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Coordinates: 10°03′43″S 152°18′46″W / 10.06194°S 152.31278°W / -10.06194; -152.31278
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{{Short description|Uninhabited coral island of eastern Kiribati}}
[[File:Vostok Island AKK.jpg|thumb|250px|Vostok Island]]
{{Main|Kiribati|Line Islands}}
{{Main|Kiribati|Line Islands}}
{{Infobox islands
⚫
'''Vostok Island''' is an uninhabited [[coral island]] in the central Pacific Ocean, part of the [[Line Islands]] belonging to [[Kiribati]]. Other names for the island include '''Anne Island''', '''Bostock Island''', '''Leavitts Island''', '''Reaper Island''', '''Wostock Island''' or '''Wostok Island'''. The island was first sighted in 1820 by the Russian explorer [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]], who named the island for his ship ''[[Vostok (sloop-of-war)|Vostok]]'' (the name means "East" in Russian).<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite journal |date=September 1971 |title=Bellingshausen and the discovery of Antarctica|journal=Polar Record |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=15 |issue=99 |pages=887–889 |doi=10.1017/S0032247400062112 |last1=Armstrong |first1=Terence }}</ref>
| name = Vostok Island
| image = Vostok Island AKK.jpg
| image_caption = Vostok Island
| image_map = KI Line islands.PNG
| image_map_caption = Map of the Line Islands
| pushpin_map = Kiribati#Oceania#Pacific Ocean
| pushpin_label = Vostok Island
| location = South [[Pacific Ocean]]
| coordinates = {{coord|10|03|43|S|152|18|46|W|region:KI-L_type:isle_scale:500000|display=inline,title}}
| country = {{flag|Kiribati}}
| archipelago = [[Line Islands]]
| area_km2 = 0.24
| length_km = 0.7
| width_km = 0.6
| elevation_m = 5
| population = 0
| timezone1 = [[UTC+14:00]]
| utc_offset1 =
}}

⚫
'''Vostok Island''' is an uninhabited [[coral island]] in the central Pacific Ocean, part of the [[Line Islands]] belonging to [[Kiribati]]. Other names for the island include '''Anne Island''', '''Bostock Island''', '''Leavitts Island''', '''Reaper Island''', '''Wostock Island''' or '''Wostok Island'''. The island was first sighted in 1820 by the Russian explorer [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]], who named the island for his ship ''[[Vostok (sloop-of-war)|Vostok]].''{{efn|The name means "East" in Russian.<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite journal |date=September 1971 |title=Bellingshausen and the discovery of Antarctica|journal=Polar Record |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=15 |issue=99 |pages=887–889 |doi=10.1017/S0032247400062112 |last1=Armstrong |first1=Terence |bibcode=1971PoRec..15..887A |s2cid=129664580 }}</ref>}}


== Geography, flora and fauna ==
== Geography, flora and fauna ==
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[[File:Kiribati-Vostok-highlighted.png|thumb|left|450px]]
[[File:Kiribati-Vostok-highlighted.png|thumb|left|450px]]


Vostok is located at {{coord|10|03|43|S|152|18|46|W |region:KI_type:isle_scale:10000000 |display=inline,title}} and covers a land area of {{convert|24|ha|abbr=off}}. Its nearest neighbors are [[Flint Island]], {{convert|158|km|mi|abbr=off}} south-southeast; [[Caroline Atoll]], {{convert|230|km|mi|abbr=off}} to the east; and [[Penrhyn atoll|Penrhyn]], {{convert|621|km|mi|abbr=off}} to the west. It is {{convert|1.3|km|mi|1|abbr=off}} in length, and is triangular-shaped.<ref name="JR">{{cite web| last = Resture| first =Jane | work= janeresture.com |title= Vostok Island, Line Islands |date = |url= http://www.janeresture.com/kiribati_line/vostok.htm| accessdate=15 May 2015}}</ref>
Vostok covers a land area of {{convert|24|ha|abbr=off}}. Its nearest neighbors are [[Flint Island]], {{convert|158|km|mi|abbr=off}} south-southeast; [[Caroline Atoll]] (renamed Millennium Island), {{convert|230|km|mi|abbr=off}} to the east; and [[Penrhyn atoll|Penrhyn]], {{convert|621|km|mi|abbr=off}} to the west. It is {{convert|1.3|km|mi|1|abbr=off}} in length, and is triangular-shaped.<ref name="JR">{{cite web| last = Resture| first =Jane | work= janeresture.com |title= Vostok Island, Line Islands |url= http://www.janeresture.com/kiribati_line/vostok.htm| access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref>


Beaches on the island range between {{convert|25|and|30|m|ft|abbr=off}} wide, composed of coral sand and rubble. There is no lagoon or fresh water on the island, and no known [[freshwater lens]]. Vostok's major portion is covered with a pure stand of ''Pisonia'' trees rooted in moist peat soil one meter thick. These trees, with heights of up to {{convert|24|m|ft|abbr=off}}, grow so densely that no other plants can grow beneath them.<ref name="JR"/> The herbs ''Boerhavia repens'' and ''Sesuvium portulac'' astrum round out the known vegetation.
Beaches on the island range between {{convert|25|and|30|m|ft|abbr=off}} wide, composed of coral sand and rubble. There is no lagoon or fresh water on the island, and no known [[freshwater lens]]. Vostok's major portion is covered with a pure stand of ''[[Pisonia grandis|Pisonia]]'' trees rooted in moist peat soil one meter thick.<ref name=ARB144>{{cite journal |url=https://vl-nocache.eightyoptions.com.au/sites/default/files/66_1.pdf |last1=Clapp |first1=Roger B. |last2=Sibley |first2=Fred C. |title=The vascular flora and terrestrial vertebrates of Vostok Island, South-Central Pacific |journal=Atoll Research Bulletin |volume=144 |date=16 February 1971 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.5479/si.00775630.144.1 |access-date=27 October 2021}}</ref> These trees, with heights of up to {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=off}}, grow so densely that no other plants can grow beneath them.
The island's dense foliage looks dark from when viewed above. This gives the island the appearance of a mysterious black hole when seen on [[Google Earth]] which generated speculation in 2021, leading to many to believe that the island is being censored from public view. However this conclusion is easily refuted by other mapping services and publicly available images. <ref>{{citation |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/59164705 |publisher=BBC |title=The mystery behind Google Maps' 'black hole' in the Pacific Ocean |date=5 Nov 2021}}</ref>


The herbs ''[[Boerhavia]] repens'' and ''[[Sesuvium portulacastrum]]'' round out the known vegetation.<ref name=SPREP2014>{{cite web |url=https://www.sprep.org/attachments/Publications/BEM/Directory_Wetlands_Kiribati_2014.pdf |title=Directory of Wetlands of Kiribati - 2014 |last1=Watkins |first1=Doug |last2=Batoromaio |first2=Kiritian |publisher=SPREP |date=2014 |page=87 |access-date=27 October 2021}}</ref> Although [[coconut]] seedlings were planted on Vostok in 1922 they failed to grow despite being successfully cultivated on the nearby islands of Caroline and Flint.<ref name="JR"/>
Coconut seedlings were planted on Vostok in 1922 and failed, although on the nearby islands of Caroline and Flint there are existing coconut palms.<ref name="JR"/>


Noteworthy fauna includes several species of seabirds, including the [[red-footed booby]] (''Sula sula''), [[great frigatebird]] (''Fregata minor''), [[lesser frigatebird]] (''F. ariel''), [[black noddy]] (''Anous minutus''), [[white tern]] (''Gygis alba''), [[masked booby]] (''Sula dactylatra''), [[brown booby]] (''S. leucogaster'') and [[brown noddy]] (''Anous stolidus''). The [[Polynesian rat]] and the azure-tailed [[skink]] (''Emoia cyanura''), together with [[coconut crab]]s and [[green turtle]]s, completes the known land fauna.
Noteworthy fauna includes several species of seabirds, including the [[red-footed booby]] (''Sula sula''), [[great frigatebird]] (''Fregata minor''), [[lesser frigatebird]] (''F. ariel''), [[black noddy]] (''Anous minutus''), [[white tern]] (''Gygis alba''), [[masked booby]] (''Sula dactylatra''), [[brown booby]] (''S. leucogaster'') and [[brown noddy]] (''Anous stolidus''). The [[Polynesian rat]] and the [[Emoia cyanura|copper-tailed skink]] (''Emoia cyanura''), together with [[coconut crab]]s and [[green turtle]]s, completes the known land fauna.<ref name=ARB144/>


== History ==
== History ==
According to a 1966 article in ''[[Pacific Islands Monthly]]'', there is no evidence of Polynesian settlement of Vostok Island prior to European discovery. Cook Islanders from [[Manihiki]] and [[Penrhyn atoll]] – the nearest inhabited islands to Vostok – interviewed in 1924 reported that they had no name for the island and were unaware of its existence.<ref name=PIM1966>{{cite news |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-331794890/view?sectionId=nla.obj-338884887 |title=Vostok Island's History Is Yet To Be Made |work=Pacific Islands Monthly |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=86–87 |date=1 September 1966 |access-date=27 October 2021 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref>


The island was first sighted in 1820 by the Russian explorer [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]], who named the island for his ship ''[[Vostok (sloop-of-war)|Vostok]]'' (the name means "East" in Russian).<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> Vostok was claimed by the United States under the [[Guano Act of 1856]], but was never mined for phosphate.<ref name="JR"/> It is unknown whether the island has ever been inhabited, although the presence of rats suggests that ancient [[Polynesians]] might have at least visited. No evidence of permanent settlement has ever been found.
The island was first sighted in 1820 by the Russian explorer [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]], who named the island for his ship ''[[Vostok (sloop-of-war)|Vostok]]'' (the name means "East" in Russian).<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> Various whalers sighted the island over the following decades and believed it to be undiscovered, giving it the additional names of Stavers Island, Reaper Island, Leavitts Island and Anne Island.<ref name=PIM1966/>

In 1841, the island was visited by [[USS Porpoise (1836)|USS ''Porpoise'']] of the [[United States Exploring Expedition]], which was unable to land due to heavy surf.<ref name=PIM1966/> Vostok was claimed by the United States under the ''[[Guano Act of 1856]]'', but was never mined for [[phosphate]].<ref name="JR"/> In 1874, guano entrepreneur [[John T. Arundel]] was granted licence to the island by the British [[Colonial Office]]. The coal barque ''Tokatea'' was wrecked on the island in 1879, with its crew making the first recorded landing and subsequently escaping to [[Tetiꞌaroa]] in the ship's boats. Arundel visited Vostok in 1883 to assess its potential and completed a survey for the [[Admiralty Office]].<ref name=PIM1966/>


Vostok formed part of the British [[Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony]], until becoming a part of newly independent Kiribati in 1979. American claims on the island were vacated in the [[Treaty of Tarawa]] in the same year.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1836.htm US Department of State Background Note]</ref>
Vostok formed part of the British [[Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony]], until becoming a part of newly independent Kiribati in 1979. American claims on the island were vacated in the [[Treaty of Tarawa]] in the same year.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1836.htm US Department of State Background Note]</ref>


Vostok Island is designated as the ''Vostok Island Wildlife Sanctuary''.<ref name="IRD">{{cite web| last = Edward R. Lovell, Taratau Kirata & Tooti Tekinaiti | work= Centre IRD de Nouméa |title= Status report for Kiribati's coral reefs|date =September 2002 |url= http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers14-11/010032214.pdf| accessdate=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="IRD"/><ref>{{cite book| last = Paine | first = James R.| authorlink = | title = IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania | publisher = World Conservation Union| series = | year = 1991 | url = | isbn = 978-0-8248-1217-1}}</ref> In 2014 the Kiribati government announced to establish a 12-nautical-mile fishing exclusion zone around each of the southern Line Islands (Caroline (commonly called Millennium), Flint, Vostok, Malden, and Starbuck).<ref name="SLIE">{{cite web| last = Warne| first = Kennedy | work= National Geographic |title= A World Apart – The Southern Line Islands |date =September 2014 |url= http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/explore/pristine-seas/southern-line-islands/| accessdate=15 May 2015}}</ref>
Vostok Island is designated as the ''Vostok Island Wildlife Sanctuary''.<ref name="IRD">{{cite web| last = Edward R. Lovell, Taratau Kirata & Tooti Tekinaiti | work= Centre IRD de Nouméa |title= Status report for Kiribati's coral reefs|date =September 2002 |url= http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers14-11/010032214.pdf| access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Paine | first = James R.| title = IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania | publisher = World Conservation Union| year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-8248-1217-1}}</ref> In 2014 the Kiribati government announced the establishment of a 12-nautical-mile fishing exclusion zone around each of the southern Line Islands (Caroline, Flint, Vostok, [[Malden Island|Malden]], and [[Starbuck Island|Starbuck]]).<ref name="SLIE">{{cite web| last = Warne| first = Kennedy| work = National Geographic| title = A World Apart – The Southern Line Islands| date = September 2014| url = http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/explore/pristine-seas/southern-line-islands/| access-date = 15 May 2015| archive-date = 21 August 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170821050200/http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/explore/pristine-seas/southern-line-islands/| url-status = dead}}</ref>


Its isolated nature means it is rarely visited, save by the occasional scientist or yachter.<ref name="SLIE"/> Passengers aboard the ''[[Golden Princess (2000)|Golden Princess]]'' see it on the ships route from [[French Polynesia]] to Hawaii. Landing is said to be difficult, and no harbor or anchorage exists.
Its isolated nature means it is rarely visited, save by the occasional scientist or yachter.<ref name="SLIE"/> Passengers aboard the ''[[Golden Princess (2000)|Golden Princess]]'' see it on the ship's route from [[French Polynesia]] to Hawaii. Landing is said to be difficult, and no harbor or anchorage exists.<ref name=PIM1966/>


== Photo gallery ==
== Photo gallery ==
<gallery style="margin-left:32px; float:left" caption= . heights="100px" perrow="6">
<gallery style="margin-left:32px; float:left" caption="" heights="100px" perrow="6">
File:Vostok AKK wind-shorn Pisonia.jpg|Wind-shorn Pisonia trees on Vostok Island
File:Vostok AKK wind-shorn Pisonia.jpg|Wind-shorn Pisonia trees on Vostok Island
File:Vostok AKK Pisonia.jpg|Virgin forest of Pisonia trees covering Vostok Island
File:Vostok AKK Pisonia.jpg|Virgin forest of Pisonia trees covering Vostok Island
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== References ==
== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}
=== References ===
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
* [http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/explore/pristine-seas/southern-line-islands/ National Geographic - Southern Line Islands Expedition, 2014]
* [http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/explore/pristine-seas/southern-line-islands/ National Geographic - Southern Line Islands Expedition, 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821050200/http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/explore/pristine-seas/southern-line-islands/ |date=2017-08-21 }}
* [http://www.janeresture.com/kiribati_line/vostok.htm Article at Jane's Oceania Home Page] - includes a sketch map
* [http://www.janeresture.com/kiribati_line/vostok.htm Article at Jane's Oceania Home Page] - includes a sketch map
* [http://www.theoceanadventure.com/NemoIE03/DAY19Nemo.html Article at Looking For Nemo Expedition's site] - includes photo and sketch map
* [http://www.theoceanadventure.com/NemoIE03/DAY19Nemo.html Article at Looking For Nemo Expedition's site] - includes photo and sketch map
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{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


⚫
[[Category:Line Islands (Kiribati)]]
[[Category:Coral islands]]
[[Category:Coral islands]]
[[Category:Uninhabited islands of Kiribati]]
[[Category:Uninhabited islands of Kiribati]]
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[[Category:Islands of Kiribati]]
[[Category:Islands of Kiribati]]
[[Category:Former disputed islands]]
[[Category:Former disputed islands]]
⚫
[[Category:Line Islands (Kiribati)]]

Latest revision as of 05:44, 13 August 2024

Main articles: Kiribati and Line Islands
Vostok Island
Vostok Island
Map of the Line Islands
Vostok Island is located in Kiribati
Vostok Island
Vostok Island
Vostok Island is located in Oceania
Vostok Island
Vostok Island
Vostok Island is located in Pacific Ocean
Vostok Island
Vostok Island
Geography
LocationSouth Pacific Ocean
Coordinates10°03′43″S 152°18′46″W / 10.06194°S 152.31278°W / -10.06194; -152.31278
ArchipelagoLine Islands
Area0.24 km2 (0.093 sq mi)
Length0.7 km (0.43 mi)
Width0.6 km (0.37 mi)
Highest elevation5 m (16 ft)
Administration
Demographics
Population0
Additional information
Time zone

Vostok Island is an uninhabited coral island in the central Pacific Ocean, part of the Line Islands belonging to Kiribati. Other names for the island include Anne Island, Bostock Island, Leavitts Island, Reaper Island, Wostock Island or Wostok Island. The island was first sighted in 1820 by the Russian explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, who named the island for his ship Vostok.[a]

Geography, flora and fauna

[edit]

Vostok covers a land area of 24 hectares (59 acres). Its nearest neighbors are Flint Island, 158 kilometres (98 miles) south-southeast; Caroline Atoll (renamed Millennium Island), 230 kilometres (140 miles) to the east; and Penrhyn, 621 kilometres (386 miles) to the west. It is 1.3 kilometres (0.8 miles) in length, and is triangular-shaped.[2]

Beaches on the island range between 25 and 30 metres (82 and 98 feet) wide, composed of coral sand and rubble. There is no lagoon or fresh water on the island, and no known freshwater lens. Vostok's major portion is covered with a pure stand of Pisonia trees rooted in moist peat soil one meter thick.[3] These trees, with heights of up to 30 metres (98 feet), grow so densely that no other plants can grow beneath them. The island's dense foliage looks dark from when viewed above. This gives the island the appearance of a mysterious black hole when seen on Google Earth which generated speculation in 2021, leading to many to believe that the island is being censored from public view. However this conclusion is easily refuted by other mapping services and publicly available images. [4]

The herbs Boerhavia repens and Sesuvium portulacastrum round out the known vegetation.[5] Although coconut seedlings were planted on Vostok in 1922 they failed to grow despite being successfully cultivated on the nearby islands of Caroline and Flint.[2]

Noteworthy fauna includes several species of seabirds, including the red-footed booby (Sula sula), great frigatebird (Fregata minor), lesser frigatebird (F. ariel), black noddy (Anous minutus), white tern (Gygis alba), masked booby (Sula dactylatra), brown booby (S. leucogaster) and brown noddy (Anous stolidus). The Polynesian rat and the copper-tailed skink (Emoia cyanura), together with coconut crabs and green turtles, completes the known land fauna.[3]

History

[edit]

According to a 1966 article in Pacific Islands Monthly, there is no evidence of Polynesian settlement of Vostok Island prior to European discovery. Cook Islanders from Manihiki and Penrhyn atoll – the nearest inhabited islands to Vostok – interviewed in 1924 reported that they had no name for the island and were unaware of its existence.[6]

The island was first sighted in 1820 by the Russian explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, who named the island for his ship Vostok (the name means "East" in Russian).[1] Various whalers sighted the island over the following decades and believed it to be undiscovered, giving it the additional names of Stavers Island, Reaper Island, Leavitts Island and Anne Island.[6]

In 1841, the island was visited by USS Porpoise of the United States Exploring Expedition, which was unable to land due to heavy surf.[6] Vostok was claimed by the United States under the Guano Act of 1856, but was never mined for phosphate.[2] In 1874, guano entrepreneur John T. Arundel was granted licence to the island by the British Colonial Office. The coal barque Tokatea was wrecked on the island in 1879, with its crew making the first recorded landing and subsequently escaping to Tetiꞌaroa in the ship's boats. Arundel visited Vostok in 1883 to assess its potential and completed a survey for the Admiralty Office.[6]

Vostok formed part of the British Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, until becoming a part of newly independent Kiribati in 1979. American claims on the island were vacated in the Treaty of Tarawa in the same year.[7]

Vostok Island is designated as the Vostok Island Wildlife Sanctuary.[8][9] In 2014 the Kiribati government announced the establishment of a 12-nautical-mile fishing exclusion zone around each of the southern Line Islands (Caroline, Flint, Vostok, Malden, and Starbuck).[10]

Its isolated nature means it is rarely visited, save by the occasional scientist or yachter.[10] Passengers aboard the Golden Princess see it on the ship's route from French Polynesia to Hawaii. Landing is said to be difficult, and no harbor or anchorage exists.[6]

[edit]
  • Wind-shorn Pisonia trees on Vostok Island
    Wind-shorn Pisonia trees on Vostok Island
  • Virgin forest of Pisonia trees covering Vostok Island
    Virgin forest of Pisonia trees covering Vostok Island
  • Western coastline of Vostok Island
    Western coastline of Vostok Island

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The name means "East" in Russian.[1]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Armstrong, Terence (September 1971). "Bellingshausen and the discovery of Antarctica". Polar Record. 15 (99). Cambridge University Press: 887–889. Bibcode:1971PoRec..15..887A. doi:10.1017/S0032247400062112. S2CID 129664580.
  2. ^ a b c Resture, Jane. "Vostok Island, Line Islands". janeresture.com. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  3. ^ a b Clapp, Roger B.; Sibley, Fred C. (16 February 1971). "The vascular flora and terrestrial vertebrates of Vostok Island, South-Central Pacific" (PDF). Atoll Research Bulletin. 144: 1–9. doi:10.5479/si.00775630.144.1. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
  4. ^ The mystery behind Google Maps' 'black hole' in the Pacific Ocean, BBC, 5 Nov 2021
  5. ^ Watkins, Doug; Batoromaio, Kiritian (2014). "Directory of Wetlands of Kiribati - 2014" (PDF). SPREP. p. 87. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
  6. ^ a b c d e "Vostok Island's History Is Yet To Be Made". Pacific Islands Monthly. Vol. 37, no. 9. 1 September 1966. pp. 86–87. Retrieved 27 October 2021 – via National Library of Australia.
  7. ^ US Department of State Background Note
  8. ^ Edward R. Lovell, Taratau Kirata & Tooti Tekinaiti (September 2002). "Status report for Kiribati's coral reefs" (PDF). Centre IRD de Nouméa. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  9. ^ Paine, James R. (1991). IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania. World Conservation Union. ISBN 978-0-8248-1217-1.
  10. ^ a b Warne, Kennedy (September 2014). "A World Apart – The Southern Line Islands". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 21 August 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
[edit]
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