Virginia Bolten: Difference between revisions

Virginia Bolten
Virginia Bolten
	Virginia Bolten (c. 1902)
Born	26 December 1870; San Luis, Argentina
Died	1960 (aged 89–90); Montevideo, Uruguay
Occupation(s)	Journalist, activist
Organization	Argentine Regional Workers' Federation
Notable work	La Voz de la Mujer (1896–1897); La Nueva Senda (1909–1910)
Movement	Anarchist feminism

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Virginia Bolten (1870–1960) was an Argentine journalist and anarchist feminist activist. An anarchist agitator from an early age, she became a leading figure among the working women of Rosario, organising for the Argentine Regional Workers' Federation (FORA) and leading the first women's strike in the country's history. After being recruited into the anarchist movement in Buenos Aires by the Italian anarchist Pietro Gori, she joined some of the country's first anarchist women's organisations and established one of the world's first anarchist feminist periodicals: La Voz de la Mujer.

After years of agitation in Argentina, under the 1902 Law of Residence, she was deported to Uruguay. There she continued her feminist activism, establishing the periodical La Nueva Senda and the radical feminist association Emancipación. Following sustained conflict with socialist feminists, the anarchist feminist movement in Uruguay fell into obscurity. Bolten lived the rest of her life in Montevideo, occasionally speaking at demonstrations, until her death in 1960.

Biography

Virginia Bolten was born in 1870 in San Luis, Argentina, the daughter of a German liberal who had been exiled from Europe. After her parents divorced, while she was still a teenager, she moved out to the industrial city of Rosario and got a job as a shoemaker. She was later employed in the Argentine Sugar Refinery, but was arrested after being caught distributing anarchist propaganda to the women working there.^[1]

In the Argentine anarchist movement

Part of the second generation of anarchist feminists,^[2] Bolten quickly developed a reputation as a "great orator" and an "indefatigable organiser",^[3] capable of drawing in large crowds to see her speak.^[4] Together with Juana Rouco Buela^[5] and María Collazo,^[6] Bolten became one of the few leading women in the Argentine anarchist movement.^[5] As a member of the Argentine Regional Workers' Federation (FORA), she travelled throughout the country on speaking tours,^[7] encouraging women to become involved in anarchist politics.^[8] As an anarchist feminist, she was disinterested in the liberal and socialist feminists' calls for universal suffrage, advocating instead for the revolutionary abolition of the existing system rather than incremental reforms to it.^[8]

In 1889, Bolten led Argentina's first women's strike,^[9] carried out by seamstresses in Rosario.^[10] The strike was successful, resulting in the workers winning a 20% salary increase.^[11] The following year, she led the city's International Workers' Day demonstrations with a black flag.^[1] Her activism drew the attention of the Italian anarchist Pietro Gori, who recruited Bolten into the anarchist movement in Buenos Aires.^[11] Inspired by the feminist writings of the Catalan anarchist Teresa Mañé, printed by Errico Malatesta's newspaper La Questione Sociale, by 1895, the first anarchist women's groups were being established in Argentina. These organisations produced a new generation of radical feminists, among whom Bolten became especially active.^[12] With Gori's help,^[11] Bolten founded one of the world's first anarchist feminist publications, La Voz de la Mujer (English: The Women's Voice).^[13] With Bolten as one of its editors, the newspaper published nine issues from 8 January 1896 until 1 January 1897; with Bolten later reviving it in Rosario in 1901.^[3] Bolten and Gori also established an anarchist-socialist organisation which was dedicated to abolishing mores and traditions that they found authoritarian, including the institution of marriage.^[5]

In order to suppress the rising anarchist movement, in 1902, the Argentine government passed the "Law of Residence", which allowed the deportation of immigrants involved in anarchist activism.^[14] Bolten was punished under this law on several occasions: in 1903, Bolten was arrested for distributing anarchist propaganda in Rosario; and in 1904, again for organising a women's strike committee in the Buenos Aires fruit market.^[11] In January 1905, after receiving news of the Bloody Sunday massacre in the Russian Empire's capital of Saint Petersburg, Bolten publicly denounced the Tsarist autocracy and directly compared its actions to those of the Argentine government.^[15]

Life in Uruguay

In 1907, after participating in a tenants' strike in the Argentine capital,^[16] Bolten was deported to Uruguay under the Law of Residence.^[14] She was joined there by her long-term partner,^[1] the anarchist union leader Manuel Manrique,^[17] along with her fellow deported anarchist feminist organisers: Juana Rouco Buela and María Collazo.^[16] Undeterred, Bolten and her colleagues continued their anarchist feminist activism in the Uruguayan capital of Montevideo. In 1909, Bolten, Rouco Buela and Collazo established the anarchist feminist newspaper La Nueva Senda (English: The New Path),^[18] but it was met with a hostile reaction from other Uruguayan anarchists and ceased publication the following year.^[19]

By this time, anarchist feminism was already being overtaken in South America by socialist and liberal forms of feminism. In May 1910, a Pan-American Federation was established in Buenos Aires by a Women's Congress, with the aim of working towards improving women's rights while also upholding traditional gender roles. But the Federation delayed in establishing a Uruguayan section, stalled by its hopes for reform from the new liberal President José Batlle y Ordóñez.^[20] In April 1911, radical feminists in Montevideo established the Asociación Femenina "Emancipación" (English: "Emancipation" Women's Association), which took a distinctly anti-clerical position on women's liberation.^[21]

The Federation attempted to encourage the members of Emancipación to affiliate with it, but differences between the two organisations over the Federation's liberal platform were quickly pronounced by the anarchists Virginia Bolten and María Collazo.^[22] Bolten's radical speeches discouraged affiliation with the Federation, with the Association ultimately voting against it.^[23] Immediately after the vote, Emancipación agreed on anarchist-inspired statutes that upheld women's education and self-defense, while also advocating for integration with the progressive movement across gender lines.^[24] In contrast to the middle-class suffragism of the liberal feminists, Emancipación focused on organising working women such as seamstresses and telephone operators.^[25]

By 1913, the Association was splintering into factions: the anarchists, led by Bolten; and the members of the newly-established Socialist Party of Uruguay, led by María Casal y Canda. In June of that year, the Socialist Party's newspaper published a hit piece against Bolten, which accused her of supporting the progressive Batlle government.^[26] By the following year, a sustained period of socialist attacks against the anarchists effectively suppressed their influence over the workers' and women's movements, with Marxism becoming the dominant force in Uruguayan radical feminism and anarchist women's organisations falling into obscurity.^[27]

In 1923, Bolten helped to establish the Centro Internacional de Estudios Sociales (English: International Centre of Social Studies). Later in her life, Bolten continued to speak at demonstrations on International Workers' Day and International Women's Day, before her death in 1960.^[1]

Legacy

Commemorations

The Parque Virginia Bolten (Virginia Bolten Park) in Puerto Madero, Buenos Aires, is named in her honor.^[28]^[29] In the city of Rosario, a plaque commemorating her was unveiled by the city's mayor Mónica Fein and the provincial governor Miguel Lifschitz to mark International Women's Day.^[30] On 7 March 2018, the Municipal Council of Santa Fe established the Premio Virginia Bolten a la labor periodística con perspectiva de género (English: Virginia Bolten Award for Gender-Sensitive Journalism).^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]

Film

In 2007, the government of San Luis Province in Argentina decided to fund a film honoring Virginia Bolten.^[35] The film focuses mainly on Bolten's life, anarchist feminism and the social conditions, which led to the publication of La Voz de la Mujer. It is titled No god, no master, no husband (Spanish: Ni dios, ni patrón, ni marido) after one of the newspaper's mottos.^[35]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Tarcus 2009, p. 1.
^ Cohn 2009, pp. 2–3.
^ ^a ^b Molyneux 2001, p. 24.
^ Moya 2002, pp. 195, 205.
^ ^a ^b ^c Carlson 1988, p. 128.
^ Moya 2002, p. 205.
^ Carlson 1988, pp. 127–128; Tarcus 2009, p. 1.
^ ^a ^b Carlson 1988, pp. 127–128.
^ Moya 2002, pp. 201–202.
^ Carlson 1988, p. 127; Moya 2002, pp. 201–202.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Carlson 1988, p. 127.
^ Molyneux 2001, p. 21.
^ Carlson 1988, p. 127; de Laforcade 2010, p. 327.
^ ^a ^b Carlson 1988, p. 127; Ehrick 2017; Molyneux 2001, p. 24.
^ Moya 2004, p. 26.
^ ^a ^b Ehrick 2017.
^ Carlson 1988, p. 128; Tarcus 2009, p. 1.
^ Ehrick 2005, p. 61; Ehrick 2017.
^ Ehrick 2005, p. 61.
^ Ehrick 2005, pp. 61–62.
^ Ehrick 2005, p. 62.
^ Ehrick 2005, pp. 62–63.
^ Ehrick 2005, p. 63.
^ Ehrick 2005, pp. 63–64.
^ Ehrick 2005, p. 64.
^ Ehrick 2005, pp. 64–65.
^ Ehrick 2005, p. 65.
^ "Argentina: Caputo, Salvatori associate". South American Business Information. 6 December 2000. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2010.
^ "Parques - Sin Obras Escultóricas". weboeba.com. Retrieved 21 August 2024.
^ "La militante anarquista y feminista Virginia Bolten fue homenajeada" [Anarchist and feminist activist Virginia Bolten honoured]. El Ciudadano Web (in Spanish). 8 March 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
^ "Premio Virginia Bolten: Convocan a artistas plásticas y periodistas" [Virginia Bolten Prize: Call for visual artists and journalists]. Consejo Santa Fe (in Spanish). 28 March 2018. Archived from the original on 1 May 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
^ "Convocan a artistas plásticas y periodistas a participar del premio Virginia Bolten" [Call for entries for the Virginia Bolten Award for visual artists and journalists]. Uno Santa Fe (in Spanish). 3 April 2018. Archived from the original on 1 May 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
^ ""Como periodistas podemos cambiar la vida de las mujeres", dijo Mariana Carbajal" ["As journalists we can change women's lives," said Mariana Carbajal]. Agencia Textual (in Spanish). 26 March 2018. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
^ "Distinguieron a tres mujeres rafaelinas" [Three women from Raffaela were honoured]. Diario La Opinión (in Spanish). 9 March 2018. Archived from the original on 1 May 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
^ ^a ^b Simeoni, Alicia (3 October 2007). "En San Luis se filmará la película de las anarquistas rosarinas" [Film about the anarchists from Rosario to be shot in San Luis]. Página 12 (in Spanish). Retrieved 24 October 2023.

Bibliography

Carlson, Marifran (1988). "Feminism and Socialism". Feminismo!: The Woman's Movement in Argentina From Its Beginnings to Eva Perón. Academy Chicago Publishers. pp. 121–138. ISBN 0-89733-152-4. LCCN 85-18567.
Cohn, Jesse (2009). "Anarchism and Gender". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Wiley. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0055. ISBN 9781405198073.
Ehrick, Christine (2005). "The First Feminisms: State Building and Women's Organizing, 1880s-1915". The Shield of the Weak: Feminism and the State in Uruguay, 1903-1933. UNM Press. pp. 33–68. ISBN 0-8263-3468-7. LCCN 2005002484.
Ehrick, Christine (2017). "Women, Politics, and Media in Uruguay, 1900–1950". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.303. ISBN 9780199366439.
de Laforcade, Geoffroy (2010). "Straddling the Nation and the Working World: Anarchism and Syndicalism on the Docks and Rivers of Argentina, 1900–1930". In Hirsch, Steven J.; van der Walt, Lucien (eds.). Anarchism and Syndicalism in the Colonial and Postcolonial World, 1870–1940. Studies in Global Social History. Vol. 6. Leiden: Brill. pp. 321–362. ISBN 9789004188495. OCLC 868808983.
Molyneux, Maxine (2001). "'No God, No Boss, No Husband!' Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina". Women's Movements in International Perspective: Latin America and Beyond. Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 13–37. doi:10.1057/9780230286382_2. ISBN 978-0-333-78677-2. LCCN 00-062707.
Moya, José (2002). "Italians in Buenos Aires's Anarchist Movement: Gender Ideology and Women's Participation, 1890-1910". In Gabaccia, Donna; Iacovetta, Franca (eds.). Women, Gender and Transnational Lives: Italian Workers of the World. University of Toronto Press. pp. 189–216. ISBN 978-0-8020-8462-0.
Moya, José (2004). "The Positive Side of Stereotypes: Jewish Anarchists in Early-twentieth-Century Buenos Aires". Jewish History. 18 (1): 19–48. doi:10.1023/B:JEHI.0000005735.80946.27. S2CID 144315538.
Tarcus, Horacio (2009). "Bolten, Virginia (ca. 1870–ca. 1960)". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Wiley. p. 1. doi:10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp1764. ISBN 9781405198073.

External links

Bellucci, Mabel (2003). "Virginia Boltem: la comunera Libertaria". DLa Tapa - Información Alternativa (in Spanish).
Heath, Nick (29 May 2009). "Bolten, Virginia 1870-1960?". Libcom.org.
McKay, Iain (3 March 2009). "No God, No Boss, No Husband: The world's first Anarcha-Feminist group". Anarchist Writers.
Mold, Rodrigo (10 February 2009). "Virginia Bolten: "La Voz de la Mujer"". Cronicas de Rosario (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 21 May 2010.
Portugal, Ana Maria (8 March 2005). "Anarquistas: "Ni Dios, Ni Patrón, Ni Marido"" [Anarchists: "Neither God, Nor Master, Nor Husband"]. Mujeres Hoy (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 31 May 2009. Retrieved 2 February 2010.

[FOOTNOTETarcus20091-1] Tarcus 2009, p. 1.

[FOOTNOTECohn20092–3-2] Cohn 2009, pp. 2–3.

[FOOTNOTEMolyneux200124-3] Molyneux 2001, p. 24.

[FOOTNOTEMoya2002195,_205-4] Moya 2002, pp. 195, 205.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988128-5] Carlson 1988, p. 128.

[FOOTNOTEMoya2002205-6] Moya 2002, p. 205.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988127–128Tarcus20091-7] Carlson 1988, pp. 127–128; Tarcus 2009, p. 1.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988127–128-8] Carlson 1988, pp. 127–128.

[FOOTNOTEMoya2002201–202-9] Moya 2002, pp. 201–202.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988127Moya2002201–202-10] Carlson 1988, p. 127; Moya 2002, pp. 201–202.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988127-11] Carlson 1988, p. 127.

[FOOTNOTEMolyneux200121-12] Molyneux 2001, p. 21.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988127de_Laforcade2010327-13] Carlson 1988, p. 127; de Laforcade 2010, p. 327.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988127Ehrick2017Molyneux200124-14] Carlson 1988, p. 127; Ehrick 2017; Molyneux 2001, p. 24.

[FOOTNOTEMoya200426-15] Moya 2004, p. 26.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick2017-16] Ehrick 2017.

[FOOTNOTECarlson1988128Tarcus20091-17] Carlson 1988, p. 128; Tarcus 2009, p. 1.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200561Ehrick2017-18] Ehrick 2005, p. 61; Ehrick 2017.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200561-19] Ehrick 2005, p. 61.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200561–62-20] Ehrick 2005, pp. 61–62.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200562-21] Ehrick 2005, p. 62.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200562–63-22] Ehrick 2005, pp. 62–63.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200563-23] Ehrick 2005, p. 63.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200563–64-24] Ehrick 2005, pp. 63–64.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200564-25] Ehrick 2005, p. 64.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200564–65-26] Ehrick 2005, pp. 64–65.

[FOOTNOTEEhrick200565-27] Ehrick 2005, p. 65.

[28] "Argentina: Caputo, Salvatori associate". South American Business Information. 6 December 2000. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2010.

[29] "Parques - Sin Obras Escultóricas". weboeba.com. Retrieved 21 August 2024.

[30] "La militante anarquista y feminista Virginia Bolten fue homenajeada" [Anarchist and feminist activist Virginia Bolten honoured]. El Ciudadano Web (in Spanish). 8 March 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2018.

[31] "Premio Virginia Bolten: Convocan a artistas plásticas y periodistas" [Virginia Bolten Prize: Call for visual artists and journalists]. Consejo Santa Fe (in Spanish). 28 March 2018. Archived from the original on 1 May 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2023.

[32] "Convocan a artistas plásticas y periodistas a participar del premio Virginia Bolten" [Call for entries for the Virginia Bolten Award for visual artists and journalists]. Uno Santa Fe (in Spanish). 3 April 2018. Archived from the original on 1 May 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2023.

[33] ""Como periodistas podemos cambiar la vida de las mujeres", dijo Mariana Carbajal" ["As journalists we can change women's lives," said Mariana Carbajal]. Agencia Textual (in Spanish). 26 March 2018. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2023.

[34] "Distinguieron a tres mujeres rafaelinas" [Three women from Raffaela were honoured]. Diario La Opinión (in Spanish). 9 March 2018. Archived from the original on 1 May 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2023.

[pagina-35] Simeoni, Alicia (3 October 2007). "En San Luis se filmará la película de las anarquistas rosarinas" [Film about the anarchists from Rosario to be shot in San Luis]. Página 12 (in Spanish). Retrieved 24 October 2023.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{good article}}
-{{infobox person
+{{Short description|Argentine anarchist (1870–1960)}}
-| name        = Virginia Bolten
+{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
-| image       = Virginia_Bolten.jpg
+{{Infobox person
-| alt         =
+| honorific_prefix   =
-| caption     = Photo of Virginia Bolten
+| name               = Virginia Bolten
-| birth_date  = 1870
+| honorific_suffix   =
-| birth_place = [[San Luis, Argentina]] or possibly [[San Juan, Argentina|San Juan]]
+| image              = Virginia_Bolten.jpg
-| death_date  = 1960
+| image_upright      =
-| death_place = [[Montevideo]], Uruguay
+| landscape          = <!-- yes, if wide image, otherwise leave blank -->
-| known_for   = publishing anarchist newspapers, organizing first May Day demonstration in South America
+| alt                = Photograph of Virginia Bolten
-| occupation  = Journalist, activist
+| caption            = Virginia Bolten ({{circa}} 1902)
+| native_name        =
+| native_name_lang   =
+| pronunciation      =
+| birth_name         = <!-- only use if different from name -->
+| birth_date         = {{Birth date|1870|12|26|df=y}}
+| birth_place        = [[San Luis, Argentina|San Luis]], Argentina
+| baptised           = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered -->
+| death_date         = {{Death date and age|1960|||1870|12|26|df=y}}
+| death_place        = [[Montevideo]], Uruguay
+| death_cause        = <!-- should only be included when the cause of death has significance for the subject's notability -->
+| body_discovered    =
+| resting_place      =
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+| burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} -->
+| monuments          =
+| nationality        = <!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->
+| other_names        =
+| siglum             =
+| citizenship        = <!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->
+| education          =
+| alma_mater         =
+| occupation         = [[Journalist]], [[activist]]
+| years_active       =
+| era                =
+| employer           =
+| organization       = [[Argentine Regional Workers' Federation]]
+| agent              = <!-- discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source -->
+| known_for          =
+| notable_works      = ''[[La Voz de la Mujer]]'' {{small|(1896–1897)}}<br>''La Nueva Senda'' {{small|(1909–1910)}}
+| style              =
+| height             = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) -->
+| television         =
+| title              = <!-- formal/awarded/job title. The parameter |office=may be used as an alternative when the label is better rendered as "Office" (e.g. public office or appointments) -->
+| term               =
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+| movement           = [[Anarcha-feminism|Anarchist feminism]]
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+| criminal_penalty   =
+| criminal_status    =
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+| father             = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) -->
+| relatives          =
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+| signature          =
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 }}
+{{Anarcha-feminism sidebar|people}}
-'''Virginia Bolten''' (1870–1960) was an [[Argentina|Argentine]] journalist as well as an [[anarchist]] and [[feminist]] activist of [[Germans|German]] descent. A gifted orator,<ref name="molyneux"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Moya|first=José|title=Women, gender and transnational lives: Italian workers of the world|editor=Donna R. Gabaccia, Franca Iacovetta|publisher=U of Toronto P|date=2002|pages=195, 205|chapter=Italians in Buenos Aires's Anarchist Movement: Gender Ideology and Women's Participation, 1890-1910|isbn=978-0-8020-8462-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AijCtjgmS44C&pg=PA205|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref> she is considered as a pioneer in the struggle for [[women's rights]] in Argentina. She was deported to [[Uruguay]] in 1902, where she remained until her death.
+'''Virginia Bolten''' (1870–1960) was an [[Argentina|Argentine]] journalist and [[anarcha-feminism|anarchist feminist]] activist. An anarchist agitator from an early age, she became a leading figure among the working women of [[Rosario]], organising for the [[Argentine Regional Workers' Federation]] (FORA) and leading the first women's strike in the country's history. After being recruited into the anarchist movement in [[Buenos Aires]] by the Italian anarchist [[Pietro Gori]], she joined some of the country's first anarchist women's organisations and established one of the world's first anarchist feminist periodicals: ''[[La Voz de la Mujer]]''.
+After years of agitation in Argentina, under the 1902 Law of Residence, she was deported to [[Uruguay]]. There she continued her feminist activism, establishing the periodical ''La Nueva Senda'' and the [[radical feminism|radical feminist]] association ''Emancipación''. Following sustained conflict with [[socialist feminism|socialist feminists]], the anarchist feminist movement in Uruguay fell into obscurity. Bolten lived the rest of her life in [[Montevideo]], occasionally speaking at demonstrations, until her death in 1960.
-== Biography ==
-Virginia Bolten, the daughter of a German emigrant, was born in 1870 in Argentina, either in San Luis or San Juan. She spent her childhood in [[San Juan Province (Argentina)|San Juan, a province of Argentina]] and then moved on to [[Rosario,_Santa_Fe|Rosario]] when she wa 14 years old. After reaching adulthood she worked as a shoemaker and a sugar factory worker. While working as a shoemaker she met Juan Marquez, an organiser of a shoe workers union, whom she later married.<ref name="libcom">{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/history/bolten-virginia-1870-1960-aka-%E2%80%9Cla-luisa-michel-rosarino%E2%80%9D-louise-michel-rosario|title=Biography of Virginia Bolten|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref> Instrumental in her introduction to anarchist circles was her acquaintance with [[Pietro Gori]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Marifran|title=Feminismo!: the woman's movement in Argentina from its beginnings to Eva Perón|publisher=Academy Chicago Publishers|date=1988|pages=127|isbn=978-0-89733-152-4}}</ref> After a number of years of activity in the feminist, anarchist, and workers' movements, she was deported to [[Uruguay]] under the Residence Law in 1902.<ref name="molyneux"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|others=Jaqueline Cruz (trans.)|title=Movimientos de mujeres en América Latina: estudio teórico comparado|publisher=Universitat de València|date=2003|pages=42|isbn=978-84-376-2086-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMyk7mG8aMAC&pg=PA42|accessdate=2 February 2010|language=Spanish}}</ref>
-==Activism==
+==Biography==
+Virginia Bolten was born in 1870 in [[San Luis, Argentina]], the daughter of a [[Liberalism in Germany|German liberal]] who had been exiled from Europe. After her parents divorced, while she was still a teenager, she moved out to the industrial city of [[Rosario]] and got a job as a [[Shoemaking|shoemaker]]. She was later employed in the Argentine Sugar Refinery, but was arrested after being caught distributing anarchist propaganda to the women working there.{{Sfn|Tarcus|2009|p=1}}
-In 1888 Bolten became one of the publishers of ''The Working Baker of Rosario'' ({{lang-es|El Obrero Panadero de Rosario}}), one of the first anarchist newspapers in Argentina. In 1889 she organized the seamstresses' demonstration and consequent strike in [[Rosario]], probably the first strike by female workers in Argentina.<ref name="libcom"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Moya|first=José|title=Women, gender and transnational lives: Italian workers of the world|editor=Donna R. Gabaccia, Franca Iacovetta|publisher=U of Toronto P|date=2002|pages=202|chapter=Italians in Buenos Aires's Anarchist Movement: Gender Ideology and Women's Participation, 1890-1910|isbn=978-0-8020-8462-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AijCtjgmS44C&pg=PA202|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref>
+===In the Argentine anarchist movement===
-In 1890 Virginia Bolten, Romulo Ovidi and Francisco Berri were the main organizers of the first [[May Day]] demonstrations. The other editors of ''The Working Baker of Rosario'' had an equally important role in the organization of the demonstrations.<ref name="libcom"/> On April 30, 1890 (the day before the demonstrations), she was detained and interrogated, by local police forces, for distributing leaflets outside the major factories of the area. During the May Day demonstrations she led a group of thousands of workers who were marching to [[Plaza Lopez]], at the outskirt of Rosario at that time. Throughout the march she carried the [[Red flag (politics)|red flag]], on which was written "First Of May - Universal Fraternity" ({{lang-es|Primero de Mayo - Fraternidad Universal; Los trabajadores de Rosario cumplimos las disposiciones del Comité Obrero Internacional de París}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mujereshoy.com/secciones/2907.shtml|title=Anarquistas: “Ni Dios, Ni Patrón, Ni Marido”|last=Portugal|first=Ana Maria|date=8 March 2005|publisher=Mujeres Hoy|language=Spanish|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museodelaciudad.org.ar/virginia-bolten.pdf|title=Museo de la Ciudad|language=Spanish|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref>
+Part of the second generation of [[anarcha-feminism|anarchist feminists]],{{Sfn|Cohn|2009|pp=2-3}} Bolten quickly developed a reputation as a "great orator" and an "indefatigable organiser",{{sfn|Molyneux|2001|p=24}} capable of drawing in large crowds to see her speak.{{Sfn|Moya|2002|pp=195, 205}} Together with [[Juana Rouco Buela]]{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|p=128}} and [[María Collazo]],{{Sfn|Moya|2002|p=205}} Bolten became one of the few leading women in the [[Anarchism in Argentina|Argentine anarchist movement]].{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|p=128}} As a member of the [[Argentine Regional Workers' Federation]] (FORA), she travelled throughout the country on speaking tours,{{Sfnm|1a1=Carlson|1y=1988|1pp=127-128|2a1=Tarcus|2y=2009|2p=1}} encouraging women to become involved in anarchist politics.{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|pp=127-128}} As an anarchist feminist, she was disinterested in the [[liberal feminism|liberal]] and [[socialist feminism|socialist feminists]]' calls for [[universal suffrage]], advocating instead for the revolutionary abolition of the existing system rather than incremental reforms to it.{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|pp=127-128}}
+In 1889, Bolten led Argentina's first women's strike,{{Sfn|Moya|2002|pp=201-202}} carried out by [[Dressmaker|seamstresses]] in Rosario.{{Sfnm|1a1=Carlson|1y=1988|1p=127|2a1=Moya|2y=2002|2pp=201-202}} The strike was successful, resulting in the workers winning a 20% salary increase.{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|p=127}} The following year, she led the city's [[International Workers' Day]] demonstrations with a [[Anarchist symbolism#Black flag|black flag]].{{Sfn|Tarcus|2009|p=1}} Her activism drew the attention of the Italian anarchist [[Pietro Gori]], who recruited Bolten into the anarchist movement in [[Buenos Aires]].{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|p=127}} Inspired by the feminist writings of the Catalan anarchist [[Teresa Mañé]], printed by [[Errico Malatesta]]'s newspaper ''La Questione Sociale'', by 1895, the first anarchist women's groups were being established in Argentina. These organisations produced a new generation of [[radical feminism|radical feminists]], among whom Bolten became especially active.{{Sfn|Molyneux|2001|p=21}} With Gori's help,{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|p=127}} Bolten founded one of the world's first anarchist feminist publications, ''[[La Voz de la Mujer]]'' ({{lang-en|The Women's Voice}}).{{Sfnm|1a1=Carlson|1y=1988|1p=127|2a1=de Laforcade|2y=2010|2p=327}} With Bolten as one of its editors, the newspaper published nine issues from 8 January 1896 until 1 January 1897; with Bolten later reviving it in Rosario in 1901.{{sfn|Molyneux|2001|p=24}} Bolten and Gori also established an [[social anarchism|anarchist-socialist]] organisation which was dedicated to abolishing [[mores]] and [[tradition]]s that they found [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]], including the institution of [[marriage]].{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|p=128}}
-After she was deprted to Uruguay, she carried on her militancy in Montevideo, capital city of Uruguay.
+In order to suppress the rising anarchist movement, in 1902, the Argentine government passed the "Law of Residence", which allowed the deportation of immigrants involved in anarchist activism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Carlson|1y=1988|1p=127|2a1=Ehrick|2y=2017|3a1=Molyneux|3y=2001|3p=24}} Bolten was punished under this law on several occasions: in 1903, Bolten was arrested for distributing anarchist propaganda in Rosario; and in 1904, again for organising a women's strike committee in the Buenos Aires fruit market.{{Sfn|Carlson|1988|p=127}} In January 1905, after receiving news of the [[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]] massacre in the [[Russian Empire]]'s capital of [[Saint Petersburg]], Bolten publicly denounced the [[Tsarist autocracy]] and directly compared its actions to those of the Argentine government.{{Sfn|Moya|2004|p=26}}
-===''La Voz de la Mujer''===
-Bolten is probably responsible for the publication of a newspaper called ''[[La Voz de la Mujer]]'' ({{lang-en|The Woman's Voice}}), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901. A similar paper with the same name was reportedly published later in [[Montevideo]], which suggests that Bolten may also have founded it and served as its editor after her deportation.<ref name="molyneux">{{cite book|last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|title=Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|date=2001|pages=24|isbn=978-0-333-78677-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24}}</ref>
-===''La Nueva Senda''===
+===Life in Uruguay===
+In 1907, after participating in a tenants' strike in the Argentine capital,{{Sfn|Ehrick|2017}} Bolten was deported to Uruguay under the Law of Residence.{{Sfnm|1a1=Carlson|1y=1988|1p=127|2a1=Ehrick|2y=2017|3a1=Molyneux|3y=2001|3p=24}} She was joined there by her long-term partner,{{Sfn|Tarcus|2009|p=1}} the anarchist union leader Manuel Manrique,{{Sfnm|1a1=Carlson|1y=1988|1p=128|2a1=Tarcus|2y=2009|2p=1}}  along with her fellow deported anarchist feminist organisers: Juana Rouco Buela and María Collazo.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2017}} Undeterred, Bolten and her colleagues continued their anarchist feminist activism in the Uruguayan capital of [[Montevideo]]. In 1909, Bolten, Rouco Buela and Collazo established the anarchist feminist newspaper ''La Nueva Senda'' ({{lang-en|The New Path}}),{{Sfnm|1a1=Ehrick|1y=2005|1p=61|2a1=Ehrick|2y=2017}} but it was met with a hostile reaction from other Uruguayan anarchists and ceased publication the following year.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|p=61}}
-In Uruguay, Bolten continued her activism, publishing a newspaper called ''La Nueva Senda'' ({{lang-en|The New Path}}) from 1909 to 1910.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ehrick|first=Christine|title=The shield of the weak: feminism and the State in Uruguay, 1903-1933|publisher=UNM Press|date=2005|pages=61|isbn=978-0-8263-3468-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWM6fa5MAi4C&pg=PA61|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref>
+By this time, anarchist feminism was already being overtaken in South America by socialist and liberal forms of feminism. In May 1910, a Pan-American Federation was established in Buenos Aires by a Women's Congress, with the aim of working towards improving [[women's rights]] while also upholding traditional gender roles. But the Federation delayed in establishing a Uruguayan section, stalled by its hopes for reform from the new liberal President [[José Batlle y Ordóñez]].{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|pp=61-62}} In April 1911, radical feminists in Montevideo established the ''Asociación Femenina "Emancipación"'' ({{lang-en|"Emancipation" Women's Association}}), which took a distinctly [[anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] position on women's liberation.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|p=62}}
-===Other publications===
-She published many articles in [[anarchist-communist]] journals and newspapers, the most notable of which were ''La Protesta'' and ''La Protesta Humana''.
+The Federation attempted to encourage the members of ''Emancipación'' to affiliate with it, but differences between the two organisations over the Federation's liberal platform were quickly pronounced by the anarchists Virginia Bolten and María Collazo.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|pp=62-63}} Bolten's radical speeches discouraged affiliation with the Federation, with the Association ultimately voting against it.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|p=63}} Immediately after the vote, ''Emancipación'' agreed on anarchist-inspired statutes that upheld women's education and self-defense, while also advocating for integration with the progressive movement across gender lines.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|pp=63-64}} In contrast to the middle-class suffragism of the liberal feminists, ''Emancipación'' focused on organising working women such as seamstresses and telephone operators.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|p=64}}
+By 1913, the Association was splintering into factions: the anarchists, led by Bolten; and the members of the newly-established [[Socialist Party of Uruguay]], led by María Casal y Canda. In June of that year, the Socialist Party's newspaper published a hit piece against Bolten, which accused her of supporting the progressive Batlle government.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|pp=64-65}} By the following year, a sustained period of socialist attacks against the anarchists effectively suppressed their influence over the workers' and women's movements, with Marxism becoming the dominant force in Uruguayan radical feminism and anarchist women's organisations falling into obscurity.{{Sfn|Ehrick|2005|p=65}}
+In 1923, Bolten helped to establish the Centro Internacional de Estudios Sociales ({{Lang-en|International Centre of Social Studies}}). Later in her life, Bolten continued to speak at demonstrations on International Workers' Day and [[International Women's Day]], before her death in 1960.{{Sfn|Tarcus|2009|p=1}}
 ==Legacy==
-===Park===
+===Commemorations===
+The <bdi>''Parque Virginia Bolten''</bdi> (Virginia Bolten Park) in [[Puerto Madero]], Buenos Aires, is named in her honor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-67685288.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103011701/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-67685288.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Argentina: Caputo, Salvatori associate|date=6 December 2000|publisher=South American Business Information|access-date=2 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Parques - Sin Obras Escultóricas |url=https://weboeba.com/ptomadero/sin/img-parques/sin-pr.html |access-date=2024-08-21 |website=weboeba.com}}</ref> In the city of Rosario, a plaque commemorating her was unveiled by the city's mayor [[Mónica Fein]] and the provincial governor [[Miguel Lifschitz]] to mark International Women's Day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=La militante anarquista y feminista Virginia Bolten fue homenajeada|trans-title=Anarchist and feminist activist Virginia Bolten honoured|url=https://www.elciudadanoweb.com/httpwww-elciudadanoweb-comwp-adminpost-phppost609158actionedit/|date=8 March 2017|access-date=22 February 2018|work=El Ciudadano Web|language=es}}</ref> On 7 March 2018, the Municipal Council of [[Santa Fe, Argentina|Santa Fe]] established the ''Premio Virginia Bolten a la labor periodística con perspectiva de género'' ({{lang-en|Virginia Bolten Award for Gender-Sensitive Journalism}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.concejosantafe.gov.ar/noticia_Premio-Virginia-Bolten--Convocan-a-artistas-plasticas-y-periodistas_2336.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501225058/http://www.concejosantafe.gov.ar/noticia_Premio-Virginia-Bolten--Convocan-a-artistas-plasticas-y-periodistas_2336.html|archive-date=1 May 2018|title=Premio Virginia Bolten: Convocan a artistas plásticas y periodistas|trans-title=Virginia Bolten Prize: Call for visual artists and journalists|date=28 March 2018|access-date=24 October 2023|website=[[Santa Fe, Argentina|Consejo Santa Fe]]|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Convocan a artistas plásticas y periodistas a participar del premio Virginia Bolten|trans-title=Call for entries for the Virginia Bolten Award for visual artists and journalists|url=https://www.unosantafe.com.ar/santa-fe/convocan-artistas-plasticas-y-periodistas-participar-del-premio-virginia-bolten-n1583419.html|date=3 April 2018|access-date=24 October 2023|work=Uno Santa Fe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501232702/https://www.unosantafe.com.ar/santa-fe/convocan-artistas-plasticas-y-periodistas-participar-del-premio-virginia-bolten-n1583419.html|archive-date=1 May 2018|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=“Como periodistas podemos cambiar la vida de las mujeres”, dijo Mariana Carbajal|trans-title="As journalists we can change women's lives," said Mariana Carbajal|url=http://www.agenciatextual.com.ar/como-periodistas-podemos-cambiar-la-vida-de-las-mujeres-dijo-mariana-carbajal/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519002832/http://www.agenciatextual.com.ar/como-periodistas-podemos-cambiar-la-vida-de-las-mujeres-dijo-mariana-carbajal/|archive-date=19 May 2021|date=26 March 2018|access-date=24 October 2023|work=Agencia Textual|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Distinguieron a tres mujeres rafaelinas|trans-title=Three women from Raffaela were honoured|url=http://diariolaopinion.com.ar/noticia/212820/distinguieron-a-tres-mujeres-rafaelinas|date=9 March 2018|access-date=24 October 2023|work=Diario La Opinión|archive-date=1 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501225116/http://diariolaopinion.com.ar/noticia/212820/distinguieron-a-tres-mujeres-rafaelinas|language=es}}</ref>
-A park in [[Puerto Madero]], a district of [[Buenos Aires]], is named in her honor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-67685288.html|title=Argentina: Caputo, Salvatori associate|date=6 December 2000|publisher=South American Business Information|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref>
 ===Film===
-In 2007 the government of the [[San Luis Province]] in Argentina decided to fund a film honoring Virginia Bolten.<ref name="pagina"/> The film focuses mainly on Bolten's life, [[anarchist feminism]] and the social conditions, which led to the publication of ''La Voz de la Mujer''. It is titled ''No god, No master, no husband'' ({{lang-es|Ni dios, ni patrón, ni marido}}) after one of the newspaper's mottos<ref name="pagina">{{cite web|url=http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9-10516-2007-10-03.html|title=Film Adaptation of Virginia Bolten's activities|date=October 3, 2007|publisher=Pagina 12|language=Spanish|accessdate=2 February 2010|location=Argentina}}</ref> and Virginia Bolten is played by [[Julieta Díaz]]. The film, which will be released on April 29, 2010, in Argentina, was directed by the [[Spanish people|Spanish]] director [[Laura Mañá]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1563675/|title=Ni dios, ni patrón, ni marido|accessdate=2 February 2010}}</ref>
+In 2007, the government of [[San Luis Province]] in Argentina decided to fund a film honoring Virginia Bolten.<ref name="pagina"/> The film focuses mainly on Bolten's life, [[anarchist feminism]] and the social conditions, which led to the publication of ''La Voz de la Mujer''. It is titled ''No god, no master, no husband'' ({{lang-es|Ni dios, ni patrón, ni marido}}) after one of the newspaper's mottos.<ref name="pagina">{{cite web|url=http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/suplementos/rosario/9-10516-2007-10-03.html|first=Alicia|last=Simeoni|title=En San Luis se filmará la película de las anarquistas rosarinas|trans-title=Film about the anarchists from Rosario to be shot in San Luis|date=3 October 2007|work=Página 12|language=es|access-date=24 October 2023}}</ref>
 == References ==
 {{Reflist|2}}
+== Bibliography ==
+{{refbegin|2}}
+*{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Marifran|date=1988|chapter=Feminism and Socialism|title=Feminismo!: The Woman's Movement in Argentina From Its Beginnings to Eva Perón|publisher=[[Academy Chicago Publishers]]|pages=121–138|isbn=0-89733-152-4|lccn=85-18567|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/feminismowomans00carl/}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Cohn|first=Jesse|year=2009|title=Anarchism and Gender|editor-last=Ness|editor-first=Immanuel|encyclopedia=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|isbn=9781405198073|doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0055|pages=1–5}}
+*{{cite book|last=Ehrick|first=Christine|date=2005|chapter=The First Feminisms: State Building and Women's Organizing, 1880s-1915|title=The Shield of the Weak: Feminism and the State in Uruguay, 1903-1933|publisher=[[UNM Press]]|pages=33–68|isbn=0-8263-3468-7|lccn=2005002484|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWM6fa5MAi4C}}
+*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Ehrick|first=Christine|year=2017|title=Women, Politics, and Media in Uruguay, 1900–1950|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History|url=https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-303|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.303|isbn=9780199366439}}
+*{{cite book|editor1-first=Steven J.|editor1-last=Hirsch|editor2-first=Lucien|editor2-last=van der Walt|editor-link2=Lucien van der Walt|chapter=Straddling the Nation and the Working World: Anarchism and Syndicalism on the Docks and Rivers of Argentina, 1900–1930|title=Anarchism and Syndicalism in the Colonial and Postcolonial World, 1870–1940|first=Geoffroy|last=de Laforcade|series=Studies in Global Social History|volume=6|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|location=[[Leiden]]|year=2010|isbn=9789004188495|oclc=868808983|pages=321–362}}
+*{{cite book|last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|author-link=Maxine Molyneux|date=2001|chapter=‘No God, No Boss, No Husband!’ Anarchist Feminism in Nineteenth-Century Argentina|title=Women's Movements in International Perspective: Latin America and Beyond|publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]]|pages=13–37|isbn=978-0-333-78677-2|doi=10.1057/9780230286382_2|lccn=00-062707|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24}}
+*{{cite book|last=Moya|first=José|date=2002|chapter=Italians in Buenos Aires's Anarchist Movement: Gender Ideology and Women's Participation, 1890-1910|title=Women, Gender and Transnational Lives: Italian Workers of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AijCtjgmS44C|editor-first1=Donna|editor-last1=Gabaccia|editor-link1=Donna Gabaccia|editor-first2=Franca|editor-last2=Iacovetta|editor-link2=Franca Iacovetta|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|pages=189–216|isbn=978-0-8020-8462-0}}
+*{{cite journal|last=Moya|first=José|year=2004|title=The Positive Side of Stereotypes: Jewish Anarchists in Early-twentieth-Century Buenos Aires|journal=Jewish History|volume=18|issue=1|pages=19–48|doi=10.1023/B:JEHI.0000005735.80946.27|s2cid=144315538 }}
+*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Tarcus|first=Horacio|year=2009|title=Bolten, Virginia (ca. 1870–ca. 1960)|editor-last=Ness|editor-first=Immanuel|encyclopedia=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|isbn=9781405198073|doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp1764|page=1}}
+{{refend}}
+== Further reading ==
+{{refbegin|2}}
+*{{cite journal|last=Briggs|first=Ronald|year=2023|title=Clorinda Matto, Virginia Bolten and Press as Pedagogy in Buenos Aires at the Turn of the Twentieth Century|journal=Bulletin of Hispanic Studies|issn=1475-3839|volume=100|pages=33–46|doi=10.3828/bhs.2023.5|s2cid=256353683 }}
+*{{cite book|last=Shone|first=Steve J.|year=2024|title=Dangerous Anarchist Strikers|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|series=Studies in Critical Social Sciences|volume=272|isbn=978-90-04-68875-9}}
+{{refend}}
+==External links==
+{{refbegin|2}}
+*{{cite web|last=Bellucci|first=Mabel|year=2003|title=Virginia Boltem: la comunera Libertaria|website=DLa Tapa - Información Alternativa|url=https://www.nodo50.org/dlatapa/2002archivosdlt/sin_hist_12.htm|language=es}}
+*{{cite web|url=http://libcom.org/history/bolten-virginia-1870-1960-aka-%E2%80%9Cla-luisa-michel-rosarino%E2%80%9D-louise-michel-rosario|last=Heath|first=Nick|date=29 May 2009|title=Bolten, Virginia 1870-1960?|work=[[Libcom.org]]}}
+*{{cite web|url=https://anarchism.pageabode.com/no-god-no-boss-no-husband/|title=No God, No Boss, No Husband: The world's first Anarcha-Feminist group|last=McKay|first=Iain|date=3 March 2009|website=Anarchist Writers}}
+*{{Cite web|last=Mold|first=Rodrigo|date=10 February 2009|title=Virginia Bolten: "La Voz de la Mujer"|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521084115/http://www.cronicasderosario.com.ar/?p=226|archive-date=21 May 2010|url=http://www.cronicasderosario.com.ar/?p=226|website=Cronicas de Rosario|language=es}}
+*{{cite web|url=http://www.mujereshoy.com/secciones/2907.shtml|trans-title=Anarchists: "Neither God, Nor Master, Nor Husband"|title=Anarquistas: "Ni Dios, Ni Patrón, Ni Marido"|last=Portugal|first=Ana Maria|date=8 March 2005|website=Mujeres Hoy|language=es|access-date=2 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531115646/http://www.mujereshoy.com/secciones/2907.shtml|archive-date=31 May 2009|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}
+{{refend}}
+{{Feminism}}
 {{Authority control}}
@@ Line 52: / Line 154: @@
 [[Category:Argentine feminists]]
 [[Category:Argentine expatriates in Uruguay]]
+[[Category:Uruguayan anarchists]]

Authority control databases
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