Near-open central vowel: Difference between revisions

Near-open central vowel
Near-open central vowel
ɐ
IPA Number	324
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Entity (decimal)	ɐ
Unicode (hex)	U+0250
X-SAMPA	6
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IPA: Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i y	ɨ ʉ	ɯ u
Near-close	ɪ ʏ		ʊ
Close-mid	e ø	ɘ ɵ	ɤ o
Mid	e̞ ø̞	ə	ɤ̞ o̞
Open-mid	ɛ œ	ɜ ɞ	ʌ ɔ
Near-open	æ	ɐ
Open	a ɶ	ä	ɑ ɒ

Legend: unrounded • rounded

The near-open central vowel, or near-low central vowel,^[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɐ⟩, a rotated lowercase double-story a.

In English this vowel is most typically transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʌ⟩, i.e. as if it were open-mid back. That pronunciation is still found in some dialects, but many speakers use a central vowel like [ɐ] or [ɜ]. To avoid the trap–strut merger, Standard Southern British English is moving away from the [ɐ] quality towards [ʌ] found in RP spoken in the first half of the 20th century (e.g. in Daniel Jones's speech).^[2]

Much like ⟨ə⟩, ⟨ɐ⟩ is a versatile symbol that is not defined for roundedness^[3] and that can be used for vowels that are near-open central,^[4] near-open near-front,^[5] near-open near-back,^[6] open-mid central,^[7] open central^[8] or an (often unstressed) vowel with variable height, backness and/or roundedness that is produced in that general area.^[9] For open central unrounded vowels transcribed with ⟨ɐ⟩, see open central unrounded vowel.

When the usual transcription of the near-open near-front and the near-open near-back variants is different from ⟨ɐ⟩, they are listed in near-open front unrounded vowel and open back unrounded vowel or open back rounded vowel, respectively.

The near-open central unrounded vowel is sometimes the only open vowel in a language^[10] and then is typically transcribed with ⟨a⟩.

Features

Its vowel height is near-open, also known as near-low, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to an open vowel, but is slightly more constricted – that is, the tongue is positioned similarly to a low vowel, but slightly higher.
Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel.
It is undefined for roundedness, which means that it can be either rounded or unrounded. In practice however, the unrounded variant is more common.

Occurrence

In the following list, ⟨ɐ⟩ is assumed to be unrounded. The rounded variant is transcribed as ⟨ɐ̹⟩. Some instances of the latter may actually be fully open.

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Adyghe		сэ / să	[sɐ]	'I'	Varies between near-open and open-mid [ɜ]. See Adyghe phonology
Bengali^[11]		পা / pa	[pɐ]	'leg'	Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Bengali phonology
Bulgarian^[7]		пара/para	[pɐˈra]	'coin'	Unstressed allophone of /ɤ/ and /a/.^[7] May be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ə⟩. See Bulgarian phonology
Burmese^[12]		မတ်/maat	[mɐʔ]	'vertical'	Allophone of /a/ in syllables closed by a glottal stop and when nasalized; realized as fully open [ä] in open oral syllables.^[13]
Catalan	Barcelona metropolitan area^[14]^[15]	emmagatzemar	[ɐm(ː)ɐɣ̞ɐd͡z̺ɐˈmä]	'to store'	Corresponds to [ə] in other Eastern dialects. See Catalan phonology
Chinese	Cantonese^[16]	心 / sam1	[sɐ̝m˥]	'heart'	Open-mid.^[16] See Cantonese phonology
Chinese	Shanghainese^[17]	砍	[kɐʔ˦]	'to cut'	Appears only in closed syllables; the exact height and backness is somewhat variable.^[17]
Danish^[18]		fatter	[ˈfætɐ]	'understands'	Typically realized the same as /ɔ/, i.e. [ɒ̽]. Other possible realizations are [ɐ] and [ə̠].^[18] See Danish phonology
Dinka	Luanyjang^[19]	laŋ	[lɐ́ŋ]	'berry'	Short allophone of /a/; varies between near-open [ɐ] and open-mid [ɐ̝].^[19]
Emilian		Bulåggna	[buˈlʌɲːɐ]	'Bologna'	Centralized /a/.
English	California^[20]	nut	[nɐt]	'nut'	See English phonology
	Cockney^[21]^[22]		[nɐ̟ʔ]		Near-front.^[21]
	East Anglian^[23]		[nɐʔ]		Used in some places (e.g. Colchester) instead of the traditional [ʌ].^[23]
	New Zealand^[24]		[nɐʔt]		Varies between near-open near-front [ɐ̟], near-open central [ɐ], open near-front [a̠] and open central [ɐ̞].^[24] See New Zealand English phonology
	Received Pronunciation^[2]^[4]		[nɐʔt]		Increasingly retracted to [ʌ] to avoid the trap-strut merger.^[2] See English phonology
	Inland Northern American^[25]	bet	[bɐt]	'bet'	Variation of /ɛ/ used in some places whose accents have undergone the Northern cities vowel shift.
	Middle Class London^[26]	lot	[lɐ̹ʔt]	'lot'	Rounded; can be back [ɒ] instead.^[26] See English phonology
	Australian^[27]	comma	[ˈkɔmɐ]	'comma'	Alternatively lowered from word-final [ə].^[28] See Australian English phonology
Galician		feita	[ˈfejt̪ɐ]	'done'	Realization of final unstressed /a/. See Galician phonology
German	Standard^[9]^[29]	Oper	[ˈoːpɐ]^ⓘ	'opera'	The exact height, backness and roundedness is somewhere between [ä] and [ɔ], depending on the environment. Sometimes, an opening diphthong of the [əɐ̯]-type is used instead.^[9] In Northern Standard German, the short [ä] is raised to [ɐ] when unstressed, rendering Opa 'grandpa' homophonous with Oper.^[29] See Standard German phonology
German	Regional northern accents^[30]	kommen	[ˈkʰɐmən]	'to come'	Varies between central [ɐ] and back [ɑ]; corresponds to an open-mid rounded [ɔ] in Standard German.^[30] See Standard German phonology
Greek	Modern Standard^[10]	ακακία / akakía	[ɐkɐˈc̠i.ɐ]	'acacia'	Most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Modern Greek phonology
Hausa^[31]		^{[example needed]}			Possible allophone of /a/, which can be as close as [ə] and as open as [ä].^[31]
Hindustani^[32]		दस/دَس/das	[ˈd̪ɐs]	'ten'	Common realization of /ə/.^[32] See Hindustani phonology
Korean^[33]		하나 / hana	[hɐnɐ]	'one'	Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Korean phonology
Kumzari^[5]		گپ / gap	[ɡɐ̟p]	'large'	Near-front.^[5]
Limburgish	Maastrichtian^[34]	väöl	[vɐ̹ːl]	'much'	Rounded; contrasts with the open-mid [ɞː] in words with Accent 2 ([ɐ̹ː] itself is always toneless).^[35] It may be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɶː⟩, as it is a phonological front vowel.
Limburgish	Venlo dialect^[36]	aan	[ˈɐːn]	'on'	Corresponds to [aː] in other dialects.
Lithuanian		kas	[kɐs̪]	'what'	See Lithuanian phonology
Luxembourgish^[6]		Kanner	[ˈkʰɑnɐ̠]	'children'	Near-back.^[37] See Luxembourgish phonology
Malayalam		പത്ത്	[pɐt̪ːɨ̆]	'ten'	See Malayalam phonology
Mapudungun^[38]		karü	[ˈkɐ̝ʐɘ̝]	'green'	Open-mid;^[38] often transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.
Norwegian	Østfold dialect^[39]	bada	[ˈbɐ̹̂ːdɐ]	'to bathe'	The example word illustrates both the rounded [ɐ̹] and the unrounded [ɐ].
Piedmontese	Eastern Piedmont	pauta	[ˈpɑwtɐ]	'mud'	Common realization of final unstressed /a/.
Portuguese^[40]^[41]		aja	[ˈäʒɐ]^ⓘ	'act' (subj.)	Closer [ɐ̝] in European Portuguese than in Brazilian Portuguese ([ɐ]).^[40]^[41] See Portuguese phonology
Punjabi^[42]		ਖੰਡ / کھنڈ	[ˈkʰɐ̌ɳɖᵊ]	'sugar'	Common realization of /ə/, the inherent vowel of Punjabi. See Punjabi phonology
Punjabi^[42]		ਪਊਆ / پوّا	[pɐwːä]	'metric half pint'	Can occur as realization of tense /i/ or /u/ in some contexts followed by a geminate semi-vowel.
Romanian	Moldavian dialects^[43]	bărbat	[bɐrˈbat]	'man'	Corresponds to [ə] in standard Romanian. See Romanian phonology
Russian	Standard Moscow^[44]	голова / golova	[ɡəɫ̪ɐˈvä]^ⓘ	'head'	Corresponds to [ʌ] in standard Saint Petersburg pronunciation;^[44] occurs mostly immediately before stressed syllables. See Russian phonology
Sabiny^[45]		^{[example needed]}			Contrasts overshort unrounded and overshort rounded near-open central vowels.^[46]
Ukrainian^[47]		слива / slyva	[ˈslɪwɐ]	'plum'	See Ukrainian phonology
Vietnamese^[48]		chếch	[cɐ̆jk̚]	'askance'	Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ə̆⟩. See Vietnamese phonology
Xumi^[49]^[50]		[tsʰɐ˦]		'salt'	Near-open [ɐ] in Lower Xumi, open-mid [ɐ̝] in Upper Xumi. The latter phone may be transcribed with ⟨ɜ⟩. The example word is from Lower Xumi.^[50]^[51]

Notes

^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
^ ^a ^b ^c Cruttenden (2014), p. 122.
^ International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 166.
^ ^a ^b Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 186.
^ ^a ^b ^c Anonby (2011), p. 378.
^ ^a ^b Gilles & Trouvain (2013), pp. 68, 70.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56.
^ Cox & Fletcher (2017), pp. 64–65.
^ ^a ^b ^c Krech et al. (2009), p. 86.
^ ^a ^b Arvaniti (2007), p. 25.
^ Khan (2010), p. 222.
^ Watkins (2001), p. 293.
^ Watkins (2001), pp. 292–293.
^ Rafel (1999), p. 14.
^ Harrison (1997), pp. 2.
^ ^a ^b Zee (1999), p. 59.
^ ^a ^b Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), p. 328.
^ ^a ^b Basbøll (2005), p. 58.
^ ^a ^b Remijsen & Manyang (2009), pp. 117, 119.
^ Ladefoged (1999), p. 42.
^ ^a ^b Wells (1982), p. 305.
^ Hughes & Trudgill (1979), p. 35.
^ ^a ^b Trudgill (2004), p. 167.
^ ^a ^b Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (1997), A National Map of the Regional Dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved March 15, 2013
^ ^a ^b Altendorf & Watt (2004:188). The authors differentiate between symbols [ɒ̟] and [ɒ̈]; the former denotes a more back vowel.
^ Cox & Fletcher (2017), p. 64.
^ Cox & Fletcher (2017), p. 163.
^ ^a ^b Rathcke & Mooshammer (2020), pp. 48–50.
^ ^a ^b Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
^ ^a ^b Schuh & Yalwa (1999), pp. 90–91.
^ ^a ^b Ohala (1999), p. 102.
^ Lee (1999), p. 121.
^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 158–159, 162.
^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 159, 161–162, 164.
^ Peeters (1951), p. 39.
^ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
^ ^a ^b Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 92.
^ Jahr (1990:92)
^ ^a ^b Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
^ ^a ^b Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
^ Bhardwaj, Mangat Rai (2016). "Chapter 4: Tone and Related Phenomena in Panjabi". Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar (in English and Punjabi). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-315-76080-3.
^ Pop (1938), p. 29.
^ ^a ^b Yanushevskaya & Bunčić (2015), p. 225.
^ "UPSID 4)S". Retrieved 27 January 2016.
^ "UPSID SEBEI". Retrieved 27 January 2016.
^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
^ Hoang (1965), p. 24.
^ Chirkova & Chen (2013), pp. 369–370.
^ ^a ^b Chirkova, Chen & Kocjančič Antolík (2013), pp. 388–389.
^ Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 369.

References

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Anonby, Erik John (2011), "Kumzari", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 41 (3): 375–380, doi:10.1017/S0025100311000314
Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11, retrieved 2013-12-11
Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 978-0-203-97876-4
Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Xumi, Part 1: Lower Xumi, the Variety of the Lower and Middle Reaches of the Shuiluo River", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (3): 363–379, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000157
Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya; Kocjančič Antolík, Tanja (2013), "Xumi, Part 2: Upper Xumi, the Variety of the Upper Reaches of the Shuiluo River", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (3): 381–396, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000169
Cox, Felicity; Fletcher, Janet (2017) [First published 2012], Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-316-63926-9
Cruttenden, Alan (2014), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092
Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223, S2CID 249414876
Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
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Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), University of Nijmegen, Centre for Language Studies: 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
Harrison, Phil (1997), The Relative Complexity of Catalan Vowels and Their Perceptual Correlates (PDF), UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 9
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Jahr, Ernst Håkon (1990), Den Store dialektboka, Oslo: Novus, ISBN 8270991678
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Lee, Hyun Bok (1999), "Korean", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–122, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
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External links

List of languages with [ɐ] on PHOIBLE

[1] While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".

[FOOTNOTECruttenden2014122-2] Cruttenden (2014), p. 122.

[FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999166-3] International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 166.

[FOOTNOTERocaJohnson1999186-4] Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 186.

[FOOTNOTEAnonby2011378-5] Anonby (2011), p. 378.

[FOOTNOTEGillesTrouvain201368,_70-6] Gilles & Trouvain (2013), pp. 68, 70.

[FOOTNOTETernesVladimirova-Buhtz199956-7] Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56.

[FOOTNOTECoxFletcher201764–65-8] Cox & Fletcher (2017), pp. 64–65.

[FOOTNOTEKrech_et_al.200986-9] Krech et al. (2009), p. 86.

[FOOTNOTEArvaniti200725-10] Arvaniti (2007), p. 25.

[FOOTNOTEKhan2010222-11] Khan (2010), p. 222.

[FOOTNOTEWatkins2001293-12] Watkins (2001), p. 293.

[FOOTNOTEWatkins2001292–293-13] Watkins (2001), pp. 292–293.

[FOOTNOTERafel199914-14] Rafel (1999), p. 14.

[FOOTNOTEHarrison19972-15] Harrison (1997), pp. 2.

[FOOTNOTEZee199959-16] Zee (1999), p. 59.

[FOOTNOTEChenGussenhoven2015328-17] Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), p. 328.

[FOOTNOTEBasbøll200558-18] Basbøll (2005), p. 58.

[FOOTNOTERemijsenManyang2009117,_119-19] Remijsen & Manyang (2009), pp. 117, 119.

[FOOTNOTELadefoged199942-20] Ladefoged (1999), p. 42.

[FOOTNOTEWells1982305-21] Wells (1982), p. 305.

[FOOTNOTEHughesTrudgill197935-22] Hughes & Trudgill (1979), p. 35.

[FOOTNOTETrudgill2004167-23] Trudgill (2004), p. 167.

[FOOTNOTEBauerWarrenBardsleyKennedy200798-24] Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.

[25] Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (1997), A National Map of the Regional Dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved March 15, 2013

[alt188-26] Altendorf & Watt (2004:188). The authors differentiate between symbols [ɒ̟] and [ɒ̈]; the former denotes a more back vowel.

[FOOTNOTECoxFletcher201764-27] Cox & Fletcher (2017), p. 64.

[FOOTNOTECoxFletcher2017163-28] Cox & Fletcher (2017), p. 163.

[FOOTNOTERathckeMooshammer202048–50-29] Rathcke & Mooshammer (2020), pp. 48–50.

[FOOTNOTEDudenredaktionKleinerKnöbl201564-30] Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.

[FOOTNOTESchuhYalwa199990–91-31] Schuh & Yalwa (1999), pp. 90–91.

[FOOTNOTEOhala1999102-32] Ohala (1999), p. 102.

[FOOTNOTELee1999121-33] Lee (1999), p. 121.

[FOOTNOTEGussenhovenAarts1999158–159,_162-34] Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 158–159, 162.

[FOOTNOTEGussenhovenAarts1999159,_161–162,_164-35] Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 159, 161–162, 164.

[FOOTNOTEPeeters195139-36] Peeters (1951), p. 39.

[FOOTNOTEGillesTrouvain201370-37] Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.

[FOOTNOTESadowskyPainequeoSalamancaAvelino201392-38] Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 92.

[jahr-39] Jahr (1990:92)

[FOOTNOTECruz-Ferreira199591-40] Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.

[FOOTNOTEBarbosaAlbano2004229-41] Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.

[:0-42] Bhardwaj, Mangat Rai (2016). "Chapter 4: Tone and Related Phenomena in Panjabi". Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar (in English and Punjabi). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-315-76080-3.

[FOOTNOTEPop193829-43] Pop (1938), p. 29.

[FOOTNOTEYanushevskayaBunčić2015225-44] Yanushevskaya & Bunčić (2015), p. 225.

[sabiny1-45] "UPSID 4)S". Retrieved 27 January 2016.

[sabiny2-46] "UPSID SEBEI". Retrieved 27 January 2016.

[FOOTNOTEDanyenkoVakulenko19954-47] Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEHoang196524-48] Hoang (1965), p. 24.

[FOOTNOTEChirkovaChen2013369–370-49] Chirkova & Chen (2013), pp. 369–370.

[FOOTNOTEChirkovaChenKocjančič_Antolík2013388–389-50] Chirkova, Chen & Kocjančič Antolík (2013), pp. 388–389.

[FOOTNOTEChirkovaChen2013369-51] Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 369.

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@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
 {{IPA vowels|class=floatright}}
-The '''near-open central vowel''', or '''near-low central vowel''',<ref>{{Vowel terminology}}</ref> is a type of [[vowel]] sound, used in some [[Speech communication|spoken]] [[language]]s. The symbol in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] that represents this sound is {{angbr IPA|ɐ}}, a [[Turned a|rotated lowercase double-barrelled letter a]].
+The '''near-open central vowel''', or '''near-low central vowel''',<ref>{{Vowel terminology}}</ref> is a type of [[vowel]] sound, used in some [[Speech communication|spoken]] [[language]]s. The symbol in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] that represents this sound is {{angbr IPA|ɐ}}, a [[Turned a|rotated lowercase double-story a]].
-In English this vowel is most typically transcribed with the symbol {{angbr IPA|ʌ}}, i.e. as if it were [[open-mid back unrounded vowel|open-mid back]]. That pronunciation is still found in some dialects, but most speakers use a central vowel like {{IPA|[ɐ]}} or [[Open-mid central unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[ɜ]|cat=no}}]].
+In English this vowel is most typically transcribed with the symbol {{angbr IPA|ʌ}}, i.e. as if it were [[open-mid back unrounded vowel|open-mid back]]. That pronunciation is still found in some dialects, but many speakers use a central vowel like {{IPA|[ɐ]}} or [[Open-mid central unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[ɜ]|cat=no}}]]. To avoid the [[trap–strut merger]], Standard Southern British English is moving away from the {{IPA|[ɐ]}} quality towards {{IPAblink|ʌ}} found in RP spoken in the first half of the 20th century (e.g. in [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]]'s speech).{{sfnp|Cruttenden|2014|p=122}}
 Much like {{angbr IPA|ə}}, {{angbr IPA|ɐ}} is a versatile symbol that is not defined for [[roundedness]]{{sfnp|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=166}} and that can be used for vowels that are near-open central,{{sfnp|Roca|Johnson|1999|p=186}} near-open near-front,{{sfnp|Anonby|2011|p=378}} near-open near-back,{{sfnp|Gilles|Trouvain|2013|pp=68, 70}} open-mid central,{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|p=56}} open central{{sfnp|Cox|Fletcher|2017|pp=64–65}} or an (often unstressed) vowel with variable height, backness and/or roundedness that is produced in that general area.{{sfnp|Krech et al.|2009|p=86}} For open central unrounded vowels transcribed with {{angbr IPA|ɐ}}, see [[open central unrounded vowel]].
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 ! colspan="2" | Language !! Word !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Meaning !! Notes
 |-
-| colspan="2" | [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] || {{lang|bn|[[Adyghe language#Alphabet|сэ]]}} / ''s'''ă''''' || {{IPA|[sɐ]}} || 'I' || Varies between near-open and open-mid {{angbr IPA|ɜ}}. See [[Adyghe phonology]]
+| colspan="2" | [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] || {{lang|bn|[[Adyghe language#Alphabet|сэ]]}} / ''s'''ă''''' || {{IPA|[sɐ]}} || 'I' || Varies between near-open and open-mid {{IPA|[ɜ]}}. See [[Adyghe phonology]]
 |-
 | colspan="2" | [[Bengali language|Bengali]]{{sfnp|Khan|2010|p=222}} || {{lang|bn|[[Bengali alphabet|পা]]}} / [[Romanization of Bengali|''p'''a''''']] || {{IPA|[pɐ]}} || 'leg' || Typically transcribed in IPA with {{angbr IPA|a}}. See [[Bengali phonology]]
@@ Line 42: / Line 42: @@
 | colspan="2" | [[Burmese language|Burmese]]{{sfnp|Watkins|2001|p=293}} || {{lang|bm|[[Burmese alphabet|မ'''တ်''']]}}/maat ||{{IPA|[mɐʔ]}} || 'vertical' || Allophone of {{IPA|/a/}} in syllables closed by a glottal stop and when nasalized; realized as fully open {{IPAblink|ä}} in open oral syllables.{{sfnp|Watkins|2001|pp=292–293}}
 |-
-| [[Catalan language|Catalan]] || [[Barcelona metropolitan area]]{{sfnp|Rafel|1999|p=14}}{{sfnp|Harrison|1997|pp=2}} || {{lang|ca|[[Catalan alphabet|'''e'''mm'''a'''g'''a'''tz'''e'''mar]]|italic=yes}} || {{IPA|[ɐm(ː)ɐɣ̞ɐd͡z̺ɐˈmä]}} || 'to store' || Typically transcribed in IPA with {{angbr IPA|ə}}. See [[Catalan phonology]]
+| [[Catalan language|Catalan]] || [[Barcelona metropolitan area]]{{sfnp|Rafel|1999|p=14}}{{sfnp|Harrison|1997|pp=2}} || {{lang|ca|[[Catalan alphabet|'''e'''mm'''a'''g'''a'''tz'''e'''mar]]|italic=yes}} || {{IPA|[ɐm(ː)ɐɣ̞ɐd͡z̺ɐˈmä]}} || 'to store' || Corresponds to {{IPAblink|ə}} in other Eastern dialects. See [[Catalan phonology]]
 |-
 | rowspan="2" | [[Chinese language|Chinese]] || [[Cantonese]]{{sfnp|Zee|1999|p=59}} || {{lang|yue-Hani|[[Chinese characters|心]]}} / {{lang|yue-Latn|[[Jyutping|s'''a'''m1]]}} || {{IPA|[sɐ̝m˥]}} || 'heart' || Open-mid.{{sfnp|Zee|1999|p=59}} See [[Cantonese phonology]]
@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 |{{IPA|[kɐʔ˦]}}|| 'to cut' || Appears only in closed syllables; the exact height and backness is somewhat variable.{{sfnp|Chen|Gussenhoven|2015|p=328}}
 |-
-| colspan="2" | [[Danish language|Danish]]{{sfnp|Basbøll|2005|p=58}} || {{lang|da|[[Danish orthography|fatt'''er''']]|italic=yes}} || {{IPA|[ˈfætɐ]}} || 'understands' || Varies between near-open central unrounded {{IPA|[ɐ]}}, near-open near-back rounded {{IPA|[ɐ̹˗]}} and mid near-back unrounded {{IPAblink|ɤ̞|ə̠}}.{{sfnp|Basbøll|2005|p=58}} See [[Danish phonology]]
+| colspan="2" | [[Danish language|Danish]]{{sfnp|Basbøll|2005|p=58}} || {{lang|da|[[Danish orthography|fatt'''er''']]|italic=yes}} || {{IPA|[ˈfætɐ]}} || 'understands' || Typically realized the same as {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, i.e. {{IPAblink|ɒ|ɒ̽}}. Other possible realizations are {{IPA|[ɐ]}} and {{IPAblink|ɤ̞|ə̠}}.{{sfnp|Basbøll|2005|p=58}} See [[Danish phonology]]
 |-
 | [[Dinka language|Dinka]] || Luanyjang{{sfnp|Remijsen|Manyang|2009|pp=117, 119}} || ''l'''a'''ŋ''|| {{IPA|[lɐ́ŋ]}} || 'berry' || Short allophone of {{IPA|/a/}}; varies between near-open {{IPA|[ɐ]}} and open-mid {{IPA|[ɐ̝]}}.{{sfnp|Remijsen|Manyang|2009|pp=117, 119}}
@@ Line 57: / Line 57: @@
 |{{IPA|[buˈlʌɲːɐ]}}
 |'[[Bologna]]'
-|Centralized /a/.
+|Centralized {{IPA|/a/}}.
 |-
+| rowspan="8" |[[English language|English]] || [[California English|California]]{{sfnp|Ladefoged|1999|p=42}} || rowspan="5" | ''[[English orthography|n'''u'''t]]'' || {{IPA|[nɐt]}} || rowspan="5" | 'nut' || See [[English phonology]]
-| rowspan="8" |[[English language|English]]
-|[[Australian English|Australia]]
-|''[[English orthography|c'''al'''m]]''
-|[kɐːm]
-|'calm'
-|Central. See [[Australian English phonology]]
-|-
-| [[California English|California]]{{sfnp|Ladefoged|1999|p=42}} || rowspan="5" | ''[[English orthography|n'''u'''t]]'' || {{IPA|[nɐt]}} || rowspan="5" | 'nut' || See [[English phonology]]
 |-
 | [[Cockney]]{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=305}}{{sfnp|Hughes|Trudgill|1979|p=35}} || {{IPA|[nɐ̟ʔ]}} || Near-front.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=305}}
@@ Line 74: / Line 67: @@
 | [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]]{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[nɐʔt]}} || Varies between near-open near-front {{IPA|[ɐ̟]}}, near-open central {{IPA|[ɐ]}}, open near-front {{IPAblink|a|a̠}} and open central {{IPAblink|ɐ̞}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}} See [[New Zealand English phonology]]
 |-
-| [[Received Pronunciation]]{{sfnp|Roca|Johnson|1999|p=186}} || See [[English phonology]]
+| [[Received Pronunciation]]{{sfnp|Cruttenden|2014|p=122}}{{sfnp|Roca|Johnson|1999|p=186}} || Increasingly retracted to {{IPAblink|ʌ}} to avoid the [[trap-strut merger]].{{sfnp|Cruttenden|2014|p=122}} See [[English phonology]]
 |-
 | [[Inland Northern American English|Inland Northern American]]<ref>{{citation|last1=Labov|first1=William|last2=Ash|first2=Sharon|last3=Boberg|first3=Charles|year=1997|title=A National Map of the Regional Dialects of American English|publisher=Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania|url=http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/NationalMap/NationalMap.html|access-date=March 15, 2013}}</ref> || ''[[English orthography|b'''e'''t]]'' || {{IPA|[bɐt]}} || 'bet' || Variation of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} used in some places whose accents have undergone the [[Northern cities vowel shift]].
 |-
 | [[Estuary English|Middle Class London]]<ref name="alt188">{{Harvcoltxt|Altendorf|Watt|2004|p=188}}. The authors differentiate between symbols {{IPA|[ɒ̟]}} and {{IPA|[ɒ̈]}}; the former denotes a more back vowel.</ref> || ''[[English orthography|l'''o'''t]]'' || {{IPA|[lɐ̹ʔt]}} || 'lot' || Rounded; can be back {{IPAblink|ɒ}} instead.<ref name="alt188"/> See [[English phonology]]
+|-
+| [[Australian English|Australian]]{{sfnp|Cox|Fletcher|2017|p=64}} || ''[[English orthography|comm'''a''']]'' || {{IPA|[ˈkɔmɐ]}} || 'comma' || Alternatively lowered from word-final {{IPAblink|ə}}.{{sfnp|Cox|Fletcher|2017|p=163}} See [[Australian English phonology]]
 |-
 | colspan="2" | [[Galician language|Galician]]
@@ Line 86: / Line 81: @@
 | Realization of final unstressed {{IPA|/a/}}. See [[Galician phonology]]
 |-
-| rowspan="2" | [[German language|German]] || [[Standard German|Standard]]{{sfnp|Krech et al.|2009|p=86}} || {{lang|de|[[German orthography|od'''er''']]|italic=yes}} || {{Audio-IPA|De-oder.ogg|[ˈoːdɐ]}} || 'or' || The exact height, backness and roundedness is somewhere between {{IPAblink|ä}} and {{IPAblink|ɔ}}, depending on the environment. Sometimes, an opening diphthong of the {{IPA|[əɐ̯]}}-type is used instead.{{sfnp|Krech et al.|2009|p=86}} See [[Standard German phonology]]
+| rowspan="2" | [[German language|German]] || [[Standard German|Standard]]{{sfnp|Krech et al.|2009|p=86}}{{sfnp|Rathcke|Mooshammer|2020|pp=48–50}} || {{lang|de|[[German orthography|Op'''er''']]|italic=yes}} || {{Audio-IPA|De-Oper.ogg|[ˈoːpɐ]}} || 'opera' || The exact height, backness and roundedness is somewhere between {{IPAblink|ä}} and {{IPAblink|ɔ}}, depending on the environment. Sometimes, an opening diphthong of the {{IPA|[əɐ̯]}}-type is used instead.{{sfnp|Krech et al.|2009|p=86}} In Northern Standard German, the short {{IPAblink|ä}} is raised to {{IPA|[ɐ]}} when unstressed, rendering {{lang|de|Opa}} 'grandpa' homophonous with {{lang|de|Oper}}.{{sfnp|Rathcke|Mooshammer|2020|pp=48–50}} See [[Standard German phonology]]
 |-
-| Northern German accents<!--NOT 'dialects', the source talks about Standard German spoken with Northern German accents-->{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=64}} || {{lang|de|[[German alphabet|k'''o'''mmen]]|italic=yes}} || {{IPA|[ˈkʰɐmən]}} || 'to come' || Varies between central {{IPA|[ɐ]}} and back {{IPA|[ɑ]}}; corresponds to an open-mid rounded {{IPAblink|ɔ}} in Standard German.{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=64}} See [[Standard German phonology]]
+| Regional northern accents<!--NOT 'dialects', the source talks about Standard German spoken with Northern German accents-->{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=64}} || {{lang|de|[[German alphabet|k'''o'''mmen]]|italic=yes}} || {{IPA|[ˈkʰɐmən]}} || 'to come' || Varies between central {{IPA|[ɐ]}} and back {{IPA|[ɑ]}}; corresponds to an open-mid rounded {{IPAblink|ɔ}} in Standard German.{{sfnp|Dudenredaktion|Kleiner|Knöbl|2015|p=64}} See [[Standard German phonology]]
 |-
 | [[Greek language|Greek]] || [[Modern Greek|Modern]] Standard{{sfnp|Arvaniti|2007|p=25}} || {{lang|el|[[Greek alphabet|'''α'''κ'''α'''κί'''α''']]}} / [[Romanization of Greek|'''''a'''k'''a'''kí'''a''''']] || {{IPA|[ɐkɐˈc̠i.ɐ]}} || 'acacia' || Most often transcribed in IPA with {{angbr IPA|a}}. See [[Modern Greek phonology]]
@@ Line 98: / Line 93: @@
 | colspan="2" | [[Korean language|Korean]]{{sfnp|Lee|1999|p=121}} || {{lang|ko-Hang|[[Hangul|하나]]}} / {{lang|ko-Latn|[[Revised Romanization of Korean|h'''a'''n'''a''']]}}  || {{IPA|[hɐnɐ]}} || align tr="center"| 'one' || Typically transcribed in IPA with {{angbr IPA|a}}. See [[Korean phonology]]
 |-
-| colspan="2" | [[Kumzari language|Kumzari]]{{sfnp|Anonby|2011|p=378}} || {{fix|text=orthographic form?}} || {{IPA|[ɡɐ̟p]}} || 'large' || Near-front.{{sfnp|Anonby|2011|p=378}}
+| colspan="2" | [[Kumzari language|Kumzari]]{{sfnp|Anonby|2011|p=378}} || {{Uninastaliq |گپ}} / {{lang|zum|g'''a'''p}} || {{IPA|[ɡɐ̟p]}} || 'large' || Near-front.{{sfnp|Anonby|2011|p=378}}
 |-
 | rowspan="2" | [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] || [[Maastrichtian dialect|Maastrichtian]]{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|Aarts|1999|pp=158–159, 162}} || {{lang|li|v'''äö'''l}} || {{IPA|[vɐ̹ːl]}} || 'much' || Rounded; contrasts with the open-mid {{IPAblink|ɞː}} in words with Accent 2 ({{IPA|[ɐ̹ː]}} itself is always toneless).{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|Aarts|1999|pp=159, 161–162, 164}} It may be transcribed in IPA with {{angbr IPA|ɶː}}, as it is a phonological front vowel.
@@ Line 134: / Line 129: @@
 |-
 | [[Romanian language|Romanian]]|| Moldavian dialects{{sfnp|Pop|1938|p=29}} || {{lang|ro|[[Romanian alphabet|b'''ă'''rbat]]}} || {{IPA|[bɐrˈbat]}} || 'man' || Corresponds to {{IPAblink|ə}} in standard Romanian. See [[Romanian phonology]]
+|-
+| [[Russian language|Russian]] || Standard [[Moscow]]{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=225}} || {{lang|ru|[[Russian orthography|гол'''о'''ва]]}} / ''gol'''o'''va''|| {{Audio-IPA|Ru-голова.ogg|[ɡəɫ̪ɐˈvä]}} || 'head' || Corresponds to {{IPAblink|ʌ}} in standard [[Saint Petersburg]] pronunciation;{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=225}} occurs mostly immediately before stressed syllables. See [[Russian phonology]]
 |-
 | colspan="2" | [[Sabiny language|Sabiny]]<ref name="sabiny1">{{cite web|title=UPSID 4)S|url=http://menzerath.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/S/S0161.html|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref> || {{example needed|date=January 2016}} || || || Contrasts overshort unrounded and overshort rounded near-open central vowels.<ref name="sabiny2">{{cite web|title=UPSID SEBEI|url=http://menzerath.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/L/L4209.html|access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
@@ Line 304: / Line 301: @@
 |isbn=978-1-316-63926-9
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBs3DwAAQBAJ
+}}
+* {{citation
+  |last=Cruttenden
+  |first=Alan
+  |year=2014
+  |title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English
+  |publisher=Routledge
+  |edition=8th
+  |isbn=9781444183092
+  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ
 }}
 * {{citation
@@ Line 519: / Line 526: @@
 |url=http://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000042%5C00000071.pdf
 |isbn=978-84-7283-446-0
+}}
+* {{citation
+|last1=Rathcke
+|first1=Tamara
+|last2=Mooshammer
+|first2=Christine
+|year=2020
+|title=‘Grandpa’ or ‘opera’? Production and perception of unstressed /a/ and /əʁ/ in German
+|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association
+|volume=52
+|issue=1
+|pages=33–58
+|doi=10.1017/S0025100320000110
+|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/grandpa-or-opera-production-and-perception-of-unstressed-a-and-r-in-german/40C93837169B8630610D848BF8C848F8
+|doi-access=free
 }}
 * {{citation
@@ Line 533: / Line 555: @@
  |doi         = 10.1017/S0025100308003605
  |doi-access= free
+ |hdl= 20.500.11820/ccca8aff-adb2-42c0-9daa-f1e5777ee69f
+ |hdl-access= free
  }}
 * {{citation