True toad: Difference between revisions
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
True toad Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
||
(12 intermediate revisions by 9 users not shown) | |||
Line 5: | Line 5: | ||
{{Fossilrange|57|0|earliest=98}} |
{{Fossilrange|57|0|earliest=98}} |
||
| image = |
| image = Rhinella marina (Linnaeus, 1758) - cane toad (4562925062).jpg |
||
| image_caption = [[ |
| image_caption = [[Cane toad]] (''R. marina'') |
||
| image2 = Cane Toad.ogg |
|||
| image2 = Atelopus_franciscus_male_territorial_call_-_pone.0022080.s002.oga |
|||
| image2_caption = Territorial call of an ''[[Atelopus franciscus]]'' male |
|||
| taxon = Bufonidae |
| taxon = Bufonidae |
||
| authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825 |
| authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825 |
||
| subdivision_ranks = Genera |
| subdivision_ranks = Genera |
||
| subdivision = |
| subdivision = {{center|Over 35 ''see text''}} |
||
| range_map = Bufonidae distrib.PNG |
| range_map = Bufonidae distrib.PNG |
||
| range_map_caption = Native distribution of Bufonidae (in black) |
| range_map_caption = Native distribution of Bufonidae (in black) |
||
Line 21: | Line 20: | ||
== History == |
== History == |
||
[[File:Bufo americanus Side.JPG|thumb|right|[[American toad]] ('' |
[[File:Bufo americanus Side.JPG|thumb|right|[[American toad]] (''Anaxyrus americanus'')]] |
||
Bufonidae is thought to have originated in [[South America]]. Some studies date the origin of the group to after the breakup of [[Gondwana]], about |
Bufonidae is thought to have originated in [[South America]]. Some studies date the origin of the group to after the breakup of [[Gondwana]], about 78–98 million years ago in the [[Late Cretaceous]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pramuk|first1=Jennifer B.|last2=Robertson|first2=Tasia|last3=Sites|first3=Jack W.|last4=Noonan|first4=Brice P.|date=2008|title=Around the world in 10 million years: biogeography of the nearly cosmopolitan true toads (Anura: Bufonidae)|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00348.x|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=72–83|doi=10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00348.x|issn=1466-8238}}</ref> In contrast, other studies have dated the origin of the group to the early Paleocene.<ref name="Kok 2018 26–36">{{Cite journal|last1=Kok|first1=Philippe J. R.|last2=Ratz|first2=Sebastian|last3=MacCulloch|first3=Ross D.|last4=Lathrop|first4=Amy|last5=Dezfoulian|first5=Raheleh|last6=Aubret|first6=Fabien|last7=Means|first7=D. Bruce|date=2018|title=Historical biogeography of the palaeoendemic toad genus Oreophrynella (Amphibia: Bufonidae) sheds a new light on the origin of the Pantepui endemic terrestrial biota|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jbi.13093|journal=Journal of Biogeography|language=en|volume=45|issue=1|pages=26–36|doi=10.1111/jbi.13093|s2cid=90886846 |issn=1365-2699}}</ref> The bufonids likely radiated out of South America during the [[Eocene]], with the entire radiation occurring during the Eocene to Oligocene, marking an extremely rapid divergence likely facilitated by the Paleogene's changing climatic conditions.<ref name="Kok 2018 26–36"/> |
||
== Taxonomy == |
== Taxonomy == |
||
The following phylogeny of most genera in the family is based on Portik and Papenfuss, 2015:,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Portik|first1=Daniel M.|last2=Papenfuss|first2=Theodore J.|date=2015-08-06|title=Historical biogeography resolves the origins of endemic Arabian toad lineages (Anura: Bufonidae): Evidence for ancient vicariance and dispersal events with the Horn of Africa and South Asia|url= |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=15|issue=1|pages=152|doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0417-y|issn=1471-2148|pmc=4527211|pmid=26245197}}</ref> Chan ''et al.'', 2016,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chan|first1=Kin Onn|last2=Grismer|first2=L. Lee|last3=Zachariah|first3=Anil|last4=Brown|first4=Rafe M.|last5=Abraham|first5=Robin Kurian|date=2016-01-20|title=Polyphyly of Asian Tree Toads, Genus Pedostibes Günther, 1876 (Anura: Bufonidae), and the Description of a New Genus from Southeast Asia|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=e0145903|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0145903|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4720419|pmid=26788854|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1145903C|doi-access=free}}</ref> Chandramouli ''et al.'', 2016,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chandramouli|first1=S. R.|last2=Vasudevan|first2=Karthikeyan|last3=Harikrishnan|first3=S.|last4=Dutta|first4=Sushil Kumar|last5=Janani|first5=S. Jegath|last6=Sharma|first6=Richa|last7=Das|first7=Indraneil|last8=Aggarwal|first8=Ramesh|date=2016-01-20|title=A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)|url=https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/6522/|journal=ZooKeys|language=en|issue=555|pages=57–90|doi=10.3897/zookeys.555.6522|pmid=26877687|pmc=4740822|issn=1313-2970|doi-access=free}}</ref> and Kok ''et al.'', 2017<ref name="Kok 2018 26–36"/> |
The following phylogeny of most genera in the family is based on Portik and Papenfuss, 2015:,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Portik|first1=Daniel M.|last2=Papenfuss|first2=Theodore J.|date=2015-08-06|title=Historical biogeography resolves the origins of endemic Arabian toad lineages (Anura: Bufonidae): Evidence for ancient vicariance and dispersal events with the Horn of Africa and South Asia|url= |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=15|issue=1|pages=152|doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0417-y|issn=1471-2148|pmc=4527211|pmid=26245197 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Chan ''et al.'', 2016,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chan|first1=Kin Onn|last2=Grismer|first2=L. Lee|last3=Zachariah|first3=Anil|last4=Brown|first4=Rafe M.|last5=Abraham|first5=Robin Kurian|date=2016-01-20|title=Polyphyly of Asian Tree Toads, Genus Pedostibes Günther, 1876 (Anura: Bufonidae), and the Description of a New Genus from Southeast Asia|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=e0145903|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0145903|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4720419|pmid=26788854|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1145903C|doi-access=free}}</ref> Chandramouli ''et al.'', 2016,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chandramouli|first1=S. R.|last2=Vasudevan|first2=Karthikeyan|last3=Harikrishnan|first3=S.|last4=Dutta|first4=Sushil Kumar|last5=Janani|first5=S. Jegath|last6=Sharma|first6=Richa|last7=Das|first7=Indraneil|last8=Aggarwal|first8=Ramesh|date=2016-01-20|title=A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)|url=https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/6522/|journal=ZooKeys|language=en|issue=555|pages=57–90|doi=10.3897/zookeys.555.6522|pmid=26877687|pmc=4740822|bibcode=2016ZooK..555...57C |issn=1313-2970|doi-access=free}}</ref> and Kok ''et al.'', 2017<ref name="Kok 2018 26–36"/> |
||
{{clade |
{{clade |
||
|1=''[[Melanophryniscus]]'' |
|1=''[[Melanophryniscus]]'' |
||
Line 74: | Line 73: | ||
|2={{clade |
|2={{clade |
||
|1=''[[Capensibufo]]'' |
|1=''[[Capensibufo]]'' |
||
|2=''[[Mertensophryne]] |
|2=''[[Mertensophryne]]'' |
||
}} |
}} |
||
}} |
}} |
||
Line 89: | Line 88: | ||
}} |
}} |
||
|2={{clade |
|2={{clade |
||
|1=''[[Barbarophryne]] |
|1=''[[Barbarophryne]]'' |
||
|2={{clade |
|2={{clade |
||
|1={{clade |
|1={{clade |
||
Line 96: | Line 95: | ||
|2={{clade |
|2={{clade |
||
|1=''[[Churamiti]]'' |
|1=''[[Churamiti]]'' |
||
|2=''[[Nectophrynoides]] |
|2=''[[Nectophrynoides]]'' |
||
}} |
}} |
||
}} |
}} |
||
Line 186: | Line 185: | ||
{|style="text-align:left; border:1px solid #999999; " |
{|style="text-align:left; border:1px solid #999999; " |
||
|-style="background:#CCCC99; text-align: center; " |
|-style="background:#CCCC99; text-align: center; " |
||
! Genus |
! Genus name and author!!Common name!!Species |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
||
Line 219: | Line 218: | ||
| ''[[Didynamipus]]'' {{small|Andersson, 1903}} || Four-digit toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
| ''[[Didynamipus]]'' {{small|Andersson, 1903}} || Four-digit toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
||
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
||
| ''[[Duttaphrynus]]'' {{small|Frost et al., 2006}} || Dutta's toads ||{{align|center| |
| ''[[Duttaphrynus]]'' {{small|Frost et al., 2006}} || Dutta's toads ||{{align|center|23}} |
||
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
||
| ''[[Epidalea]]'' {{small|Cope, 1864}} || Natterjack toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
| ''[[Epidalea]]'' {{small|Cope, 1864}} || Natterjack toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
||
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
|||
|''[[Firouzophrynus]]'' {{small|Safaei-Mahroo and Ghaffari, 2020}}|| |Firouz's toads ||{{align|center|5}} |
|||
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
||
| ''[[Frostius]]'' {{small|Cannatella, 1986}} || Frost's toads ||{{align|center|2}} |
| ''[[Frostius]]'' {{small|Cannatella, 1986}} || Frost's toads ||{{align|center|2}} |
||
Line 230: | Line 231: | ||
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
||
| ''[[Ingerophrynus]]'' {{small|Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006}} || Hainan toads||{{align|center|12}} |
| ''[[Ingerophrynus]]'' {{small|Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006}} || Hainan toads||{{align|center|12}} |
||
|- |
|||
|''[[Kenyaphrynoides]]'' <small>Liedtke, Malonza, Wasonga, Müller & Loader, 2023</small> ||Mount Kenya forest toads |
|||
||{{align|center|1}} |
|||
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
||
| ''[[Laurentophryne]]'' {{small|Tihen, 1960}} || Parker's tree toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
| ''[[Laurentophryne]]'' {{small|Tihen, 1960}} || Parker's tree toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
||
Line 271: | Line 275: | ||
| ''[[Rhaebo]]'' {{small|Cope, 1862}} || Cope toads ||{{align|center|13}} |
| ''[[Rhaebo]]'' {{small|Cope, 1862}} || Cope toads ||{{align|center|13}} |
||
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
|-style="background:#FFFDFF;" |
||
| ''[[Rhinella]]'' {{small|Fitzinger, 1826}} || Beaked toads ||{{align|center| |
| ''[[Rhinella]]'' {{small|Fitzinger, 1826}} || Beaked toads ||{{align|center|94}} |
||
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
|-style="background:#EEEEEE;" |
||
| ''[[Sabahphrynus]]'' {{small|Matsui, Yambun, and Sudin, 2007}} || Sabah earless toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
| ''[[Sabahphrynus]]'' {{small|Matsui, Yambun, and Sudin, 2007}} || Sabah earless toad ||{{align|center|1}} |
||
Line 294: | Line 298: | ||
|- |
|- |
||
|} |
|} |
||
The family also contains an ''[[incertae sedis]]'' species, [["Bufo" scorteccii|"''Bufo''" ''scorteccii'']] {{small|Balletto & Cherchi, 1970}}. |
|||
==References== |
==References== |
||
Line 306: | Line 311: | ||
{{Wiktionary|toad}} |
{{Wiktionary|toad}} |
||
*[http://tolweb.org/Bufonidae Tolweb.org: Bufonidae] |
*[http://tolweb.org/Bufonidae Tolweb.org: Bufonidae] |
||
*[http://www.bufonidae.com Bufonidae.com] |
*[http://www.bufonidae.com Bufonidae.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411000224/http://www.bufonidae.com/ |date=2022-04-11 }} |
||
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110903232255/http://www.amphibia.my/page.php?pageid=Browse%20Species%20Guide&family=Bufonidae%20(Toads) Amphibian and Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia - Family Bufonidae] |
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110903232255/http://www.amphibia.my/page.php?pageid=Browse%20Species%20Guide&family=Bufonidae%20(Toads) Amphibian and Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia - Family Bufonidae] |
||
*[http://www.fs.fed.us/r4/amphibians/family_bufonidae.htm FED.us] |
*[http://www.fs.fed.us/r4/amphibians/family_bufonidae.htm FED.us] |
||
Line 316: | Line 321: | ||
[[Category:Bufonidae|*]] |
[[Category:Bufonidae|*]] |
||
[[Category:Frogs by classification]] |
|||
[[Category:Extant Thanetian first appearances]] |
[[Category:Extant Thanetian first appearances]] |
||
[[Category:Amphibian families]] |
[[Category:Amphibian families]] |
Latest revision as of 21:31, 21 July 2024
True toads | |
---|---|
Cane toad (R. marina) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Amphibia |
Order: | Anura |
Superfamily: | Hyloidea |
Family: | Bufonidae Gray, 1825 |
Genera | |
Over 35 see text
| |
Native distribution of Bufonidae (in black) |
A true toad is any member of the family Bufonidae, in the order Anura (frogs and toads). This is the only family of anurans in which all members are known as toads, although some may be called frogs (such as harlequin frogs). The bufonids now comprise more than 35 genera, Bufo being the best known.
History
[edit]Bufonidae is thought to have originated in South America. Some studies date the origin of the group to after the breakup of Gondwana, about 78–98 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous.[2] In contrast, other studies have dated the origin of the group to the early Paleocene.[3] The bufonids likely radiated out of South America during the Eocene, with the entire radiation occurring during the Eocene to Oligocene, marking an extremely rapid divergence likely facilitated by the Paleogene's changing climatic conditions.[3]
Taxonomy
[edit]The following phylogeny of most genera in the family is based on Portik and Papenfuss, 2015:,[4] Chan et al., 2016,[5] Chandramouli et al., 2016,[6] and Kok et al., 2017[3]
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ingerophrynus alongside Leptophryne was grouped as basal to the clade containing all other Southeast Asian toad genera and Ghatophryne by Portik and Papenfuss, but was found to group with Phrynoidis and Rentapia by Chan et al. Ghatophryne was grouped with Phrynoidis and Rentapia by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group with Pelophryne and Ansonia by Chan et al. In addition, Sabahphrynus was grouped with Strauchbufo and Bufo by Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group with Pelophryne, Ansonia, and Ghatophryne by Chan et al.
Characteristics
[edit]True toads are widespread and are native to every continent except Australia and Antarctica, inhabiting a variety of environments, from arid areas to rainforest. Most lay eggs in paired strings that hatch into tadpoles, although, in the genus Nectophrynoides, the eggs hatch directly into miniature toads.[1]
All true toads are toothless and generally warty in appearance. They have a pair of parotoid glands on the back of their heads. These glands contain an alkaloid poison which the toads excrete when stressed. The poison in the glands contains a number of toxins causing different effects. Bufotoxin is a general term. Different animals contain significantly different substances and proportions of substances. Some, like the cane toad Rhinella marina, are more toxic than others. Some "psychoactive toads", such as the Colorado River toad Incilius alvarius,[7] have been used recreationally for the effects of their bufotoxin.
Depending on the species, male or female toads may possess a Bidder's organ, a trait unique to all bufonids except genera Melanophryniscus and Truebella.[8] Under the right conditions, the organ becomes an active ovary.[9]
The loss of teeth has arisen in frogs independently over 20 times. Notably, all members of Bufonidae are toothless. Another Anuran family with a comparable degree of edentulism is the family Microhylidae.[10]
Reproduction
[edit]Internal fertilization occurs in four bufonid genera.[11]
- Mertensophryne (some species)
- Nectophrynoides (presumably all species)
- Altiphrynoides malcolmi (one out of two species in the genus Altiphrynoides)
- Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis (the sole species in the monotypic genus Nimbaphrynoides)
Ascaphus (all species) and Eleutherodactylus (two species, E. coqui and E. jasperi) are the only other frog genera that have internal fertilization.[11] Limnonectes larvaepartus also has internal fertilization.[12]
Taxonomy and genera
[edit]The family Bufonidae contains over 570 species among 52 genera.
Genus name and author | Common name | Species |
---|---|---|
Adenomus Cope, 1861 | Dwarf toads | 2
|
Altiphrynoides Dubois, 1987 | Ethiopian toads | 2
|
Amazophrynella Fouquet et al., 2012 | 12
| |
Anaxyrus Tschudi, 1845 | 23
| |
Ansonia Stoliczka, 1870 | Stream toads | 34
|
Atelopus Duméril & Bibron, 1841 | Stubfoot toads | 96
|
Barbarophryne Beukema, de Pous, Donaire-Barroso, Bogaerts, Garcia-Porta, Escoriza, Arribas, El Mouden, and Carranza, 2013 (1 sp.) | Tiznit toad; Brongersma's toad | 1
|
Blythophryne Chandramouli et al., 2016[13] | Andaman bush toads | 1
|
Bufo Garsault, 1764 | Toads | 18
|
Bufoides Pillai & Yazdani, 1973 | Mawblang toads; Rock toads | 2
|
Bufotes Rafinesque, 1815 | Palearctic green toads | 15
|
Capensibufo Grandison, 1980 | Cape toads | 5
|
Churamiti Channing & Stanley, 2002 | 1
| |
Dendrophryniscus Jiménez de la Espada, 1871 | Tree toads | 16
|
Didynamipus Andersson, 1903 | Four-digit toad | 1
|
Duttaphrynus Frost et al., 2006 | Dutta's toads | 23
|
Epidalea Cope, 1864 | Natterjack toad | 1
|
Firouzophrynus Safaei-Mahroo and Ghaffari, 2020 | Firouz's toads | 5
|
Frostius Cannatella, 1986 | Frost's toads | 2
|
Ghatophryne Biju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader, and Bossuyt, 2009 | 2
| |
Incilius Cope, 1863 | Central American toads; Middle American toads; Cerro Utyum toads | 39
|
Ingerophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Hainan toads | 12
|
Kenyaphrynoides Liedtke, Malonza, Wasonga, Müller & Loader, 2023 | Mount Kenya forest toads | 1
|
Laurentophryne Tihen, 1960 | Parker's tree toad | 1
|
Leptophryne Fitzinger, 1843 | Indonesia tree toads | 3
|
Melanophryniscus Gallardo, 1961 | South American redbelly toads | 29
|
Mertensophryne Tihen, 1960 | Snouted frogs | 14
|
Metaphryniscus Señaris, Ayarzagüena & Gorzula, 1994 | 1
| |
Nannophryne Günther, 1870 | 4
| |
Nectophryne Buchholz & Peters, 1875 | African tree toads | 2
|
Nectophrynoides Buchholz & Peters, 1875 | African live-bearing toads | 13
|
Nimbaphrynoides Dubois, 1987 | Nimba toads | 1
|
Oreophrynella Boulenger, 1895 | Bush toads | 8
|
Osornophryne Ruiz-Carranza & Hernández-Camacho, 1976 | Plump toads | 11
|
Parapelophryne Fei, Ye & Jiang, 2003 | 1
| |
Pedostibes Günther, 1876 | Asian tree toads | 1
|
Pelophryne Barbour, 1938 | Flathead toads | 13
|
Peltophryne Fitzinger, 1843 | Caribbean toads | 14
|
Phrynoidis Fitzinger in Treitschke, 1842 | Rough toads | 2
|
Poyntonophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Pygmy toads | 11
|
Pseudobufo Tschudi, 1838 | False toad | 1
|
Rentapia Chan, Grismer, Zachariah, Brown, and Abraham, 2016 | 2
| |
Rhaebo Cope, 1862 | Cope toads | 13
|
Rhinella Fitzinger, 1826 | Beaked toads | 94
|
Sabahphrynus Matsui, Yambun, and Sudin, 2007 | Sabah earless toad | 1
|
Schismaderma Smith, 1849 | African split-skin toad | 1
|
Sclerophrys Tschudi, 1838 | 44
| |
Sigalegalephrynus Smart, Sarker, Arifin, Harvey, Sidik, Hamidy, Kurniawan, and Smith, 2017 | Puppet toads | 5
|
Strauchbufo Fei, Ye, and Jiang, 2012 | Siberian toad; Mongolian toad | 1
|
Truebella Graybeal & Cannatella, 1995 | 2
| |
Vandijkophrynus Frost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Van Dijk's toads | 6
|
Werneria Poche, 1903 | Smalltongue toads | 6
|
Wolterstorffina Mertens, 1939 | Wolterstorff toads | 3
|
Xanthophryne Biju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader & Bossuyt, 2009 | 2
|
The family also contains an incertae sedis species, "Bufo" scorteccii Balletto & Cherchi, 1970.
References
[edit]- ^ a b Zweifel, Richard G. (1998). Cogger, H.G.; Zweifel, R.G. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-0-12-178560-4.
- ^ Pramuk, Jennifer B.; Robertson, Tasia; Sites, Jack W.; Noonan, Brice P. (2008). "Around the world in 10 million years: biogeography of the nearly cosmopolitan true toads (Anura: Bufonidae)". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 17 (1): 72–83. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00348.x. ISSN 1466-8238.
- ^ a b c Kok, Philippe J. R.; Ratz, Sebastian; MacCulloch, Ross D.; Lathrop, Amy; Dezfoulian, Raheleh; Aubret, Fabien; Means, D. Bruce (2018). "Historical biogeography of the palaeoendemic toad genus Oreophrynella (Amphibia: Bufonidae) sheds a new light on the origin of the Pantepui endemic terrestrial biota". Journal of Biogeography. 45 (1): 26–36. doi:10.1111/jbi.13093. ISSN 1365-2699. S2CID 90886846.
- ^ Portik, Daniel M.; Papenfuss, Theodore J. (2015-08-06). "Historical biogeography resolves the origins of endemic Arabian toad lineages (Anura: Bufonidae): Evidence for ancient vicariance and dispersal events with the Horn of Africa and South Asia". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 15 (1): 152. doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0417-y. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 4527211. PMID 26245197.
- ^ Chan, Kin Onn; Grismer, L. Lee; Zachariah, Anil; Brown, Rafe M.; Abraham, Robin Kurian (2016-01-20). "Polyphyly of Asian Tree Toads, Genus Pedostibes Günther, 1876 (Anura: Bufonidae), and the Description of a New Genus from Southeast Asia". PLOS ONE. 11 (1): e0145903. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1145903C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145903. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4720419. PMID 26788854.
- ^ Chandramouli, S. R.; Vasudevan, Karthikeyan; Harikrishnan, S.; Dutta, Sushil Kumar; Janani, S. Jegath; Sharma, Richa; Das, Indraneil; Aggarwal, Ramesh (2016-01-20). "A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)". ZooKeys (555): 57–90. Bibcode:2016ZooK..555...57C. doi:10.3897/zookeys.555.6522. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 4740822. PMID 26877687.
- ^ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 2019-01-19.
- ^ Piprek, Rafal P., et al. “Bidder's Organ – Structure, Development and Function.” The International Journal of Developmental Biology, vol. 58, no. 10-11–12, 2014, pp. 819–27. Crossref, doi:10.1387/ijdb.140147rp.
- ^ Brown, Federico D.; Del Pino, Eugenia M.; Krohne, Georg (December 2002). "Bidder's organ in the toad Bufo marinus: Effects of orchidectomy on the morphology and expression of lamina-associated polypeptide 2". Development, Growth & Differentiation. 44 (6): 527–535. doi:10.1046/j.1440-169X.2002.00665.x. ISSN 1440-169X. PMID 12492511. S2CID 44753338.
- ^ Paluh, Daniel J., et al. “Rampant Tooth Loss Across 200 Million Years of Frog Evolution.” BioRxiv, 2021. Crossref, doi:10.1101/2021.02.04.429809.
- ^ a b Vitt, Laurie J.; Caldwell, Janalee P. (2014). Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles (4th ed.). Academic Press. p. 122.
- ^ Iskandar, D. T.; Evans, B. J.; McGuire, J. A. (2014). "A novel reproductive mode in frogs: a new species of fanged frog with internal fertilization and birth of tadpoles". PLOS ONE. 9 (12): e115884. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k5884I. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115884. PMC 4281041. PMID 25551466.
- ^ S. R. Chandramouli, Karthikeyan, Vasudevan, S Harikrishnan, Sushil Kumar Dutta, S Jegath Janani, Richa Sharma, Indraneil Das, Ramesh Aggarwal. “A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)” ZooKeys (2016) 555: 57-90, https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.555.6522
- "Amphibian Species of the World 5.1 - Bufonidae". Archived from the original on 2012-07-15. Retrieved 2008-04-10.
- Stebbins, Robert. Western Reptiles & Amphibians (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Co., 2003.
- Halliday, Tim R., and Kraig Adler (editors). The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians. Facts on File, New York, 2002.