Late Middle Japanese: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|form of Japanese spoken from the 12th century through the 16th century}} |
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{{Short description|Form of Japanese spoken from the 12th century through the 16th century}} |
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{{Expand Japanese|otherarticle=中世日本語|topic=hist|date=January 2019}} |
{{Expand Japanese|otherarticle=中世日本語|topic=hist|date=January 2019}} |
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{{Infobox language |
{{Infobox language |
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|name=Late Middle Japanese |
| name = Late Middle Japanese |
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|nativename=中世日本語 |
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| nativename = 中世日本語 |
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|region=[[Japan]] |
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| region = [[Japan]] |
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|era=Evolved into [[Early Modern Japanese]] in the 17th century |
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| era = Evolved into [[Early Modern Japanese]] in the 17th century |
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|familycolor=Altaic |
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| familycolor = Altaic |
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|fam1=[[Japonic languages|Japonic]] |
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| fam1 = [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] |
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|fam2=[[Japanese language|Japanese]] |
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| |
| fam2 = [[Japanese language|Japanese]] |
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| |
| ancestor = [[Old Japanese]] |
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| ancestor2 = [[Early Middle Japanese]] |
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|script=[[Hiragana]], [[Katakana]], and [[Chinese characters|Han]] |
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| script = [[Hiragana]], [[Katakana]], and [[Kanji]] |
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|isoexception=historical |
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| isoexception = historical |
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|glotto=none |
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| glotto = none |
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|notice=IPA |
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| notice = IPA |
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}} |
}} |
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{{nihongo|'''Late Middle Japanese'''|中世日本語|chūsei nihongo}} |
{{nihongo|'''Late Middle Japanese'''|中世日本語|chūsei nihongo}} was a stage of the [[Japanese language]] following [[Early Middle Japanese]] and preceding [[Early Modern Japanese]].<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Shibatani|1990|p=119}}</ref> It was a period of transition in which the language shed many of its archaic features and became closer to its modern form. |
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The period spanned roughly 500 years |
The period spanned roughly 500 years from the 12th century to the 16th century and is customarily divided into Early and Late periods.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Nakata|1972|p=175}}</ref> Politically, the first half of Late Middle Japanese was the end of the [[Heian period]], known as ''Insei'' and the [[Kamakura period]]. The second half of Late Middle Japanese was the [[Muromachi period]]. |
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==Background== |
==Background== |
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The |
The late 12th century was a time of transition from the [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] society of nobles in the [[Heian period]] to the [[feudal Japan|feudal]] society of the [[samurai|warrior class]]. Accompanying that change, the nation's political center temporarily transitioned from historical [[Kyoto]] to [[Kantō region|Kanto]] alongside the establishment of the [[Kamakura shogunate]]. This move resulted in a significant blend between the dialects of Kyoto and Kanto, shaping the language of the time. |
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During this period, various [[Buddhism in Japan#Early and Middle Kamakura Buddhism (1185–1300)|Buddhist movements]] found their footing, leading to an overall increase in [[literacy]].<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kondō|Tsukimoto|Sugiura|2005|p=97}}</ref> |
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Various new Buddhist movements began and [[literacy]] increased due their spread.<ref>Kondō (2005: 97)</ref> |
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In the |
In the mid-16th century, [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Christian mission]]aries arrived in [[Japan]]. Alongside Western technology and philosophy, the Portuguese brought various [[gairaigo|loanwords]] to the Japanese language.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Shibatani|1990|p=121}}</ref> |
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In an attempt to spread |
In an attempt to spread [[Kirishitan|Christianity]] among the locals, many Portuguese missionaries studied Japanese, producing a number of dictionaries and linguistic grammars such as the ''[[Arte da Lingoa de Iapam]]'' and ''[[Nippo Jisho]]'', in addition to producing translations of Japanese literary works. Today, these materials serve a vital role in the study of medieval Japanese language. |
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==Phonology== |
==Phonology== |
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* /u/: {{IPA|[u]}} |
* /u/: {{IPA|[u]}} |
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Initially, /e/ and /o/ were realized with [[semivowel]]s {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}}, respectively,{{dubious|date=October 2012}} a result of earlier mergers inherited from Early Middle Japanese. However, it is unclear |
Initially, /e/ and /o/ were realized with [[semivowel]]s {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}}, respectively,{{dubious|date=October 2012}} a result of earlier mergers inherited from Early Middle Japanese. However, it is unclear as to how they were realized when they were preceded by a consonant.<ref name="nakata">{{harvcoltxt|Nakata|1972|p=181}}</ref> |
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In addition, there were two types of long ''o'': {{IPA|[ɔː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}}. The vowel sequence /au/ contracted into {{IPA|[ɔː]}}, and /ou/ and /eu/ contracted into {{IPA|[oː]}} and {{IPA|[joː]}}, respectively:<ref>Yamaguchi |
In addition, there were two types of long ''o'': {{IPA|[ɔː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}}. The vowel sequence /au/ contracted into {{IPA|[ɔː]}}, and /ou/ and /eu/ contracted into {{IPA|[oː]}} and {{IPA|[joː]}}, respectively:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Yamaguchi|Suzuki|Sakanashi|Tsukimoto|1997|pp=86–87}}</ref> |
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*/ |
*/ɸayaku/ "quickly" > /ɸayau/: {{IPA|[ɸajaku]}} > {{IPA|[ɸajau]}} > {{IPA|[ɸajɔː]}} |
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*/omou/ "think": {{IPA|[womou]}} > {{IPA|[womoː]}} |
*/omou/ "think": {{IPA|[womou]}} > {{IPA|[womoː]}} |
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| {{IPA link|ɴ}} |
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɴ}} |
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|- |
|- |
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!'''[[fricative consonant|Fricative]]''' |
!'''[[fricative consonant|Fricative]]''' |
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In addition were two [[phonemes]]: /N/ and /Q/. "Before a pause, /N/ is a uvular {{IPA|[ɴ]}}; it assimilates to the place of articulation of a following stop, affricate, or nasal." "/Q/ becomes a phonetic copy of a following obstruent."<ref>Miyake |
In addition were two [[phonemes]]: /N/ and /Q/. "Before a pause, /N/ is a uvular {{IPA|[ɴ]}}; it assimilates to the place of articulation of a following stop, affricate, or nasal." "/Q/ becomes a phonetic copy of a following obstruent."<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Miyake|2003|pp=76–77}}</ref> |
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*/s, z/, /t, d/, /n/, /h, b/, /p/, /m/, and /r/ could be palatalized. |
*/s, z/, /t, d/, /n/, /h, b/, /p/, /m/, and /r/ could be palatalized. |
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[[Labialisation|Labialized]] consonants /kw, gw/ appeared during Early Middle Japanese. Labialized consonants before -i and -e merged with their non-labial counterparts.<ref name="Kondō 2005: 103">Kondō |
[[Labialisation|Labialized]] consonants /kw, gw/ appeared during Early Middle Japanese. Labialized consonants before -i and -e merged with their non-labial counterparts.<ref name="Kondō 2005: 103">{{harvcoltxt|Kondō|Tsukimoto|Sugiura|2005|p=103}}</ref> Specifically: |
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*/kwi/ > /ki/ |
*/kwi/ > /ki/ |
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*/gwi/ > /gi/ |
*/gwi/ > /gi/ |
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The distinction between /ka/ and /kwa/ remained. |
The distinction between /ka/ and /kwa/ remained. |
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The [[Sibilant consonant|sibilants]] /s, z/ were [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalized]] before /i/ and /e/ and had the following distribution:<ref name="Miyake 2003: 75">Miyake |
The [[Sibilant consonant|sibilants]] /s, z/ were [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalized]] before /i/ and /e/ and had the following distribution:<ref name="Miyake 2003: 75">{{harvcoltxt|Miyake|2003|p=75}}</ref> |
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*/sa, za/: {{IPA|[sa, za]}} |
*/sa, za/: {{IPA|[sa, za]}} |
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*/si, zi/: {{IPA|[ɕi, ʑi]}} |
*/si, zi/: {{IPA|[ɕi, ʑi]}} |
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*/so, zo/: {{IPA|[so, zo]}} |
*/so, zo/: {{IPA|[so, zo]}} |
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[[João Rodrigues |
[[João Rodrigues Tçuzu|João Rodrigues]] noted in ''Arte da Lingoa de Iapam'' that the eastern dialects were known for realizing /se/ as {{IPA|[se]}}, rather than {{IPA|[ɕe]}}.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Yamaguchi|Suzuki|Sakanashi|Tsukimoto|1997|pp=87–88}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Doi|1955|p=613}}</ref> Note that /se, ze/ has become {{IPA|[se, ze]}} in Modern Japanese but retained {{IPA|[ɕi, ʑi]}} for /si, zi/. |
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/t/ and /d/ were distinguished from the sibilants in all positions but undergo [[Affricate consonant|affrication]] before /i, u/: |
/t/ and /d/ were distinguished from the sibilants in all positions but undergo [[Affricate consonant|affrication]] before /i, u/: |
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====Prenasalization==== |
====Prenasalization==== |
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[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] [[stop consonant|stops]] and [[fricative consonant|fricatives]] were [[prenasalized consonant|prenasalized]]:<ref>Ōno |
[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] [[stop consonant|stops]] and [[fricative consonant|fricatives]] were [[prenasalized consonant|prenasalized]]:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Ōno|2000|pp=53–54}}</ref> |
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*/g/: {{IPA|[ᵑɡ]}} |
*/g/: {{IPA|[ᵑɡ]}} |
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*/z/: {{IPA|[ⁿz]}} |
*/z/: {{IPA|[ⁿz]}} |
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*/b/: {{IPA|[ᵐb]}} |
*/b/: {{IPA|[ᵐb]}} |
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João Rodrigues made that observation in '' |
João Rodrigues made that observation in ''Arte da Lingoa de Iapam''. In addition, the Korean text ''[[Ch'ŏphae Sinŏ]]'' spelled [...] b, d, z, g with the [[Hangul]] letter sequences -mp-, -nt-, -nz-, -ngk-"<ref name="Miyake 2003: 75"/> indicating prenasalization. |
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The effects of prenasalization may also be seen in the transcription of words such as ''muma'' < /uma/ "horse" and ''mube'' < /ube/ "truly". |
The effects of prenasalization may also be seen in the transcription of words such as ''muma'' < /uma/ "horse" and ''mube'' < /ube/ "truly". |
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====/h/ and /p/==== |
====/h/ and /p/==== |
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[[Proto-Japanese]] contained {{IPA|*[p]}}, but by [[Old Japanese]], it had become {{IPA|[ɸ]}}. Late Middle Japanese reintroduced {{IPA|[p]}}, which [[phonemic contrast|contrasted]] with {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and so was treated as a new [[phoneme]]. In Early Modern Japanese, {{IPA|[ɸ]}} became {{IPA|[h]}} in many dialects, as it still is. {{IPA|[p]}} is found in [[mimetic]] words, such as ''pinpin'' and ''patto'', as well as in Chinese [[loanwords]] such as ''sanpai'' and ''nippon''.<ref>Nakata |
[[Proto-Japanese]] contained {{IPA|*[p]}}, but by [[Old Japanese]], it had become {{IPA|[ɸ]}}. Late Middle Japanese reintroduced {{IPA|[p]}}, which [[phonemic contrast|contrasted]] with {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and so was treated as a new [[phoneme]]. In Early Modern Japanese, {{IPA|[ɸ]}} became {{IPA|[h]}} in many dialects, as it still is. {{IPA|[p]}} is found in [[mimetic]] words, such as ''pinpin'' and ''patto'', as well as in Chinese [[loanwords]] such as ''sanpai'' and ''nippon''.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Nakata|1972|pp=197–198}}</ref> |
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Medial / |
Medial /ɸ/ became {{IPA|[w]}} before /a/. Before all other vowels, it became silent:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kondō|Tsukimoto|Sugiura|2005|p=71}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Miyake|2003|pp=74–75}}</ref> |
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*/- |
*/-ɸa/: {{IPA|[wa]}} |
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*/- |
*/-ɸi/: {{IPA|[i]}} |
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*/- |
*/-ɸu/: {{IPA|[u]}} |
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*/- |
*/-ɸe/: {{IPA|[je]}} |
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*/- |
*/-ɸo/: {{IPA|[wo]}} |
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====Glides==== |
====Glides==== |
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The prior merger between /o/ and /wo/ into {{IPA|[wo]}} during Early Middle Japanese continued into Late Middle Japanese, with /e/ and /we/ merging into {{IPA|[je]}} by the 12th century. |
The prior merger between /o/ and /wo/ into {{IPA|[wo]}} during Early Middle Japanese continued into Late Middle Japanese, with /e/ and /we/ merging into {{IPA|[je]}} by the 12th century. |
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/ |
/j/ had the following distribution: |
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*/ |
*/ja/: {{IPA|[ja]}} |
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*/ |
*/ju/: {{IPA|[ju]}} |
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*/ |
*/je/: {{IPA|[je]}} |
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*/ |
*/jo/: {{IPA|[jo]}} |
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Various mergers, /e/, /we/ and / |
Various mergers, /e/, /we/ and /je/ made all realized as {{IPA|[je]}} and thus indistinguishable. |
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===Syllable structure=== |
===Syllable structure=== |
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Traditionally, [[syllables]] |
Traditionally, [[syllables]] were of (C)V structure and so there was no need to distinguish between syllables and [[mora (linguistics)|morae]]. However, Chinese loanwords introduced a new type of sound that could end in -m, -n, or -t.<ref name="in247">{{harvcoltxt|Irwin|Narrog|2012|p=247}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Nakata|1972|pp=222–226}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Doi|1955|pp=230–232}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Martin|1987|pp=73–75}}</ref> That structure is the syllable (C)V(C). The mora is based on the traditional (C)V structure. |
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The final syllables -m and -n were initially distinguished; but by the end of the Early period, both had merged into /N/.<ref>Kondō |
The final syllables -m and -n were initially distinguished; but by the end of the Early period, both had merged into /N/.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kondō|Tsukimoto|Sugiura|2005|p=102}}</ref><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Irwin|Narrog|2012|p=250}}</ref> |
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===Medial gemination=== |
===Medial gemination=== |
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The final syllables -m, -n, -t before a vowel or a [[Semivowel|glide]] underwent [[gemination]] and became the consonant clusters -mm-, -nn-, and -tt-.<ref name="Kondō 2005: 103"/><ref>Martin |
The final syllables -m, -n, -t before a vowel or a [[Semivowel|glide]] underwent [[gemination]] and became the consonant clusters -mm-, -nn-, and -tt-.<ref name="Kondō 2005: 103"/><ref>{{harvcoltxt|Martin|1987|p=75}}</ref><ref name="in247" /> |
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-m > -mm-: |
-m > -mm-: |
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-n > -nn-: |
-n > -nn-: |
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*ten'wau > tennau > {{IPA|tennoː}} "[[Emperor of Japan |
*ten'wau > tennau > {{IPA|tennoː}} "[[Emperor of Japan]]" |
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*kwan'on > kwannon "[[ |
*kwan'on > kwannon "[[Guanyin]]" |
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*kon'ya > konnya "tonight" |
*kon'ya > konnya "tonight" |
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===Onbin=== |
===Onbin=== |
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{{also|Japanese grammar#Euphonic changes (音便 onbin)}} |
{{See also|Japanese grammar#Euphonic changes (音便 onbin)}} |
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{{Nihongo|''Onbin''|音便|extra="[[euphony]]"}} are a type of sporadic sound changes and "were not automatic or exceptionless," <ref>Frellesvig |
{{Nihongo|''Onbin''|音便|extra="[[euphony]]"}} are a type of sporadic sound changes and "were not automatic or exceptionless," <ref>{{harvcoltxt|Frellesvig|1995|p=21}}</ref> and their exact causes are still debated. They also appear in earlier stages of the language but were particularly prevalent throughout Late Middle Japanese and had a great effect on its verbal and adjectival morphology. |
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Verbs: |
Verbs: |
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*''yom-'' "read": / |
*''yom-'' "read": /jomite/ > /joNde/ {{IPA|[joɴde]}} |
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*''kuh-'' "eat": / |
*''kuh-'' "eat": /kuɸite/ > /kuute/ {{IPA|[kuːte]}} :: /kuQte/ {{IPA|[kutte]}} |
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The ''kuh-'' example had two possible outcomes. The former was particular of the western dialects, and the latter was particular of the eastern dialects.<ref>Kondō |
The ''kuh-'' example had two possible outcomes. The former was particular of the western dialects, and the latter was particular of the eastern dialects.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kondō|Tsukimoto|Sugiura|2005|p=128}}</ref> |
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Adjectives: |
Adjectives: |
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*/ |
*/ɸajaku/ "quickly" > /ɸajau/: [ɸajaku] > [ɸajau] > [ɸajɔː] |
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*/kataki/ "hard" > /katai/ {{IPA|[katai]}} |
*/kataki/ "hard" > /katai/ {{IPA|[katai]}} |
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==Morphology== |
==Morphology== |
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A number of archaic grammatical forms were lost |
A number of archaic grammatical forms were lost in this period, bringing the language closer to its modern form. |
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One of the most prominent developments was the replacement of the conclusive form by the attributive,<ref>Yamaguchi |
One of the most prominent developments was the replacement of the conclusive form by the attributive,<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Yamaguchi|Suzuki|Sakanashi|Tsukimoto|1997|pp=95–96}}</ref> which has a number of effects: |
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*It was instrumental in changing from bigrade to monograde verbs.<ref name="tsuboi">Tsuboi |
*It was instrumental in changing from bigrade to monograde verbs.<ref name="tsuboi">{{harvcoltxt|Tsuboi|2007|pp=14–30}}</ref> |
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*It caused a chain of events in the two adjectival classes that eventually resulted in both merging into one. |
*It caused a chain of events in the two adjectival classes that eventually resulted in both merging into one. |
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*It weakened the |
*It weakened the {{ill|kakarimusubi|ja|係り結び}} system. |
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*The verb ''ar-'' "be", which was once irregular, began to regularize as a quadrigrade. |
*The verb ''ar-'' "be", which was once irregular, began to regularize as a quadrigrade. |
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===Verbs=== |
===Verbs=== |
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Late Middle Japanese inherited all nine [[verb |
Late Middle Japanese inherited all nine [[verb]]al conjugations from Early Middle Japanese: |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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However, throughout the period, bigrade verbs gradually changed into monogrades. |
However, throughout the period, bigrade verbs gradually changed into monogrades. The process was completed by Early Modern Japanese, partly a result of the merger of the conclusive and attributive forms.<ref name="tsuboi" /> |
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===Adjectives=== |
===Adjectives=== |
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====Regular adjectives==== |
====Regular adjectives==== |
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The regular adjective was traditionally subdivided into two types: those whose adverbial form ends in ''-ku'' and those whose ends in ''–siku'':<ref>Matsumura |
The regular adjective was traditionally subdivided into two types: those whose adverbial form ends in ''-ku'' and those whose ends in ''–siku'':<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Matsumura|1971|pp=961, 966–967}}</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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*In Late Middle Japanese, adjectival suffix ''-ki'' was reduced to ''-i'' |
*In Late Middle Japanese, adjectival suffix ''-ki'' was reduced to ''-i'' |
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While the grammatical distinction between the two classes has disappeared, the historic distinction |
While the grammatical distinction between the two classes has disappeared, the historic distinction was used to explain certain present forms of ''-shii'' adjectives, notably the [[Japanese grammar#Euphonic changes .28.E9.9F.B3.E4.BE.BF onbin.29|euphonic changes (音便)]] that occur in [[Japanese grammar#Polite forms of adjectives|polite form of adjectives]] (when they are followed by ござる ''gozaru'' 'to be' or 存じる ''zonjiru'' 'to know'). |
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====Adjectival nouns==== |
====Adjectival nouns==== |
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The most prominent development was the reduction of attributive ''-naru'' to ''-na''.<ref>Kondō |
The most prominent development was the reduction of attributive ''-naru'' to ''-na''.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kondō|Tsukimoto|Sugiura|2005|p=113}}</ref> When the conclusive and attributive merged, they both share the new ''-na''. The ''tar-'' type becomes more archaic and was continually reduced in distribution. In Modern Japanese, a few [[Japanese adjectives#naru-adjectives|''naru''-adjectives]] and [[Japanese adjectives#taru-adjectives|''taru''-adjectives]] remain as [[fossilization (linguistics)|fossils]]. |
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===Hypothetical=== |
===Hypothetical=== |
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The realis base developed into the hypothetical.<ref>Yamaguchi |
The realis base developed into the hypothetical.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Yamaguchi|Suzuki|Sakanashi|Tsukimoto|1997|p=96}}</ref> The [[realis moods|realis]] described something that had already occurred. That usage began to fade and resulted in the use of the hypothetical for events that have not already occurred. Note that Modern Japanese has only a hypothetical and has lost this realis base. |
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===Imperative=== |
===Imperative=== |
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The imperative traditionally ended either with no suffix or with ''-yo''. During Late Middle Japanese, ''-i'' was attached to lower bigrade, k-irregular, and s-irregular verbs:<ref>Yamaguchi |
The imperative traditionally ended either with no suffix or with ''-yo''. During Late Middle Japanese, ''-i'' was attached to lower bigrade, k-irregular, and s-irregular verbs:<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Yamaguchi|Suzuki|Sakanashi|Tsukimoto|1997|p=97}}</ref> |
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*kure + i: kurei "give me" |
*kure + i: kurei "give me" |
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*ko + i: koi "come" |
*ko + i: koi "come" |
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*se + i: sei "do" |
*se + i: sei "do" |
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João Rodrigues Tçuzu noted in ''Arte da Lingoa de Iapam'' that ''-yo'' could be replaced with ''-ro'', as in ''miyo'' > ''miro'' "look."<ref name="yamaguchi">{{harvcoltxt|Yamaguchi|Suzuki|Sakanashi|Tsukimoto|1997|pp=97–98}}</ref> Note that the [[Eastern Old Japanese|eastern dialects of Old Japanese]] in the 8th century also contained the ''-ro'' imperative, which is the standard imperative in Modern Japanese. |
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===Tense and aspect=== |
===Tense and aspect=== |
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The tense and aspect systems underwent radical changes. The perfective ''n-'', ''t-'', and ''r-'' and the past ''k-''/''s-'' and ''ker-'' became obsolete and were replaced by ''tar- |
The tense and aspect systems underwent radical changes. The perfective ''n-'', ''t-'', and ''r-'' and the past ''k-''/''s-'' and ''ker-'' became obsolete and were replaced by ''tar-'' which developed from the perfective aspect into a common past tense. It eventually became ''ta-'', the modern past tense.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Shibatani|1990|p=123}}</ref> |
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===Particles=== |
===Particles=== |
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The new case particle ''de'' was developed from ''ni te''.<ref>Kondō |
The new case particle ''de'' was developed from ''ni te''.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Kondō|Tsukimoto|Sugiura|2005|pp=113–114}}</ref> |
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The conjectured suffix ''-mu'' underwent a number of phonological changes: ''mu'' > ''m'' > ''N'' > ''ũ''. Combining with the vowel from the irrealis base to which it |
The conjectured suffix ''-mu'' underwent a number of phonological changes: ''mu'' > ''m'' > ''N'' > ''ũ''. Combining with the vowel from the irrealis base to which it attached, it then became a long vowel, sometimes with -y- preceding it, forming the basis of the -ō/-yō volitional form. |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[Japanese words of Portuguese origin]] |
*[[Glossary of Japanese words of Portuguese origin]] |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |
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{{ |
{{Reflist|3}} |
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== References == |
== References == |
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{{ |
{{Refbegin}} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| last = Doi |
| last = Doi |
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| first = Tadao |
| first = Tadao |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten: Muromachi Jidaihen I |
| title = Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten: Muromachi Jidaihen I |
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| publisher = [[Sanseido|Sanseidō]] |
| publisher = [[Sanseido|Sanseidō]] |
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| year = 1985 |
| year = 1985 |
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| location = Tōkyō |
| location = Tōkyō |
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| language = ja |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 4-385-13296-8 |
| isbn = 4-385-13296-8 |
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| last = Doi |
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| first = Tadao |
| first = Tadao |
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| title = [[Arte da Lingoa de Iapam|Nihon Daibunten]] |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = [[Arte da Lingoa de Japam|Nihon Daibunten]] |
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| publisher = [[Sanseido|Sanseidō]] |
| publisher = [[Sanseido|Sanseidō]] |
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| year = 1955 |
| year = 1955 |
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| orig-year = 1604-1608 |
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| language = ja |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| isbn = 978-4-8301-0297-4 }} |
| isbn = 978-4-8301-0297-4 }} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| last = Doi |
| last = Doi |
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| first = Tadao |
| first = Tadao |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = [[Nippo Jisho|Hōyaku Nippo Jisho]] |
| title = [[Nippo Jisho|Hōyaku Nippo Jisho]] |
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| publisher = [[Iwanami Shoten Publishing|Iwanami Shoten]] |
| publisher = [[Iwanami Shoten Publishing|Iwanami Shoten]] |
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| year = 1980 |
| year = 1980 |
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| orig-year = 1603 |
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| location = Tōkyō |
| location = Tōkyō |
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| language = ja |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| doi = |
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| isbn =4-00-080021-3 |
| isbn =4-00-080021-3 |
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}} |
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| last = Frellesvig |
| last = Frellesvig |
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| first = Bjarke |
| first = Bjarke |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = A Case Study in Diachronic Phonology: The Japanese Onbin Sound Changes |
| title = A Case Study in Diachronic Phonology: The Japanese Onbin Sound Changes |
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| publisher = Aarhus University Press |
| publisher = Aarhus University Press |
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| year = 1995 |
| year = 1995 |
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| location = |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 87-7288-489-4 }} |
| isbn = 87-7288-489-4 }} |
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* Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). ''A history of the Japanese language''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-65320-6}}. |
* Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). ''A history of the Japanese language''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-65320-6}}. |
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| last = Ikegami |
| last = Ikegami |
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| first = Mineo |
| first = Mineo |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Nihongo Shōbunten |
| title = Nihongo Shōbunten |
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| publisher = [[Iwanami Shoten Publishing|Iwanami Shoten]] |
| publisher = [[Iwanami Shoten Publishing|Iwanami Shoten]] |
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| year = 1993 |
| year = 1993 |
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| |
| orig-year = 1620 |
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| |
| isbn = 4-00-336811-8 |
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| language = ja |
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}} |
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| url = |
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* {{cite book |
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| doi = |
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| last1 = Irwin | first1 = Mark |
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| language = Japanese |
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| last2 = Narrog | first2 = Heiko |
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| id = {{ISBN|4-00-336811-8}}, {{ISBN|4-00-336812-6}} }} |
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| title = The Languages of Japan and Korea |
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| url = https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4415432/mod_folder/content/0/Routledge%20Language%20Family%20Series/Tranter%202012.%20The%20Languages%20of%20Japan%20and%20Korea.pdf |
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| editor-first = Nicholas | editor-last = Tranter |
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| publisher = Routledge |
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| chapter = Late Middle Japanese |
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| doi = 10.4324/9780203124741 |
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| date = 2012 |
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| isbn = 9781136446597 }} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| |
| last1 = Kondō | first1 = Yasuhiro |
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| first2 = Masayuki | last2 = Tsukimoto |
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| first = Yasuhiro |
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| first3 = Katsumi | last3 = Sugiura |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Nihongo no Rekishi |
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|author2=Masayuki Tsukimoto |author3=Katsumi Sugiura |
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| title = Nihongo no Rekishi |
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| publisher = Hōsō Daigaku Kyōiku Shinkōkai |
| publisher = Hōsō Daigaku Kyōiku Shinkōkai |
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| year = 2005 |
| year = 2005 |
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| |
| language = ja |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 4-595-30547-8 |
| isbn = 4-595-30547-8 |
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}} |
}} |
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| last = Martin |
| last = Martin |
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| first = Samuel E. |
| first = Samuel E. |
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| |
| author-link = Samuel Martin (linguist) |
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| title = The Japanese Language Through Time |
| title = The Japanese Language Through Time |
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| publisher = Yale University Press |
| publisher = Yale University Press |
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| year = 1987 |
| year = 1987 |
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| location = |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 0-300-03729-5 }} |
| isbn = 0-300-03729-5 }} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| last = Matsumura |
| last = Matsumura |
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| first = Akira |
| first = Akira |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Nihon Bunpō Daijiten |
| title = Nihon Bunpō Daijiten |
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| publisher = Meiji Shoin |
| publisher = Meiji Shoin |
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| year = 1971 |
| year = 1971 |
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| |
| language = ja |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 4-625-40055-4}} |
| isbn = 4-625-40055-4}} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| last = Miyake |
| last = Miyake |
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| first = Marc Hideo |
| first = Marc Hideo |
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| |
| author-link = Marc Hideo Miyake |
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| title = Old Japanese : a phonetic reconstruction |
| title = Old Japanese : a phonetic reconstruction |
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| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon |
| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon |
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| year = 2003 |
| year = 2003 |
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| location = London; New York |
| location = London; New York |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 0-415-30575-6 }} |
| isbn = 0-415-30575-6 }} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| last = Nakata |
| last = Nakata |
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| first = Norio |
| first = Norio |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Kōza Kokugoshi: Dai 2 kan: On'inshi, Mojishi |
| title = Kōza Kokugoshi: Dai 2 kan: On'inshi, Mojishi |
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| publisher = Taishūkan Shoten |
| publisher = Taishūkan Shoten |
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| year = 1972 |
| year = 1972 |
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| language = |
| language = ja |
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}} |
}} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| last = Ōno |
| last = Ōno |
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| first = Susumu |
| first = Susumu |
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| |
| author-link = Susumu Ōno |
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| title = Nihongo no Keisei |
| title = Nihongo no Keisei |
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| publisher = [[Iwanami Shoten Publishing|Iwanami Shoten]] |
| publisher = [[Iwanami Shoten Publishing|Iwanami Shoten]] |
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| year = 2000 |
| year = 2000 |
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| |
| language = ja |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 4-00-001758-6 |
| isbn = 4-00-001758-6 |
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}} |
}} |
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| last = Shibatani |
| last = Shibatani |
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| first = Masayoshi |
| first = Masayoshi |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = The Languages of Japan |
| title = The Languages of Japan |
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| publisher = Cambridge University Press |
| publisher = Cambridge University Press |
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| year = 1990 |
| year = 1990 |
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| location = |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 0-521-36918-5 |
| isbn = 0-521-36918-5 |
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}} |
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| last = Tsuboi |
| last = Tsuboi |
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| first = Yoshiki |
| first = Yoshiki |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Nihongo Katsuyō Taikei no Hensen: Zōteiban |
| title = Nihongo Katsuyō Taikei no Hensen: Zōteiban |
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| publisher = Kasama Shoin |
| publisher = Kasama Shoin |
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| year = 2007 |
| year = 2007 |
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| |
| language = ja |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 978-4-305-70353-8 }} |
| isbn = 978-4-305-70353-8 }} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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| |
| last1 = Yamaguchi | first1 = Akiho |
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| first2 = Hideo | last2 = Suzuki |
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| first = Akiho |
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| first3 = Ryūzō | last3 = Sakanashi |
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| authorlink = |
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| |
| first4=Masayuki | last4 = Tsukimoto |
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| title = Nihongo no Rekishi |
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| publisher = Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai |
| publisher = Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai |
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| year = 1997 |
| year = 1997 |
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| |
| language = ja |
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| pages = |
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| url = |
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| language = Japanese |
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| doi = |
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| isbn = 4-13-082004-4 |
| isbn = 4-13-082004-4 |
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}} |
}} |
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{{ |
{{Refend}} |
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{{Japonic languages}} |
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{{Japanese language}} |
{{Japanese language}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Japanese language]] |
[[Category:Japanese language]] |
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Revision as of 20:34, 8 August 2024
 | You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Japanese. (January 2019) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
|
| Late Middle Japanese | |
|---|---|
| 中世日本語 | |
| Region | Japan |
| Era | Evolved into Early Modern Japanese in the 17th century |
Early forms | |
| Hiragana, Katakana, and Kanji | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Glottolog | None |
Late Middle Japanese (中世日本語, chūsei nihongo) was a stage of the Japanese language following Early Middle Japanese and preceding Early Modern Japanese.[1] It was a period of transition in which the language shed many of its archaic features and became closer to its modern form.
The period spanned roughly 500 years from the 12th century to the 16th century and is customarily divided into Early and Late periods.[2] Politically, the first half of Late Middle Japanese was the end of the Heian period, known as Insei and the Kamakura period. The second half of Late Middle Japanese was the Muromachi period.
Background
The late 12th century was a time of transition from the aristocratic society of nobles in the Heian period to the feudal society of the warrior class. Accompanying that change, the nation's political center temporarily transitioned from historical Kyoto to Kanto alongside the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate. This move resulted in a significant blend between the dialects of Kyoto and Kanto, shaping the language of the time.
During this period, various Buddhist movements found their footing, leading to an overall increase in literacy.[3]
In the mid-16th century, Portuguese Christian missionaries arrived in Japan. Alongside Western technology and philosophy, the Portuguese brought various loanwords to the Japanese language.[4]
In an attempt to spread Christianity among the locals, many Portuguese missionaries studied Japanese, producing a number of dictionaries and linguistic grammars such as the Arte da Lingoa de Iapam and Nippo Jisho, in addition to producing translations of Japanese literary works. Today, these materials serve a vital role in the study of medieval Japanese language.
Phonology
Vowels
There were five vowels: /i, e, a, o, u/.
- /i/: [i]
- /e/: [je], [e]?
- /a/: [a]
- /o/: [wo], [o]?
- /u/: [u]
Initially, /e/ and /o/ were realized with semivowels [j] and [w], respectively,[dubious – discuss] a result of earlier mergers inherited from Early Middle Japanese. However, it is unclear as to how they were realized when they were preceded by a consonant.[5]
In addition, there were two types of long o: [ɔː] and [oː]. The vowel sequence /au/ contracted into [ɔː], and /ou/ and /eu/ contracted into [oː] and [joː], respectively:[6]
- /ɸayaku/ "quickly" > /ɸayau/: [ɸajaku] > [ɸajau] > [ɸajɔː]
- /omou/ "think": [womou] > [womoː]
Consonants
Late Middle Japanese had the following consonants:
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p b | t d | k ɡ | |||
| Affricate | t͡s d͡z | t͡ɕ d͡ʑ | ||||
| Nasal | m | n | ɴ | |||
| Fricative | ɸ | s z | ɕ ʑ | |||
| Liquid | r | |||||
| Approximant | j | ɰ |
In addition were two phonemes: /N/ and /Q/. "Before a pause, /N/ is a uvular [ɴ]; it assimilates to the place of articulation of a following stop, affricate, or nasal." "/Q/ becomes a phonetic copy of a following obstruent."[7]
- /s, z/, /t, d/, /n/, /h, b/, /p/, /m/, and /r/ could be palatalized.
Labialized consonants /kw, gw/ appeared during Early Middle Japanese. Labialized consonants before -i and -e merged with their non-labial counterparts.[8] Specifically:
- /kwi/ > /ki/
- /gwi/ > /gi/
- /kwe/ > /ke/
- /gwe/ > /ge/
The distinction between /ka/ and /kwa/ remained.
The sibilants /s, z/ were palatalized before /i/ and /e/ and had the following distribution:[9]
- /sa, za/: [sa, za]
- /si, zi/: [ɕi, ʑi]
- /su, zu/: [su, zu]
- /se, ze/: [ɕe, ʑe]
- /so, zo/: [so, zo]
João Rodrigues noted in Arte da Lingoa de Iapam that the eastern dialects were known for realizing /se/ as [se], rather than [ɕe].[10][11] Note that /se, ze/ has become [se, ze] in Modern Japanese but retained [ɕi, ʑi] for /si, zi/.
/t/ and /d/ were distinguished from the sibilants in all positions but undergo affrication before /i, u/:
- /ti, di/: [t͡ɕi, d͡ʑi]
- /tu, du/: [tsu, dzu]
Prenasalization
Voiced stops and fricatives were prenasalized:[12]
- /g/: [ᵑɡ]
- /z/: [ⁿz]
- /d/: [ⁿd]
- /b/: [ᵐb]
João Rodrigues made that observation in Arte da Lingoa de Iapam. In addition, the Korean text Ch'ŏphae Sinŏ spelled [...] b, d, z, g with the Hangul letter sequences -mp-, -nt-, -nz-, -ngk-"[9] indicating prenasalization.
The effects of prenasalization may also be seen in the transcription of words such as muma < /uma/ "horse" and mube < /ube/ "truly".
/h/ and /p/
Proto-Japanese contained *[p], but by Old Japanese, it had become [ɸ]. Late Middle Japanese reintroduced [p], which contrasted with [ɸ] and so was treated as a new phoneme. In Early Modern Japanese, [ɸ] became [h] in many dialects, as it still is. [p] is found in mimetic words, such as pinpin and patto, as well as in Chinese loanwords such as sanpai and nippon.[13]
Medial /ɸ/ became [w] before /a/. Before all other vowels, it became silent:[14][15]
- /-ɸa/: [wa]
- /-ɸi/: [i]
- /-ɸu/: [u]
- /-ɸe/: [je]
- /-ɸo/: [wo]
Glides
/w/ had the following distribution:
- /wa/: [wa]
- /wi/: [i]
- /we/: [je]
- /wo/: [wo]
The prior merger between /o/ and /wo/ into [wo] during Early Middle Japanese continued into Late Middle Japanese, with /e/ and /we/ merging into [je] by the 12th century.
/j/ had the following distribution:
- /ja/: [ja]
- /ju/: [ju]
- /je/: [je]
- /jo/: [jo]
Various mergers, /e/, /we/ and /je/ made all realized as [je] and thus indistinguishable.
Syllable structure
Traditionally, syllables were of (C)V structure and so there was no need to distinguish between syllables and morae. However, Chinese loanwords introduced a new type of sound that could end in -m, -n, or -t.[16][17][18][19] That structure is the syllable (C)V(C). The mora is based on the traditional (C)V structure.
The final syllables -m and -n were initially distinguished; but by the end of the Early period, both had merged into /N/.[20][21]
Medial gemination
The final syllables -m, -n, -t before a vowel or a glide underwent gemination and became the consonant clusters -mm-, -nn-, and -tt-.[8][22][16]
-m > -mm-:
- samwi > sammi "third rank"
-n > -nn-:
- ten'wau > tennau > tennoː "Emperor of Japan"
- kwan'on > kwannon "Guanyin"
- kon'ya > konnya "tonight"
-t > -tt-:
- set'in > settin 雪隠 "toilet"
- konnitwa > konnitta "as for today"
- but'on > button "blessing of Buddha"
Onbin
Onbin (音便, "euphony") are a type of sporadic sound changes and "were not automatic or exceptionless," [23] and their exact causes are still debated. They also appear in earlier stages of the language but were particularly prevalent throughout Late Middle Japanese and had a great effect on its verbal and adjectival morphology.
Verbs:
- yom- "read": /jomite/ > /joNde/ [joɴde]
- kuh- "eat": /kuɸite/ > /kuute/ [kuːte] :: /kuQte/ [kutte]
The kuh- example had two possible outcomes. The former was particular of the western dialects, and the latter was particular of the eastern dialects.[24]
Adjectives:
- /ɸajaku/ "quickly" > /ɸajau/: [ɸajaku] > [ɸajau] > [ɸajɔː]
- /kataki/ "hard" > /katai/ [katai]
In both words, the medial velar -k- became silent by elision.
Morphology
A number of archaic grammatical forms were lost in this period, bringing the language closer to its modern form.
One of the most prominent developments was the replacement of the conclusive form by the attributive,[25] which has a number of effects:
- It was instrumental in changing from bigrade to monograde verbs.[26]
- It caused a chain of events in the two adjectival classes that eventually resulted in both merging into one.
- It weakened the kakarimusubi system.
- The verb ar- "be", which was once irregular, began to regularize as a quadrigrade.
Verbs
Late Middle Japanese inherited all nine verbal conjugations from Early Middle Japanese:
| Verb Class | Irrealis | Adverbial | Conclusive | Attributive | Realis | Imperative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quadrigrade | -a | -i | -u | -u | -e | -e |
| Upper Monograde | -i | -i | -iru | -iru | -ire | -i(yo) |
| Upper Bigrade | -i | -i | -u | -uru | -ure | -i(yo) |
| Lower Monograde | -e | -e | -eru | -eru | -ere | -e(yo) |
| Lower Bigrade | -e | -e | -u | -uru | -ure | -e(yo) |
| K-irregular | -o | -i | -u | -uru | -ure | -o |
| S-irregular | -e | -i | -u | -uru | -ure | -e(yo) |
| N-irregular | -a | -i | -u | -uru | -ure | -e |
| R-irregular | -a | -i | -i | -u | -e | -e |
However, throughout the period, bigrade verbs gradually changed into monogrades. The process was completed by Early Modern Japanese, partly a result of the merger of the conclusive and attributive forms.[26]
Adjectives
There were two types of adjectives: regular adjectives and adjectival nouns.
Regular adjectives
The regular adjective was traditionally subdivided into two types: those whose adverbial form ends in -ku and those whose ends in –siku:[27]
| Adjective Class | Irrealis | Adverbial | Conclusive | Attributive | Realis | Imperative | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -ku | -ku | -si | -ki | ||||
| -u | -ki | -i | Early | ||||
| -u | -i | -i | Late | ||||
| -kara | -kari | -karu | -kere | -kare | |||
| -siku | -siku | -si | -siki | ||||
| -siu | -sisi | -sii | Early | ||||
| -siu | -sii | -sii | Late | ||||
| -sikara | -sikari | -sikaru | -sikere | -sikare |
There were three notable changes that eventually collapsed the two-way distinction into one:
- In Early Middle Japanese, the -siku conclusive develops a -sisi form.
- The conclusive and attributive forms merged.
- In Late Middle Japanese, adjectival suffix -ki was reduced to -i
While the grammatical distinction between the two classes has disappeared, the historic distinction was used to explain certain present forms of -shii adjectives, notably the euphonic changes (音便) that occur in polite form of adjectives (when they are followed by ござる gozaru 'to be' or 存じる zonjiru 'to know').
Adjectival nouns
There were two classes of adjectival nouns inherited from Early Middle Japanese: -nar and -tar.
| Type | Irrealis | Adverbial | Conclusive | Attributive | Realis | Imperative | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nar- | -nara | -nari -ni |
-nari | -naru -na |
-nare | Early | |
| -nara | -ni -de |
-dya -na |
-naru -na -no |
-nare | Late | ||
| Tar- | -to | -tari | -taru | Early | |||
| -to | -taru | Late |
The most prominent development was the reduction of attributive -naru to -na.[28] When the conclusive and attributive merged, they both share the new -na. The tar- type becomes more archaic and was continually reduced in distribution. In Modern Japanese, a few naru-adjectives and taru-adjectives remain as fossils.
Hypothetical
The realis base developed into the hypothetical.[29] The realis described something that had already occurred. That usage began to fade and resulted in the use of the hypothetical for events that have not already occurred. Note that Modern Japanese has only a hypothetical and has lost this realis base.
Imperative
The imperative traditionally ended either with no suffix or with -yo. During Late Middle Japanese, -i was attached to lower bigrade, k-irregular, and s-irregular verbs:[30]
- kure + i: kurei "give me"
- ko + i: koi "come"
- se + i: sei "do"
João Rodrigues Tçuzu noted in Arte da Lingoa de Iapam that -yo could be replaced with -ro, as in miyo > miro "look."[31] Note that the eastern dialects of Old Japanese in the 8th century also contained the -ro imperative, which is the standard imperative in Modern Japanese.
Tense and aspect
The tense and aspect systems underwent radical changes. The perfective n-, t-, and r- and the past k-/s- and ker- became obsolete and were replaced by tar- which developed from the perfective aspect into a common past tense. It eventually became ta-, the modern past tense.[32]
Particles
The new case particle de was developed from ni te.[33]
The conjectured suffix -mu underwent a number of phonological changes: mu > m > N > ũ. Combining with the vowel from the irrealis base to which it attached, it then became a long vowel, sometimes with -y- preceding it, forming the basis of the -ō/-yō volitional form.
See also
Notes
- ^ Shibatani (1990:119)
- ^ Nakata (1972:175)
- ^ Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura (2005:97)
- ^ Shibatani (1990:121)
- ^ Nakata (1972:181)
- ^ Yamaguchi et al. (1997:86–87)
- ^ Miyake (2003:76–77)
- ^ a b Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura (2005:103)
- ^ a b Miyake (2003:75)
- ^ Yamaguchi et al. (1997:87–88)
- ^ Doi (1955:613)
- ^ Ōno (2000:53–54)
- ^ Nakata (1972:197–198)
- ^ Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura (2005:71)
- ^ Miyake (2003:74–75)
- ^ a b Irwin & Narrog (2012:247)
- ^ Nakata (1972:222–226)
- ^ Doi (1955:230–232)
- ^ Martin (1987:73–75)
- ^ Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura (2005:102)
- ^ Irwin & Narrog (2012:250)
- ^ Martin (1987:75)
- ^ Frellesvig (1995:21)
- ^ Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura (2005:128)
- ^ Yamaguchi et al. (1997:95–96)
- ^ a b Tsuboi (2007:14–30)
- ^ Matsumura (1971:961, 966–967)
- ^ Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura (2005:113)
- ^ Yamaguchi et al. (1997:96)
- ^ Yamaguchi et al. (1997:97)
- ^ Yamaguchi et al. (1997:97–98)
- ^ Shibatani (1990:123)
- ^ Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura (2005:113–114)
References
- Doi, Tadao (1985). Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten: Muromachi Jidaihen I (in Japanese). Tōkyō: Sanseidō. ISBN 4-385-13296-8.
- Doi, Tadao (1955) [1604-1608]. Nihon Daibunten (in Japanese). Sanseidō. ISBN 978-4-8301-0297-4.
- Doi, Tadao (1980) [1603]. Hōyaku Nippo Jisho (in Japanese). Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-00-080021-3.
- Frellesvig, Bjarke (1995). A Case Study in Diachronic Phonology: The Japanese Onbin Sound Changes. Aarhus University Press. ISBN 87-7288-489-4.
- Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). A history of the Japanese language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65320-6.
- Ikegami, Mineo (1993) [1620]. Nihongo Shōbunten (in Japanese). Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-00-336811-8.
- Irwin, Mark; Narrog, Heiko (2012). "Late Middle Japanese". In Tranter, Nicholas (ed.). The Languages of Japan and Korea (PDF). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203124741. ISBN 9781136446597.
- Kondō, Yasuhiro; Tsukimoto, Masayuki; Sugiura, Katsumi (2005). Nihongo no Rekishi (in Japanese). Hōsō Daigaku Kyōiku Shinkōkai. ISBN 4-595-30547-8.
- Martin, Samuel E. (1987). The Japanese Language Through Time. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03729-5.
- Matsumura, Akira (1971). Nihon Bunpō Daijiten (in Japanese). Meiji Shoin. ISBN 4-625-40055-4.
- Miyake, Marc Hideo (2003). Old Japanese : a phonetic reconstruction. London; New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-30575-6.
- Nakata, Norio (1972). Kōza Kokugoshi: Dai 2 kan: On'inshi, Mojishi (in Japanese). Taishūkan Shoten.
- Ōno, Susumu (2000). Nihongo no Keisei (in Japanese). Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-00-001758-6.
- Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). The Languages of Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36918-5.
- Tsuboi, Yoshiki (2007). Nihongo Katsuyō Taikei no Hensen: Zōteiban (in Japanese). Kasama Shoin. ISBN 978-4-305-70353-8.
- Yamaguchi, Akiho; Suzuki, Hideo; Sakanashi, Ryūzō; Tsukimoto, Masayuki (1997). Nihongo no Rekishi (in Japanese). Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai. ISBN 4-13-082004-4.
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