whose name may refer to, or be derived from, the goddess Serket, a special early protector of other deities and the rulers.[9]
Naqada III extended all over Egypt and was characterized by some notable firsts:
- The first hieroglyphs
- The first graphical narratives on palettes
- The first regular use of serekhs
- Possibly the first example of irrigation
And at best, a notable second:
- The invention of sail navigation[10] (derived from its prior invention in the Persian Gulf 2,000 years earlier)[11]
According to the Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities, in February, 2020, Egyptian archaeologists have uncovered 83 tombs dating back to 3,000 B.C, known as the Naqada III period. Various small ceramic pots in different shapes and some sea shells, makeup tools, eyeliner pots, and jewels were also revealed in the burial.[12][13]
Decorative cosmetic palettes
[edit]Many notable decorative palettes are dated to Naqada III, such as the Hunters Palette.
-
Hunters Palette, circa 3100 BC
-
"Four Dogs Palette" (3300–3100 BC)
-
Fragment of a ceremonial palette illustrating a man and a type of staff, ca. 3200–3100 BC
-
Duck-shaped palette
-
Bull Palette, 3100 BC
-
The Battlefield Palette, possibly showing the subjection of the people of the Buto-Maadi culture, by the Egyptian rulers of Naqada III, circa 3100 BC.[14]
-
Fragment of a palette, 3200–2800 BC.
Other artifacts
[edit]-
Baboon Divinity bearing name of Pharaoh Narmer on base
-
Protodynastic sceptre fragment with royal couple. Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst, Munich
-
Hair Comb Decorated with Rows of Wild Animals 3200–3100 BCE, Naqada III
-
Naqada III vessel
-
Typical Naqada III cylindrical jar
See also
[edit]- Badarian culture
- Early Dynastic Egypt
- First Dynasty of Egypt
- List of Pharaohs
- Naqada culture
- Scorpion II
- Scorpion Macehead
References
[edit]- ^ Hendrickx, Stan (1996). Spencer, A.J. (ed.). "The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities". Aspects of Early Egypt. London: British Museum Press: 64.
- ^ a b Shaw 2000, p. 479.
- ^ Derry, D.E. (1956). "The Dynastic Race in Egypt". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 42: 80–85. doi:10.1177/030751335604200111. S2CID 194596267.
- ^ Wilkinson, Toby (1999). Early dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge. p. 15. ISBN 0415186331.
- ^ Yurco, Frank (1996). "An Egyptological Review". (1996). Black Athena revisited. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 62–100. ISBN 0807845558.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Zakrzewski, Sonia R. (2007). Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state. Highfield, Southampton: Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton.
- ^ *Pg33-"Early Nile Valley populations were primarily coextensive with indigenous African populations. Linguistic and archaeological data provide key supporting evidence for a primarily African origin".Shomarka Keita and A.J. Boyce "The Geographic and Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". Celenko Theodore (ed). (1996). Egypt in Africa. Indianapolis, Ind.: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. 20–33. ISBN 0936260645.
- ^ *Pg84-85 "major burial sites of those founding locales of ancient Egypt in the fourth millennium BCE, notably El-Badari as well as Naqada, show no demographic indebtedness to the Levant. They reveal instead a population with cranial and dental features with closest parallels to those of other longtime populations of the surrounding areas of northeastern Africa, such as Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa".Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023). Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 83–86, 167–169. ISBN 978-0-691-24409-9.
- ^ Shaw 2000, p. 71.
- ^ Meza, A.I. (2007) “Neolithic Boats: Ancient Egypt and the Maltese Islands. A Minoan Connection” J-C. Goyon,C. Cardin (Eds.) Actes Du Neuvième Congrès International Des Égyptologues, p. 1287.
- ^ Robinson, D. (2012). "Review of: Anderson, A., et al. (2010), The Global Origins and Development of Seafaring". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 41 (1): 206–208. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2011.00333_2.x. S2CID 162515460.
- ^ Geggel, Laura (21 February 2020). "Dozens of ancient Egyptian graves found with rare clay coffins". livescience.com. Retrieved 2020-06-28.
- ^ "الكشف عن 83 مقبرة أثرية بمنطقة آثار كوم الخلجان بمحافظة الدقهلية". اليوم السابع. 2020-02-12. Retrieved 2020-06-28.
- ^ Brovarski, Edward. "REFLECTIONS ON THE BATTLEFIELD AND LIBYAN BOOTY PALETTES": 89.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help)
Further reading
[edit]- Anđelković, Branislav (2002). "Southern Canaan as an Egyptian Protodynastic Colony". Cahiers Caribéens d'Égyptologie. 3/4 (Dix ans de hiéroglyphes au campus): 75–92.
- Bard, Katherine A. (2000). "The Emergence of the Egyptian State". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 61–88. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
- Midant-Reynes, Béatrix (2000). The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20169-6.
- Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
- Wilkinson, Toby Alexander Howard (2001). Early Dynastic Egypt (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18633-1.
- Wright, Mary (1985). "Contacts Between Egypt and Syro-Palestine During the Protodynastic Period". Biblical Archaeologist. 48 (4): 240–53. doi:10.2307/3209960. JSTOR 3209960. S2CID 165458408.
External links
[edit]- Naqada III: Dynasty 0
- "Unification Theories", Naqadan in Egypt, UK: UCL.