Blacktip reef shark: Difference between revisions

Blacktip reef shark
Conservation status
	; Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Chondrichthyes
Subclass:	Elasmobranchii
Order:	Carcharhiniformes
Family:	Carcharhinidae
Genus:	Carcharhinus
Species:	C. melanopterus
Binomial name
	Carcharhinus melanopterus; (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)
	Range of the blacktip reef shark
Synonyms
	Carcharias elegans Ehrenberg, 1871; Carcharias marianensis Engelhardt, 1912; Carcharias melanopterus Quoy & Gaimard, 1824; Carcharias playfairii Günther, 1870; Squalus carcharias minor Forsskål, 1775; Squalus commersonii* Blainville, 1816; Squalus ustus* Duméril, 1824 * ambiguous synonym

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The blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, which can be easily identified by the prominent black tips on its fins (especially on the first dorsal fin and its caudal fin). Among the most abundant sharks inhabiting the tropical coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, this species prefers shallow, inshore waters. Its exposed first dorsal fin is a common sight in the region. The blacktip reef shark is usually found over reef ledges and sandy flats, though it has also been known to enter brackish and freshwater environments. It typically attains a length of 1.6 m (5.2 ft). Like other sharks, the females are larger than the males.

The blacktip reef shark has extremely small home ranges and exhibits strong site fidelity, remaining within the same local area for up to several years at a time. It is an active predator of small bony fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans, and has also been known to feed on sea snakes and seabirds. Accounts of the blacktip reef shark's life history have been variable and sometimes contradictory, in part reflecting geographical differences within the species. Like other members of its family, this shark is viviparous, with females giving birth to two to five young on a biennial, annual, or possibly biannual cycle. Reports of the gestation period range from 7–9, through 10–11, to possibly 16 months. Mating is preceded by the male following closely behind the female, likely attracted by her chemical signals. Newborn sharks are found further inshore and in shallower water than adults, frequently roaming in large groups over areas flooded by high tide.

Timid and skittish, the blacktip reef shark is difficult to approach and seldom poses a danger to humans unless roused by food. However, people wading through shallow water are at risk of having their legs mistakenly bitten. This shark is used for its meat, fins, and liver oil, but is not considered to be a commercially significant species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the blacktip reef shark as Vulnerable. Although the species as a whole remains widespread and relatively common, overfishing of this slow-reproducing shark has led to its decline at a number of locales.

Taxonomy

French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard originally described the blacktip reef shark during the 1817–1820 exploratory voyage of the corvette Uranie. In 1824, their account was published as part of Voyage autour du monde...sur les corvettes de S.M. l'Uranie et la Physicienne, Louis de Freycinet's 13-volume report on the voyage. The type specimen was a 59 cm (23 in)-long juvenile male caught off the island of Waigeo, west of New Guinea.^[2] Quoy and Gaimard chose the name Carcharias melanopterus, from the Greek melas meaning "black" and pteron meaning "fin" or "wing", in reference to this shark's prominent fin markings.^[3]

Subsequent authors moved the blacktip reef shark to the genus Carcharhinus; in 1965 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature designated it as the type species for the genus.^[2] In some earlier literature, the scientific name of this shark was mistakenly given as C. spallanzani, now recognized as a synonym of the spottail shark (C. sorrah).^[4] Other common names for this species include blackfin reef shark, black-finned shark, blacktip shark, reef blacktip shark, and guliman.^[5]

Phylogeny

Like most other members of its genus, the phylogenetic position of the blacktip reef shark remains indeterminate. Based on morphology, Jack Garrick proposed in 1982 that the closest relative of the blacktip reef shark was the nervous shark (C. cautus).^[6] Leonard Compagno's 1988 morphological analysis suggested affinity not only between this species and the nervous shark, but also four other species, and could not resolve their relationships further. A 1998 allozyme analysis by Gavin Naylor again yielded ambiguous results, finding that the blacktip reef shark forms a polytomy (irresolvable group) with 10 other Carcharhinus species.^[7]

Distribution and habitat

The blacktip reef shark is found throughout nearshore waters of the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific.^[4] In the Indian Ocean, it occurs from South Africa to the Red Sea, including Madagascar, Mauritius, and the Seychelles, and from there eastward along the coast of the Indian Subcontinent to Southeast Asia, including Sri Lanka, the Andaman Islands, and the Maldives. In the Pacific Ocean, it is found from southern China and the Philippines to Indonesia, northern Australia and New Caledonia, and also inhabits numerous oceanic islands, including the Marshall, Gilbert, Society, and Hawaiian Islands and Tuamotu.^[8] Contrary to what most sources state, there is a report suggesting that the specimens of this species from Japanese waters might be from Taiwan,^[9] however a number of sightings and captures of this species have been reported from the inshore waters of Ishigaki Island of Okinawa Prefecture in southern Japan.^[10]^[11] A Lessepsian migrant, this shark has colonized the eastern Mediterranean Sea by way of the Suez Canal.^[8]

Although it has been reported from a depth of 75 m (246 ft),^[5] the blacktip reef shark is usually found in water only a few meters deep, and can often be seen swimming close to shore with its dorsal fin exposed.^[2] Younger sharks prefer shallow, sandy flats, while older sharks are most common around reef ledges and can also be found near reef drop-offs. This species has also been reported from brackish estuaries and lakes in Madagascar, and freshwater environments in Malaysia, though it is not able to tolerate low salinity to the same degree as the bull shark (C. leucas).^[2] At Aldabra in the Indian Ocean, blacktip reef sharks congregate in the channels between reef flats during low tide and travel to the mangroves when the water rises.^[12] There is equivocal evidence that sharks from the northern and southern extremes of its distribution are migratory.^[2]

Blacktip reef sharks in a Japanese aquarium, 2010

Description

A robustly built species with a streamlined "typical shark" form, the blacktip reef shark has a short, wide, rounded snout and moderately large, oval eyes. Each nostril has a flap of skin in front that is expanded into a nipple-shaped lobe. Not counting small symphysial (central) teeth, the tooth rows number 11–13 (usually 12) on either side of the upper jaw and 10–12 (usually 11) on either side of the lower jaw. The upper teeth are upright to angled and narrowly triangular in shape, bearing serrations that are more coarse on the bases; the lower teeth are similar, but more finely serrated.^[2]^[4] The teeth of adult males are more abruptly curved than those of females.^[13]

The pectoral fins are large and narrowly falcate (sickle-shaped), tapering to points. The sizable first dorsal fin is high with a curving S-shaped rear margin, and originates over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin is relatively large with a short rear margin, and is placed opposite the anal fin. There is no ridge between the dorsal fins. This shark is a pale grayish-brown above and white below, with an obvious white band on the sides extending forward from above the anal fin. All the fins have black tips highlighted by lighter-colored borders, which are especially striking on the first dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe. Most blacktip reef sharks are no more than 1.6 m (5.2 ft) long, though rarely individuals may reach 1.8 m (5.9 ft) or possibly 2.0 m (6.6 ft).^[2] The maximum weight on record with the International Game Fish Association is 13.6 kg (30 lb).^[5]

The black tip with a light border on the first dorsal fin is a key identifying trait of this shark
Jaws
Upper teeth
Lower teeth

Biology and ecology

Aerial view of a blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) at Lady Musgrave Island, Queensland, Australia.

Along with the grey reef shark (C. amblyrhinchos) and the whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus), the blacktip reef shark is one of the three most common sharks inhabiting coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific. This species predominates in shallow habitats, while the other two are mostly found deeper. Fast-swimming and active, the blacktip reef shark may be encountered alone or in small groups; large "social" aggregations have also been observed.^[2]^[14] For the most part, juvenile and adult sharks are not segregated by sex, save for the movements of pregnant females to give birth. Individuals exhibit strong fidelity to particular areas, where they may remain for several years.^[15]

A tracking study off Palmyra Atoll in the central Pacific has found the blacktip reef shark has a home range of around 0.55 km² (0.21 sq mi), among the smallest of any shark species. The size and location of the range does not change with time of day. Within this range, 3–17% of the area constitute favored hunting patches that are disproportionately occupied by the resident shark. The sharks spend most of their time swimming back and forth along reef ledges, making occasional short forays onto sandy flats. Their average swimming speed decreases when the tide rises at night, possibly because the influx of cooler water reduces their metabolism, or the accompanying movement of prey fishes makes foraging easier.^[16] Blacktip reef sharks at Aldabra tend to be more mobile than those at Palmyra, with recorded individual movements of up to 2.5 km (1.6 mi) over 7 hours.^[12]

Blacktip reef sharks, particularly small individuals, fall prey to larger fishes, including groupers, grey reef sharks, tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier), and members of their own species. At Palmyra Atoll, adults avoid patrolling tiger sharks by staying out of the central, deeper lagoon.^[16] Their known parasites include the tapeworms Anthobothrium lesteri,^[17] Nybelinia queenslandensis,^[18] Otobothrium alexanderi,^[19] and Platybothrium jondoeorum,^[20] a myxosporidian in the genus Unicapsula,^[21] and the monogenean Dermophthirius melanopteri.^[22] One of the few documented examples of infectious disease in a shark was a fatal case of hemorrhagic septicemia in a blacktip reef shark, caused by the bacterium Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida.^[23]

Feeding

As often the most abundant apex predator within its ecosystem, the blacktip reef shark plays a major role in structuring inshore ecological communities.^[15] Its diet is composed primarily of small teleost fishes, including mullet, groupers, grunters, jacks, mojarras, wrasses, surgeonfish, and smelt-whitings. Groups of blacktip reef sharks in the Indian Ocean have been observed herding schools of mullet against the shore for easier feeding.^[24] Squid, octopus, cuttlefish, shrimp, and mantis shrimp are also taken, as well as carrion and smaller sharks and rays, though this is rare.^[2]^[8] Off northern Australia, this species is known to consume sea snakes, including Acrochordus granulatus, Hydrelaps darwiniensis, Hydrophis spp. and Lapemis hardwickii.^[25] Sharks off Palmyra Atoll have been documented preying on seabird chicks that have fallen out of their nests into the water.^[15] Miscellaneous items that have been found inside the stomachs of this species include algae, turtle grass, coral, hydrozoa, bryozoa, rats, and stones.^[12]^[15]

Researchers working at Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands have found the blacktip reef shark can be readily attracted by splashing or striking metal tools against hard objects underwater, as well as by the scent of both healthy and injured fish.^[26] As with most sharks, the blacktip reef shark does not have any cone cells in its retina, limiting its ability to discriminate colors and fine details. Instead, its vision is adapted for sensitivity to movement or contrast under low light conditions, which is further enhanced by the presence of a reflective tapetum lucidum. Experiments have shown that this shark is capable of detecting small objects up to 1.5–3 m (5–10 ft) away, but is unable to clearly discern the shape of the object.^[12]^[27] Electroreception is another means by which this shark can locate prey; its ampullae of Lorenzini have a sensitivity of approximately 4 nV/cm and an effective range of 25 cm (10 in).^[28] Similar to the grey reef shark, this species becomes more excited and "confident" in the presence of other individuals of its species, and in extreme situations can be roused into a feeding frenzy.^[26] Feeding activity may be greater at night than during the day.^[12]

Life history

Like the other members of its family, the blacktip reef shark is viviparous, though the details of its life history vary across its range. Its reproductive cycle is annual off northern Australia, with mating taking place from January to February,^[29] as well as off Moorea in French Polynesia, where mating occurs from November to March.^[30] The cycle is biennial off Aldabra, where intense competition within and between species for food may constrain females to only bearing young every other year.^[12] Earlier accounts from the Indian Ocean by Johnson (1978), Madagascar by Fourmanoir (1961), and the Red Sea by Gohar and Mazhar (1964), indicated a biannual cycle in these regions with two breeding seasons per year from June to July and December to January.^[30]^[31]^[32] If accurate, the shorter reproductive cycles of these subpopulations may be a consequence of warmer water.^[30]

When receptive to mating, a female blacktip reef shark swims slowly in a sinusoidal pattern near the bottom with her head pointed down; observations in the wild suggest female sharks release chemical signals that allow males to track them. Once the male finds her, he closes to around 15 cm (5.9 in) and follows her with his snout oriented towards her vent.^[33] A courting male may also bite the female behind her gills or on her pectoral fins; these mating wounds heal completely after 4–6 weeks.^[30] After a period of synchronous swimming, the male pushes the female on her side and positions her so her head is against the bottom and her tail is raised. Once the female is in position, the male inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca. Copulation lasts for several minutes, after which the sharks separate and resume their regular behavior.^[33] Off Moorea, individual older females mate and give birth at a consistent time every year, often to within a week's precision, whereas younger females exhibit more variability in their timing. Younger females are also more likely to fail to become pregnant after mating.^[30]

The gestation period has been reported as 10–11 months long in the Indian Ocean and Pacific islands,^[12]^[30] and 7–9 months long off northern Australia.^[29] Earlier authors, such as Melouk (1957), have estimated a gestation period as long as 16 months, though the validity of this figure has subsequently been challenged.^[30] The female has a single functional ovary (on the right) and two functional uteruses, divided into separate compartments for each embryo. Newly ovulated egg cases measure 3.9 cm (1.5 in) by 2.6 cm (1.0 in); after hatching the embryos are sustained by a yolk sac during the first stage of development. After two months, the embryo measures 4 cm (1.6 in) long and has well-developed external gills. After four months, the yolk sac has begun to be converted into a placental connection that attaches to the uterine wall; at this time, the embryo's dark fin markings develop. By five months, the embryo measures 24 cm (9.4 in) and has resorbed its external gills; the placenta is fully formed, though some yolk remains until seven months into gestation.^[12]

Parturition occurs from September to November, with females making use of shallow nursery areas interior of the reef.^[16]^[29]^[30] Newborn pups measure 40–50 cm (16–20 in) long in the Indian Ocean and off northern Australia, while free-swimming pups as small as 33 cm (13 in) long have been observed in the Pacific islands.^[15]^[34] The litter size is 2–5 (typically 4), and is not correlated with female size.^[8]^[12] Young blacktip reef sharks commonly form large groups in water barely deep enough to cover their bodies, over sand flats or in mangrove swamps close to shore. During high tide, they also move onto flooded coral platforms or seaweed beds.^[16]^[26]^[35] Growth is initially rapid; one documented captive shark grew an average of 23 cm (9.1 in) per year in its first two years of life.^[36] The growth rate slows to around 5 cm (2.0 in) per year in juveniles and adults.^[16] Males and females mature sexually at lengths of 95 cm (37 in) and 97 cm (38 in) respectively off northern Australia,^[29] and 105 cm (41 in) and 110 cm (43 in), respectively, off Aldabra.^[12] Males mature at 97 cm (38 in) long off Palmyra Atoll.^[16]

Human interactions

Under most circumstances, the blacktip reef shark has a timid demeanor and is easily frightened away by swimmers. However, its inshore habitat preferences bring it into frequent contact with humans, and thus it is regarded as potentially dangerous.^[2] As of early 2009, 11 unprovoked attacks and 21 attacks total (none fatal) were listed on the International Shark Attack File that are attributable to the blacktip reef shark.^[37] Most attacks involve sharks biting the legs or feet of waders, apparently mistaking them for their natural prey, and do not result in serious injury.^[2] In the Marshall Islands, native islanders avoid blacktip reef shark attacks by swimming rather than wading through shallow water, as a way of discouraging these sharks is to submerge one's body. The blacktip reef shark has also been known to become aggressive in the presence of bait, and may pose a threat while attempting to steal the catches of spear fishers.^[2]

The blacktip reef shark is a normal catch of coastal fisheries, such as those operating off Thailand and India, but is not targeted or considered commercially important.^[8] The meat (sold fresh, frozen, dried and salted, or smoked for human consumption), liver oil, and fins are used.^[5] The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the blacktip reef shark as Vulnerable and declining. Though it remains widespread and common overall, substantial local declines due to overfishing have now been documented in many areas. This species has a low reproductive rate, limiting its capacity for recovering from depletion.^[8]^[15] Blacktip reef sharks are popular subjects of public aquarium exhibits, because of their stereotypically "shark-like" appearance, ability to breed in captivity and modest size, and are also attractions for ecotourism divers.^[9]^[13]

References

^ Simpfendorfer, C.; Yuneni, R.R.; Tanay, D.; Seyha, L.; Haque, A.B.; Fahmi; Bin Ali, A.; Bineesh, K.K.; Gautama, D.A.; Maung, A.; Sianipar, A.; Utzurrum, J.A.T.; Vo, V.Q. (2020). "Carcharhinus melanopterus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T39375A58303674. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T39375A58303674.en. Retrieved 3 June 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Compagno, L.J.V. (1984). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization. pp. 487–489. ISBN 92-5-101384-5.
^ Nouguier, J. & D. Refait (1990). Poissons de l'Océan Indien, les îles Maldives. Réalisations Éditoriales Pédagogiques. p. 27.
^ ^a ^b ^c Randall, J.E. & J.P. Hoover (1995). Coastal Fishes of Oman. University of Hawaii Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-8248-1808-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Carcharhinus melanopterus". FishBase. September 2009 version.
^ Garrick, J.A.F. (1982). Sharks of the genus Carcharhinus. NOAA Technical Report, NMFS CIRC–445.
^ Naylor, G.J.P. (1992). "The phylogenetic relationships among requiem and hammerhead sharks: inferring phylogeny when thousands of equally most parsimonious trees result" (PDF). Cladistics. 8 (4): 295–318. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00073.x. hdl:2027.42/73088. PMID 34929961. S2CID 39697113.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Fowler, S.L.; R.D. Cavanagh; M. Camhi; G.H. Burgess; G.M. Cailliet; S.V. Fordham; C.A. Simpfendorfer; J.A. Musick (2005). Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 296–297. ISBN 2-8317-0700-5.
^ ^a ^b Yano, K. & J.F. Morrissey (May 25, 1999). "Confirmation of blacktip shark, Carcharhinus limbatus, in the Ryukyu Islands and notes on possible absence of C. melanopterus in Japanese waters". Ichthyological Research. 46 (2): 193–198. Bibcode:1999IchtR..46..193Y. doi:10.1007/BF02675438. S2CID 34885027.
^ coola2coola (2013-03-09), Black Tip Reef shark, Spearfishing in Okinawa, Japan #1, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2017-09-23{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "シャークのジン: It's my life! 石垣島". It's my life! 石垣島 (in Japanese). Retrieved 2017-09-23.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Stevens, J. D. (1984). "Life history and ecology of sharks at Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 222 (1226): 79–106. Bibcode:1984RSPSB.222...79S. doi:10.1098/rspb.1984.0050. S2CID 85954905.
^ ^a ^b Press, M. Biological Profiles: Blacktip Reef Shark Archived 2016-01-04 at the Wayback Machine. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on October 3, 2009.
^ Springer, S. (1967). Gilbert, P. W.; Mathewson, R. F.; Rail, D. P. (eds.). "Social organization of shark populations". Sharks, Skates, and Rays. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 149–174.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Papastamatiou, Y.P.; J.E. Caselle; A.M. Friedlander; C.G. Lowe (September 16, 2009). "Distribution, size frequency, and sex ratios of blacktip reef sharks Carcharhinus melanopterus at Palmyra Atoll: a predator-dominated ecosystem". Journal of Fish Biology. 75 (3): 647–654. Bibcode:2009JFBio..75..647P. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02329.x. PMID 20738562.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Papastamatiou, Y.P.; C.G. Lowe; J.E. Caselle; A.M. Friedlander (April 2009). "Scale-dependent effects of habitat on movements and path structure of reef sharks at a predator-dominated atoll". Ecology. 90 (4): 996–1008. Bibcode:2009Ecol...90..996P. doi:10.1890/08-0491.1. PMID 19449694.
^ Williams, H.H.; M.D.B. Burt & J.N. Caira (November 2004). "Anthobothrium lesteri n. sp. (Cestoda: Tetraphyllidea) in Carcharhinus melanopterus from Heron Island, Australia, with comments on its site, mode of attachment, reproductive strategy and membership of the genus". Systematic Parasitology. 59 (3): 211–221. doi:10.1023/B:SYPA.0000048100.77351.9f. PMID 15542950. S2CID 11461408.
^ Jones, M.K. & I. Beveridge (1998). "Nybelinia queenslandensis sp. n. (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha) parasitic in Carcharhinus melanopterus, from Australia, with observations on the fine structure of the scolex including the rhyncheal system". Folia Parasitologica. 45 (4): 295–311.
^ Palm, H.W. (2004). The Trypanorhyncha Diesing 1863. PKSPL-IPB Press. pp. 1–710. ISBN 979-9336-39-2.
^ Healy, C.J. (October 2003). "A revision of Platybothrium Linton, 1890 (Tetraphyllidea: Onchobothriidae), with a phylogenetic analysis and comments on host-parasite associations". Systematic Parasitology. 56 (2): 85–139. doi:10.1023/A:1026135528505. PMID 14574090. S2CID 944343.
^ Stoffregen, D.A. & W.I. Anderson (1990). "A myxosporidian parasite in the skeletal muscle of a black-tip reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)". Journal of Fish Diseases. 13 (6): 549–552. Bibcode:1990JFDis..13..549S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2761.1990.tb00817.x.
^ Cheung, P.J.; R.F. Nigrelli; G.D. Ruggieri; G.L. Crow (1988). "A new microbothriid (monogenean) causing skin lesions on the Pacific blacktip reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy and Gaimard)". Journal of Aquariculture & Aquatic Sciences. 5 (2): 21–25.
^ Briones, V.; A. Fernandez; M. Blanco; M.L. de Vicente; J. Garcia; J.K. Mendez; J. Goyache (September 1998). "Haemorrhagic septicaemia by Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida in a black-tip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus)". Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B. 45 (7): 443–445. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0450.1998.tb00814.x. PMID 9780832.
^ Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. & H. Hass (1959). "Erfahrungen mit Haien". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 16 (6): 733–746. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1959.tb02189.x. S2CID 83375823.
^ Lyle, J.M. & G.J. Timms (1987). "Predation on aquatic snakes by sharks from northern Australia". Copeia. 1987 (3). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists: 802–803. doi:10.2307/1445681. JSTOR 1445681.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hobson, E.S. (1963). "Feeding behavior in three species of sharks". Pacific Science. 17: 171–193.
^ Tester, A.L. & S. Kato (1966). "Visual target discrimination in blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) and grey sharks (C. menisorrah)". Pacific Science. 20 (4): 461–471. hdl:10125/7811.
^ Haine, O.S.; P.V. Ridd; R.J. Rowe (2001). "Range of electrosensory detection of prey by Carcharhinus melanopterus and Himantura granulata". Marine and Freshwater Research. 52 (3): 291–296. doi:10.1071/MF00036.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Lyle, J.M. (1987). "Observations on the Biology of Carcharhinus cautus (Whitley), C. melanopterus (Quoy & Gainard) and C. fitzroyensis (Whitley) from Northern Australia". Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 38 (6): 701–710. doi:10.1071/MF9870701.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Porcher, I.F. (April 2005). "On the gestation period of the blackfin reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus, in waters off Moorea, French Polynesia". Marine Biology. 146 (6): 1207–1211. Bibcode:2005MarBi.146.1207P. doi:10.1007/s00227-004-1518-0. S2CID 55824278.
^ Fourmanoir, P. (1961). "Requins de la cote ouest de Madagascar". Mémoires de l'Institut Scientifique de Madagascar, Série F. 4: 1–81.
^ Gohar, H. A. F. & F.M. Mazhar (1964). "The elasmobranchs of the north-western Red Sea". Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa. 13: 1–144.
^ ^a ^b Johnson, R.H. & D.R. Nelson (1978). "Copulation and possible olfaction-mediated pair formation in two species of carcharhinid sharks". Copeia. 1978 (3). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists: 539–542. doi:10.2307/1443626. JSTOR 1443626.
^ Melouk, M.A. (1957). "On the Development of Carcharhinus Melanopterus [sic] (Q. & G.)". Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa. 9: 229–251.
^ Martin, R.A. Why Do Sharks Expose Their Dorsal Fins? ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on October 3, 2009.
^ Randall, J. E. (1977). "Contributions to the biology of the whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus)". Pacific Science. 31 (2): 143–164.
^ ISAF Statistics on Attacking Species of Shark. International Shark Attack File, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida. Retrieved on May 18, 2009.

External links

Carcharhinus melanopterus, Blacktip reef shark at FishBase
Biological Profiles: Blacktip Reef Shark at Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department
Photos of Blacktip reef shark on Sealife Collection

[iucn_status_19_November_2021-1] Simpfendorfer, C.; Yuneni, R.R.; Tanay, D.; Seyha, L.; Haque, A.B.; Fahmi; Bin Ali, A.; Bineesh, K.K.; Gautama, D.A.; Maung, A.; Sianipar, A.; Utzurrum, J.A.T.; Vo, V.Q. (2020). "Carcharhinus melanopterus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T39375A58303674. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T39375A58303674.en. Retrieved 3 June 2023.

[compagno-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Compagno, L.J.V. (1984). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization. pp. 487–489. ISBN 92-5-101384-5.

[3] Nouguier, J. & D. Refait (1990). Poissons de l'Océan Indien, les îles Maldives. Réalisations Éditoriales Pédagogiques. p. 27.

[randall_and_hoover-4] Randall, J.E. & J.P. Hoover (1995). Coastal Fishes of Oman. University of Hawaii Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-8248-1808-3.

[fishbase-5] Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Carcharhinus melanopterus". FishBase. September 2009 version.

[6] Garrick, J.A.F. (1982). Sharks of the genus Carcharhinus. NOAA Technical Report, NMFS CIRC–445.

[7] Naylor, G.J.P. (1992). "The phylogenetic relationships among requiem and hammerhead sharks: inferring phylogeny when thousands of equally most parsimonious trees result" (PDF). Cladistics. 8 (4): 295–318. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00073.x. hdl:2027.42/73088. PMID 34929961. S2CID 39697113.

[fowler_et_al-8] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Fowler, S.L.; R.D. Cavanagh; M. Camhi; G.H. Burgess; G.M. Cailliet; S.V. Fordham; C.A. Simpfendorfer; J.A. Musick (2005). Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 296–297. ISBN 2-8317-0700-5.

[yano_and_morrissey-9] Yano, K. & J.F. Morrissey (May 25, 1999). "Confirmation of blacktip shark, Carcharhinus limbatus, in the Ryukyu Islands and notes on possible absence of C. melanopterus in Japanese waters". Ichthyological Research. 46 (2): 193–198. Bibcode:1999IchtR..46..193Y. doi:10.1007/BF02675438. S2CID 34885027.

[10] 2coola (2013-03-09), Black Tip Reef shark, Spearfishing in Okinawa, Japan #1, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2017-09-23{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[11] "シャークのジン: It's my life! 石垣島". It's my life! 石垣島 (in Japanese). Retrieved 2017-09-23.

[stevens-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Stevens, J. D. (1984). "Life history and ecology of sharks at Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 222 (1226): 79–106. Bibcode:1984RSPSB.222...79S. doi:10.1098/rspb.1984.0050. S2CID 85954905.

[press-13] Press, M. Biological Profiles: Blacktip Reef Shark Archived 2016-01-04 at the Wayback Machine. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on October 3, 2009.

[14] Springer, S. (1967). Gilbert, P. W.; Mathewson, R. F.; Rail, D. P. (eds.). "Social organization of shark populations". Sharks, Skates, and Rays. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 149–174.

[papastamatiou_et_al-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Papastamatiou, Y.P.; J.E. Caselle; A.M. Friedlander; C.G. Lowe (September 16, 2009). "Distribution, size frequency, and sex ratios of blacktip reef sharks Carcharhinus melanopterus at Palmyra Atoll: a predator-dominated ecosystem". Journal of Fish Biology. 75 (3): 647–654. Bibcode:2009JFBio..75..647P. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02329.x. PMID 20738562.

[papastamatiou_et_al2-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Papastamatiou, Y.P.; C.G. Lowe; J.E. Caselle; A.M. Friedlander (April 2009). "Scale-dependent effects of habitat on movements and path structure of reef sharks at a predator-dominated atoll". Ecology. 90 (4): 996–1008. Bibcode:2009Ecol...90..996P. doi:10.1890/08-0491.1. PMID 19449694.

[17] Williams, H.H.; M.D.B. Burt & J.N. Caira (November 2004). "Anthobothrium lesteri n. sp. (Cestoda: Tetraphyllidea) in Carcharhinus melanopterus from Heron Island, Australia, with comments on its site, mode of attachment, reproductive strategy and membership of the genus". Systematic Parasitology. 59 (3): 211–221. doi:10.1023/B:SYPA.0000048100.77351.9f. PMID 15542950. S2CID 11461408.

[18] Jones, M.K. & I. Beveridge (1998). "Nybelinia queenslandensis sp. n. (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha) parasitic in Carcharhinus melanopterus, from Australia, with observations on the fine structure of the scolex including the rhyncheal system". Folia Parasitologica. 45 (4): 295–311.

[19] Palm, H.W. (2004). The Trypanorhyncha Diesing 1863. PKSPL-IPB Press. pp. 1–710. ISBN 979-9336-39-2.

[20] Healy, C.J. (October 2003). "A revision of Platybothrium Linton, 1890 (Tetraphyllidea: Onchobothriidae), with a phylogenetic analysis and comments on host-parasite associations". Systematic Parasitology. 56 (2): 85–139. doi:10.1023/A:1026135528505. PMID 14574090. S2CID 944343.

[21] Stoffregen, D.A. & W.I. Anderson (1990). "A myxosporidian parasite in the skeletal muscle of a black-tip reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)". Journal of Fish Diseases. 13 (6): 549–552. Bibcode:1990JFDis..13..549S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2761.1990.tb00817.x.

[22] Cheung, P.J.; R.F. Nigrelli; G.D. Ruggieri; G.L. Crow (1988). "A new microbothriid (monogenean) causing skin lesions on the Pacific blacktip reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy and Gaimard)". Journal of Aquariculture & Aquatic Sciences. 5 (2): 21–25.

[23] Briones, V.; A. Fernandez; M. Blanco; M.L. de Vicente; J. Garcia; J.K. Mendez; J. Goyache (September 1998). "Haemorrhagic septicaemia by Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida in a black-tip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus)". Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B. 45 (7): 443–445. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0450.1998.tb00814.x. PMID 9780832.

[24] Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. & H. Hass (1959). "Erfahrungen mit Haien". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 16 (6): 733–746. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1959.tb02189.x. S2CID 83375823.

[25] Lyle, J.M. & G.J. Timms (1987). "Predation on aquatic snakes by sharks from northern Australia". Copeia. 1987 (3). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists: 802–803. doi:10.2307/1445681. JSTOR 1445681.

[hobson-26] Hobson, E.S. (1963). "Feeding behavior in three species of sharks". Pacific Science. 17: 171–193.

[27] Tester, A.L. & S. Kato (1966). "Visual target discrimination in blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) and grey sharks (C. menisorrah)". Pacific Science. 20 (4): 461–471. hdl:10125/7811.

[28] Haine, O.S.; P.V. Ridd; R.J. Rowe (2001). "Range of electrosensory detection of prey by Carcharhinus melanopterus and Himantura granulata". Marine and Freshwater Research. 52 (3): 291–296. doi:10.1071/MF00036.

[lyle-29] Lyle, J.M. (1987). "Observations on the Biology of Carcharhinus cautus (Whitley), C. melanopterus (Quoy & Gainard) and C. fitzroyensis (Whitley) from Northern Australia". Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 38 (6): 701–710. doi:10.1071/MF9870701.

[porcher-30] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Porcher, I.F. (April 2005). "On the gestation period of the blackfin reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus, in waters off Moorea, French Polynesia". Marine Biology. 146 (6): 1207–1211. Bibcode:2005MarBi.146.1207P. doi:10.1007/s00227-004-1518-0. S2CID 55824278.

[fourmanoir-31] Fourmanoir, P. (1961). "Requins de la cote ouest de Madagascar". Mémoires de l'Institut Scientifique de Madagascar, Série F. 4: 1–81.

[gohar_and_mazhar-32] Gohar, H. A. F. & F.M. Mazhar (1964). "The elasmobranchs of the north-western Red Sea". Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa. 13: 1–144.

[johnson_and_nelson-33] Johnson, R.H. & D.R. Nelson (1978). "Copulation and possible olfaction-mediated pair formation in two species of carcharhinid sharks". Copeia. 1978 (3). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists: 539–542. doi:10.2307/1443626. JSTOR 1443626.

[melouk-34] Melouk, M.A. (1957). "On the Development of Carcharhinus Melanopterus [sic] (Q. & G.)". Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa. 9: 229–251.

[35] Martin, R.A. Why Do Sharks Expose Their Dorsal Fins? ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on October 3, 2009.

[36] Randall, J. E. (1977). "Contributions to the biology of the whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus)". Pacific Science. 31 (2): 143–164.

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@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 | status = VU
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
-| status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{Cite iucn | author = Simpfendorfer, C., Yuneni, R.R., Tanay, D., Seyha, L., Haque, A.B., Fahmi, Bin Ali, A., , D., Bineesh, K.K., Gautama, D.A., Maung, A., Sianipar, A., Utzurrum, J.A.T. & Vo, V.Q. | title = ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' | volume = 2020 | page = e.T39375A58303674 | date = 2020 }}</ref>
+| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Simpfendorfer, C. |author2=Yuneni, R.R. |author3=Tanay, D. |author4=Seyha, L. |author5=Haque, A.B. |author6=Fahmi |author7=Bin Ali, A. |author8=Bineesh, K.K. |author9=Gautama, D.A. |author10=Maung, A. |author11=Sianipar, A. |author12=Utzurrum, J.A.T. |author13=Vo, V.Q. |year=2020 |title=''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T39375A58303674 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T39375A58303674.en |access-date=3 June 2023}}</ref>
 | genus = Carcharhinus
 | species = melanopterus
@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 }}
-The '''blacktip reef shark''' (''Carcharhinus melanopterus'') is a [[species]] of [[requiem shark]], in the [[family (biology)|family]] Carcharhinidae, which can be easily identified by the prominent black tips on its fins (especially on the first [[dorsal fin]] and its [[caudal fin]]). Among the most abundant sharks inhabiting the [[tropical]] [[coral reef]]s of the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s, this species prefers shallow, inshore waters. Its exposed first dorsal fin is a common sight in the region. The blacktip reef shark is usually found over reef ledges and sandy flats, though it has also been known to enter [[brackish]] and [[freshwater]] environments. It typically attains a length of {{convert|1.6|m|ft|abbr=on}}.
+The '''blacktip reef shark''' ('''''Carcharhinus melanopterus''''') is a [[species]] of [[requiem shark]], in the [[family (biology)|family]] Carcharhinidae, which can be easily identified by the prominent black tips on its fins (especially on the first [[dorsal fin]] and its [[caudal fin]]). Among the most abundant sharks inhabiting the [[tropical]] [[coral reef]]s of the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s, this species prefers shallow, inshore waters. Its exposed first dorsal fin is a common sight in the region. The blacktip reef shark is usually found over reef ledges and sandy flats, though it has also been known to enter [[brackish]] and [[freshwater]] environments. It typically attains a length of {{convert|1.6|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Like other sharks, the females are larger than the males.
-The blacktip reef shark has extremely small home ranges and exhibits strong site fidelity, remaining within the same local area for up to several years at a time. It is an active [[predator]] of small [[bony fish]]es, [[cephalopod]]s, and [[crustacean]]s, and has also been known to feed on [[sea snake]]s and [[seabird]]s. Accounts of the blacktip reef shark's life history have been variable and sometimes contradictory, in part reflecting geographical differences within the species. Like other members of its family, this shark is [[viviparity|viviparous]], with females giving birth to two to five young on a biennial, annual, or possibly biannual cycle. Reports of the [[gestation period]] range from 7–9, through 10–11, to possibly 16 months. [[Mating]] is preceded by the male following closely behind the female, likely attracted by her chemical signals. Newborn sharks are found further inshore and in shallower water than adults, frequently roaming in large groups over areas flooded by [[high tide]].
+The blacktip reef shark has extremely small home ranges and exhibits strong site fidelity, remaining within the same local area for up to several years at a time. It is an active [[predator]] of small [[bony fish]], [[cephalopod]]s, and [[crustacean]]s, and has also been known to feed on [[sea snake]]s and [[seabird]]s. Accounts of the blacktip reef shark's life history have been variable and sometimes contradictory, in part reflecting geographical differences within the species. Like other members of its family, this shark is [[viviparity|viviparous]], with females giving birth to two to five young on a biennial, annual, or possibly biannual cycle. Reports of the [[gestation period]] range from 7–9, through 10–11, to possibly 16 months. [[Mating]] is preceded by the male following closely behind the female, likely attracted by her chemical signals. Newborn sharks are found further inshore and in shallower water than adults, frequently roaming in large groups over areas flooded by [[high tide]].
 Timid and skittish, the blacktip reef shark is difficult to approach and seldom poses a danger to humans unless roused by food. However, people wading through shallow water are at risk of having their legs mistakenly bitten. This shark is used for its meat, fins, and [[shark liver oil|liver oil]], but is not considered to be a commercially significant species. The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] has assessed the blacktip reef shark as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]. Although the species as a whole remains widespread and relatively common, [[overfishing]] of this slow-reproducing shark has led to its decline at a number of locales.
@@ Line 36: / Line 36: @@
 ==Phylogeny==
-Like most other members of its genus, the [[phylogenetic]] position of the blacktip reef shark remains indeterminate. Based on [[morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[Jack Garrick]] proposed in 1982 that the closest relative of the blacktip reef shark was the [[nervous shark]] (''C.&nbsp;cautus'').<ref>Garrick, J.A.F. (1982). Sharks of the genus ''Carcharhinus''. NOAA Technical Report, NMFS CIRC–445.</ref> [[Leonard Compagno]]'s 1988 morphological analysis suggested affinity not only between this species and the nervous shark, but also four other species, and could not resolve their relationships further. A 1998 [[allozyme]] analysis by Gavin Naylor again yielded ambiguous results, finding that the blacktip reef shark forms a [[polytomy]] (irresolvable group) with 10 other ''Carcharhinus'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Naylor, G.J.P. |title=The phylogenetic relationships among requiem and hammerhead sharks: inferring phylogeny when thousands of equally most parsimonious trees result |journal=Cladistics |year=1992 |volume=8 |pages=295–318 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00073.x |issue=4|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/73088/1/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00073.x.pdf }}</ref>
+Like most other members of its genus, the [[phylogenetic]] position of the blacktip reef shark remains indeterminate. Based on [[morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[Jack Garrick]] proposed in 1982 that the closest relative of the blacktip reef shark was the [[nervous shark]] (''C.&nbsp;cautus'').<ref>Garrick, J.A.F. (1982). Sharks of the genus ''Carcharhinus''. NOAA Technical Report, NMFS CIRC–445.</ref> [[Leonard Compagno]]'s 1988 morphological analysis suggested affinity not only between this species and the nervous shark, but also four other species, and could not resolve their relationships further. A 1998 [[allozyme]] analysis by Gavin Naylor again yielded ambiguous results, finding that the blacktip reef shark forms a [[polytomy]] (irresolvable group) with 10 other ''Carcharhinus'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Naylor, G.J.P. |title=The phylogenetic relationships among requiem and hammerhead sharks: inferring phylogeny when thousands of equally most parsimonious trees result |journal=Cladistics |year=1992 |volume=8 |pages=295–318 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00073.x |issue=4|pmid=34929961 |hdl=2027.42/73088 |s2cid=39697113 |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/73088/1/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00073.x.pdf }}</ref>
 ==Distribution and habitat==
 [[File:Carcharhinus melanopterus maldives.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A small shark swimming over a sandy flat with reef rocks in the background and the water surface above|The blacktip reef shark prefers shallow, inshore waters.]]
-The blacktip reef shark is found throughout nearshore waters of the tropical and subtropical [[Indo-Pacific]].<ref name="randall and hoover"/> In the [[Indian Ocean]], it occurs from [[South Africa]] to the [[Red Sea]], including [[Madagascar]], [[Mauritius]], and the [[Seychelles]], and from there eastward along the coast of the [[Indian Subcontinent]] to [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Andaman Islands]], and the [[Maldives]]. In the [[Pacific Ocean]], it is found from southern [[China]] and the [[Philippines]] to [[Indonesia]], northern [[Australia]] and [[New Caledonia]], and also inhabits numerous oceanic islands, including the [[Marshall Islands|Marshall]], [[Gilbert Islands|Gilbert]], [[Society Islands|Society]], and [[Hawaiian Islands]] and [[Tuamotu]].<ref name="fowler et al"/> Contrary to what most sources state, there is a report suggesting that the specimens of this species from [[Japan]]ese waters might be from [[Taiwan]],<ref name="yano and morrissey">{{cite journal |title=Confirmation of blacktip shark, ''Carcharhinus limbatus'', in the Ryukyu Islands and notes on possible absence of ''C. melanopterus'' in Japanese waters |author1=Yano, K.  |author2=J.F. Morrissey  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Ichthyological Research |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=193–198 |date=May 25, 1999 |doi=10.1007/BF02675438}}</ref> however a number of sightings and captures of this species have been reported from the inshore waters of [[Ishigaki Island]] of [[Okinawa Prefecture]] in southern [[Japan]].<ref>{{Citation|last=coola2coola|title=Black Tip Reef shark, Spearfishing in Okinawa, Japan #1|date=2013-03-09|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GpgUaw6RHbs|access-date=2017-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ishigakijima.blog.jp/archives/52257315.html|title=シャークのジン : It's my life!　石垣島|work=It's my life!　石垣島|access-date=2017-09-23|language=ja-JP}}</ref> A [[Lessepsian migration|Lessepsian migrant]], this shark has colonized the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]] by way of the [[Suez Canal]].<ref name="fowler et al">{{cite book |authors=Fowler, S.L., R.D. Cavanagh, M. Camhi, G.H. Burgess, G.M. Cailliet, S.V. Fordham, C.A. Simpfendorfer, and J.A. Musick |title=Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |year=2005 |isbn=2-8317-0700-5 |pages=296–297}}</ref>
+The blacktip reef shark is found throughout nearshore waters of the tropical and subtropical [[Indo-Pacific]].<ref name="randall and hoover"/> In the [[Indian Ocean]], it occurs from [[South Africa]] to the [[Red Sea]], including [[Madagascar]], [[Mauritius]], and the [[Seychelles]], and from there eastward along the coast of the [[Indian Subcontinent]] to [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Andaman Islands]], and the [[Maldives]]. In the [[Pacific Ocean]], it is found from southern [[China]] and the [[Philippines]] to [[Indonesia]], northern [[Australia]] and [[New Caledonia]], and also inhabits numerous oceanic islands, including the [[Marshall Islands|Marshall]], [[Gilbert Islands|Gilbert]], [[Society Islands|Society]], and [[Hawaiian Islands]] and [[Tuamotu]].<ref name="fowler et al"/> Contrary to what most sources state, there is a report suggesting that the specimens of this species from [[Japan]]ese waters might be from [[Taiwan]],<ref name="yano and morrissey">{{cite journal |title=Confirmation of blacktip shark, ''Carcharhinus limbatus'', in the Ryukyu Islands and notes on possible absence of ''C. melanopterus'' in Japanese waters |author1=Yano, K.  |author2=J.F. Morrissey  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Ichthyological Research |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=193–198 |date=May 25, 1999 |doi=10.1007/BF02675438|bibcode=1999IchtR..46..193Y |s2cid=34885027 }}</ref> however a number of sightings and captures of this species have been reported from the inshore waters of [[Ishigaki Island]] of [[Okinawa Prefecture]] in southern [[Japan]].<ref>{{Citation|last=coola2coola|title=Black Tip Reef shark, Spearfishing in Okinawa, Japan #1|date=2013-03-09|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GpgUaw6RHbs |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/GpgUaw6RHbs |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-09-23}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ishigakijima.blog.jp/archives/52257315.html|title=シャークのジン: It's my life! 石垣島|work=It's my life! 石垣島|access-date=2017-09-23|language=ja-JP}}</ref> A [[Lessepsian migration|Lessepsian migrant]], this shark has colonized the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]] by way of the [[Suez Canal]].<ref name="fowler et al">{{cite book |author=Fowler, S.L. |author2=R.D. Cavanagh |author3=M. Camhi |author4=G.H. Burgess |author5=G.M. Cailliet |author6=S.V. Fordham |author7=C.A. Simpfendorfer |author8=J.A. Musick |title=Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |year=2005 |isbn=2-8317-0700-5 |pages=296–297}}</ref>
 Although it has been reported from a depth of {{convert|75|m|ft|abbr=on}},<ref name="fishbase"/> the blacktip reef shark is usually found in water only a few meters deep, and can often be seen swimming close to shore with its dorsal fin exposed.<ref name="compagno"/> Younger sharks prefer shallow, sandy flats, while older sharks are most common around reef ledges and can also be found near reef drop-offs. This species has also been reported from [[brackish]] [[estuaries]] and [[lake]]s in Madagascar, and [[freshwater]] environments in [[Malaysia]], though it is not able to tolerate low [[salinity]] to the same degree as the [[bull shark]] (''C.&nbsp;leucas'').<ref name="compagno"/> At [[Aldabra]] in the Indian Ocean, blacktip reef sharks congregate in the channels between reef flats during [[low tide]] and travel to the [[mangrove]]s when the water rises.<ref name="stevens"/> There is equivocal evidence that sharks from the northern and southern extremes of its distribution are [[fish migration|migratory]].<ref name="compagno"/>
+[[File:Carcharhinus melanopterus2010.ogv|thumb|Blacktip reef sharks in a [[Japan]]ese [[aquarium]], 2010]]
 ==Description==
 A robustly built species with a streamlined "typical shark" form, the blacktip reef shark has a short, wide, rounded snout and moderately large, oval eyes. Each [[nostril]] has a flap of skin in front that is expanded into a nipple-shaped lobe. Not counting small symphysial (central) teeth, the tooth rows number 11–13 (usually 12) on either side of the upper jaw and 10–12 (usually 11) on either side of the lower jaw. The upper teeth are upright to angled and narrowly triangular in shape, bearing serrations that are more coarse on the bases; the lower teeth are similar, but more finely serrated.<ref name="compagno"/><ref name="randall and hoover">{{cite book |title=Coastal Fishes of Oman |author1=Randall, J.E.  |author2=J.P. Hoover  |name-list-style=amp|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-8248-1808-3 |page=33}}</ref> The teeth of adult males are more abruptly curved than those of females.<ref name="press">Press, M. [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/BlacktipReefShark/BlacktipReefShark.html Biological Profiles: Blacktip Reef Shark] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104220746/http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/BlacktipReefShark/BlacktipReefShark.html |date=2016-01-04 }}. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on October 3, 2009.</ref>
-The [[pectoral fin]]s are large and narrowly falcate (sickle-shaped), tapering to points. The sizable first [[dorsal fin]] is high with a curving "S"-shaped rear margin, and originates over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin is relatively large with a short rear margin, and is placed opposite the [[anal fin]]. There is no ridge between the dorsal fins. This shark is a pale grayish-brown above and white below, with an obvious white band on the sides extending forward from above the anal fin. All the fins have black tips highlighted by lighter-colored borders, which are especially striking on the first dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe. Most blacktip reef sharks are no more than {{convert|1.6|m|ft|abbr=on}} long, though rarely individuals may reach {{convert|1.8|m|ft|abbr=on}} or possibly {{convert|2.0|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="compagno"/> The maximum weight on record with the [[International Game Fish Association]] is {{convert|13.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="fishbase"/>
+The [[pectoral fin]]s are large and narrowly falcate (sickle-shaped), tapering to points. The sizable first [[dorsal fin]] is high with a curving S-shaped rear margin, and originates over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin is relatively large with a short rear margin, and is placed opposite the [[anal fin]]. There is no ridge between the dorsal fins. This shark is a pale grayish-brown above and white below, with an obvious white band on the sides extending forward from above the anal fin. All the fins have black tips highlighted by lighter-colored borders, which are especially striking on the first dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe. Most blacktip reef sharks are no more than {{convert|1.6|m|ft|abbr=on}} long, though rarely individuals may reach {{convert|1.8|m|ft|abbr=on}} or possibly {{convert|2.0|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="compagno"/> The maximum weight on record with the [[International Game Fish Association]] is {{convert|13.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="fishbase"/>
-<gallery mode=packed>
+<gallery mode="packed">
 Carcharhinus melanopterus vancouver.jpg|The black tip with a light border on the first dorsal fin is a key identifying trait of this shark
 Carcharhinus melanopterus jaws.jpg|Jaws
@@ Line 58: / Line 59: @@
 == Biology and ecology ==
+[[File:Aerial view of a blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) at Lady Musgrave Island, Queensland, Australia.webm|thumb|Aerial view of a blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) at Lady Musgrave Island, Queensland, Australia.]]
 [[File:Carcharhinus melanopterus2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A shark swimming parallel to a reef ledge in the foreground, with many smaller fish nearby|Adult blacktip reef sharks are often found patrolling reef ledges.]]
@@ Line 64: / Line 66: @@
 A tracking study off [[Palmyra Atoll]] in the central Pacific has found the blacktip reef shark has a home range of around {{convert|0.55|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}, among the smallest of any shark species. The size and location of the range does not change with time of day. Within this range, 3–17% of the area constitute favored hunting patches that are disproportionately occupied by the resident shark. The sharks spend most of their time swimming back and forth along reef ledges, making occasional short forays onto sandy flats. Their average swimming speed decreases when the tide rises at night, possibly because the influx of cooler water reduces their [[metabolism]], or the accompanying movement of [[prey fish]]es makes foraging easier.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/> Blacktip reef sharks at Aldabra tend to be more mobile than those at Palmyra, with recorded individual movements of up to {{convert|2.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} over 7&nbsp;hours.<ref name="stevens"/>
-Blacktip reef sharks, particularly small individuals, fall prey to larger fishes, including [[grouper]]s, [[grey reef shark]]s, [[tiger shark]]s (''Galeocerdo cuvier''), and members of their own species. At Palmyra Atoll, adults avoid patrolling tiger sharks by staying out of the central, deeper lagoon.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/> Their known [[parasite]]s include the [[tapeworm]]s ''Anthobothrium lesteri'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=''Anthobothrium lesteri'' n. sp. (Cestoda: Tetraphyllidea) in ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' from Heron Island, Australia, with comments on its site, mode of attachment, reproductive strategy and membership of the genus |author1=Williams, H.H. |author2=M.D.B. Burt |author3=J.N. Caira  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Systematic Parasitology |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=211–221 |date=November 2004 |doi=10.1023/B:SYPA.0000048100.77351.9f |pmid=15542950}}</ref> ''Nybelinia queenslandensis'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=''Nybelinia queenslandensis'' sp. n. (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha) parasitic in ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'', from Australia, with observations on the fine structure of the scolex including the rhyncheal system |author1=Jones, M.K.  |author2=I. Beveridge  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Folia Parasitologica |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=295–311 |year=1998}}</ref> ''Otobothrium alexanderi'',<ref>{{cite book |title=The Trypanorhyncha Diesing 1863 |author=Palm, H.W. |pages=1–710 |publisher=PKSPL-IPB Press |isbn=979-9336-39-2 |year=2004}}</ref> and ''Platybothrium jondoeorum'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=A revision of ''Platybothrium'' Linton, 1890 (Tetraphyllidea: Onchobothriidae), with a phylogenetic analysis and comments on host-parasite associations |author=Healy, C.J. |journal=Systematic Parasitology |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=85–139 |date=October 2003 |doi=10.1023/A:1026135528505 |pmid=14574090}}</ref> a [[myxosporidian]] in the genus ''Unicapsula'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=A myxosporidian parasite in the skeletal muscle of a black-tip reef shark, ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) |author1=Stoffregen, D.A.  |author2=W.I. Anderson  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Journal of Fish Diseases |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=549–552 |year=1990 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2761.1990.tb00817.x}}</ref> and the [[monogenea]]n ''Dermophthirius melanopteri''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A new microbothriid (monogenean) causing skin lesions on the Pacific blacktip reef shark, ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' (Quoy and Gaimard) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255722417_A_New_Microbothriid_Monogenean_Causing_Skin_Lesions_on_the_Pacific_Blacktip_Reef_Shark_Carcharhinus_melanopterus_Quoy_and_Gaimard|authors=Cheung, P.J., R.F. Nigrelli, G.D. Ruggieri, and G.L. Crow |journal=Journal of Aquariculture & Aquatic Sciences |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=21–25 |year=1988}}</ref> One of the few documented examples of [[infectious disease]] in a shark was a fatal case of [[bleeding|hemorrhagic]] [[septicemia]] in a blacktip reef shark, caused by the [[bacterium]] ''[[Aeromonas salmonicida]]'' subsp. ''salmonicida''.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.1998.tb00814.x |title=Haemorrhagic septicaemia by ''Aeromonas salmonicida'' subsp. ''salmonicida'' in a black-tip reef shark (''Carcharhinus melanopterus'') |authors=Briones, V., A. Fernandez, M. Blanco, M.L. de Vicente, J. Garcia, J.K. Mendez and J. Goyache |journal=Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=443–445 |date=September 1998 |pmid=9780832}}</ref>
+Blacktip reef sharks, particularly small individuals, fall prey to larger fishes, including [[grouper]]s, [[grey reef shark]]s, [[tiger shark]]s (''Galeocerdo cuvier''), and members of their own species. At Palmyra Atoll, adults avoid patrolling tiger sharks by staying out of the central, deeper lagoon.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/> Their known [[parasite]]s include the [[tapeworm]]s ''Anthobothrium lesteri'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=''Anthobothrium lesteri'' n. sp. (Cestoda: Tetraphyllidea) in ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' from Heron Island, Australia, with comments on its site, mode of attachment, reproductive strategy and membership of the genus |author1=Williams, H.H. |author2=M.D.B. Burt |author3=J.N. Caira  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Systematic Parasitology |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=211–221 |date=November 2004 |doi=10.1023/B:SYPA.0000048100.77351.9f |pmid=15542950|s2cid=11461408 }}</ref> ''Nybelinia queenslandensis'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=''Nybelinia queenslandensis'' sp. n. (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha) parasitic in ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'', from Australia, with observations on the fine structure of the scolex including the rhyncheal system |author1=Jones, M.K.  |author2=I. Beveridge  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Folia Parasitologica |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=295–311 |year=1998}}</ref> ''Otobothrium alexanderi'',<ref>{{cite book |title=The Trypanorhyncha Diesing 1863 |author=Palm, H.W. |pages=1–710 |publisher=PKSPL-IPB Press |isbn=979-9336-39-2 |year=2004}}</ref> and ''Platybothrium jondoeorum'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=A revision of ''Platybothrium'' Linton, 1890 (Tetraphyllidea: Onchobothriidae), with a phylogenetic analysis and comments on host-parasite associations |author=Healy, C.J. |journal=Systematic Parasitology |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=85–139 |date=October 2003 |doi=10.1023/A:1026135528505 |pmid=14574090|s2cid=944343 }}</ref> a [[myxosporidian]] in the genus ''Unicapsula'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=A myxosporidian parasite in the skeletal muscle of a black-tip reef shark, ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) |author1=Stoffregen, D.A.  |author2=W.I. Anderson  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Journal of Fish Diseases |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=549–552 |year=1990 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2761.1990.tb00817.x|bibcode=1990JFDis..13..549S }}</ref> and the [[monogenea]]n ''Dermophthirius melanopteri''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A new microbothriid (monogenean) causing skin lesions on the Pacific blacktip reef shark, ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' (Quoy and Gaimard) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255722417 |author=Cheung, P.J. |author2=R.F. Nigrelli |author3=G.D. Ruggieri |author4=G.L. Crow |journal=Journal of Aquariculture & Aquatic Sciences |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=21–25 |year=1988}}</ref> One of the few documented examples of [[infectious disease]] in a shark was a fatal case of [[bleeding|hemorrhagic]] [[septicemia]] in a blacktip reef shark, caused by the [[bacterium]] ''[[Aeromonas salmonicida]]'' subsp. ''salmonicida''.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.1998.tb00814.x |title=Haemorrhagic septicaemia by ''Aeromonas salmonicida'' subsp. ''salmonicida'' in a black-tip reef shark (''Carcharhinus melanopterus'') |author=Briones, V. |author2=A. Fernandez |author3=M. Blanco |author4=M.L. de Vicente |author5=J. Garcia |author6=J.K. Mendez |author7=J. Goyache |journal=Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=443–445 |date=September 1998 |pmid=9780832}}</ref>
 ===Feeding===
 [[File:Carcharhinus melanopterus feeding.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|alt=Many black-tipped dorsal fins visible above churning water, and a small fish mid-jump at the upper center|The primary food of the blacktip reef shark is small fish, such as mullet.]]
-As often the most abundant [[apex predator]] within its [[ecosystem]], the blacktip reef shark plays a major role in structuring inshore [[community (ecology)|ecological communities]].<ref name="papastamatiou et al"/> Its diet is composed primarily of small [[teleost|teleost fish]]es, including [[mullet (fish)|mullet]], groupers, [[Terapontidae|grunters]], [[Carangidae|jacks]], [[mojarra]]s, [[wrasse]]s, [[surgeonfish]], and [[Sillaginidae|smelt-whitings]]. Groups of blacktip reef sharks in the Indian Ocean have been observed herding [[shoaling and schooling|schools]] of mullet against the shore for easier feeding.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I.  |author2=H. Hass  |name-list-style=amp|year=1959 |title=Erfahrungen mit Haien |journal=Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=733–746|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1959.tb02189.x}}</ref> [[Squid]], [[octopus]], [[cuttlefish]], [[shrimp]], and [[mantis shrimp]] are also taken, as well as [[carrion]] and smaller [[elasmobranch|sharks and rays]], though this is rare.<ref name="compagno"/><ref name="fowler et al"/> Off northern Australia, this species is known to consume [[sea snake]]s, including ''[[Acrochordus granulatus]]'', ''[[Hydrelaps darwiniensis]]'', ''[[Hydrophis]]'' spp. and ''[[Lapemis hardwickii]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Predation on aquatic snakes by sharks from northern Australia |author1=Lyle, J.M.  |author2=G.J. Timms  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Copeia |volume=1987 |issue=3 |pages=802–803 |year=1987 |doi=10.2307/1445681 |jstor=1445681 |publisher=American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists}}</ref> Sharks off Palmyra Atoll have been documented preying on [[seabird]] chicks that have fallen out of their [[bird nest|nest]]s into the water.<ref name="papastamatiou et al"/> Miscellaneous items that have been found inside the [[stomach]]s of this species include [[algae]], [[turtle grass]], [[coral]], [[hydrozoa]], [[bryozoa]], [[rat]]s, and stones.<ref name="stevens"/><ref name="papastamatiou et al"/>
+As often the most abundant [[apex predator]] within its [[ecosystem]], the blacktip reef shark plays a major role in structuring inshore [[community (ecology)|ecological communities]].<ref name="papastamatiou et al"/> Its diet is composed primarily of small [[teleost|teleost fish]]es, including [[mullet (fish)|mullet]], groupers, [[Terapontidae|grunters]], [[Carangidae|jacks]], [[mojarra]]s, [[wrasse]]s, [[surgeonfish]], and [[Sillaginidae|smelt-whitings]]. Groups of blacktip reef sharks in the Indian Ocean have been observed herding [[shoaling and schooling|schools]] of mullet against the shore for easier feeding.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. |author2=H. Hass  |name-list-style=amp|year=1959 |title=Erfahrungen mit Haien |journal=Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=733–746|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1959.tb02189.x|s2cid=83375823 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1959.tb02189.x|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Squid]], [[octopus]], [[cuttlefish]], [[shrimp]], and [[mantis shrimp]] are also taken, as well as [[carrion]] and smaller [[elasmobranch|sharks and rays]], though this is rare.<ref name="compagno"/><ref name="fowler et al"/> Off northern Australia, this species is known to consume [[sea snake]]s, including ''[[Acrochordus granulatus]]'', ''[[Hydrelaps darwiniensis]]'', ''[[Hydrophis]]'' spp. and ''[[Lapemis hardwickii]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Predation on aquatic snakes by sharks from northern Australia |author1=Lyle, J.M.  |author2=G.J. Timms  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Copeia |volume=1987 |issue=3 |pages=802–803 |year=1987 |doi=10.2307/1445681 |jstor=1445681 |publisher=American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists}}</ref> Sharks off Palmyra Atoll have been documented preying on [[seabird]] chicks that have fallen out of their [[bird nest|nest]]s into the water.<ref name="papastamatiou et al"/> Miscellaneous items that have been found inside the [[stomach]]s of this species include [[algae]], [[turtle grass]], [[coral]], [[hydrozoa]], [[bryozoa]], [[rat]]s, and stones.<ref name="stevens"/><ref name="papastamatiou et al"/>
-Researchers working at [[Enewetak Atoll]] in the Marshall Islands have found the blacktip reef shark can be readily attracted by splashing or striking metal tools against hard objects underwater, as well as by the scent of both healthy and injured fish.<ref name="hobson"/> As with most sharks, the blacktip reef shark does not have any [[cone cell]]s in its [[retina]], limiting its ability to discriminate colors and fine details. Instead, its vision is adapted for sensitivity to movement or contrast under low light conditions, which is further enhanced by the presence of a reflective [[tapetum lucidum]]. Experiments have shown that this shark is capable of detecting small objects up to {{convert|1.5|-|3|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} away, but is unable to clearly discern the shape of the object.<ref name="stevens"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tester, A.L.  |author2=S. Kato  |name-list-style=amp|year=1966 |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/7811|title=Visual target discrimination in blacktip sharks (''Carcharhinus melanopterus'') and grey sharks (''C. menisorrah'') |journal=Pacific Science |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=461–471}}</ref> [[Electroreception]] is another means by which this shark can locate prey; its [[ampullae of Lorenzini]] have a sensitivity of approximately 4&nbsp;nV/cm and an effective range of {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Haine, O.S., P.V. Ridd and R.J. Rowe |journal=Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=291–296 |year=2001 |doi=10.1071/MF00036 |title=Range of electrosensory detection of prey by ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' and ''Himantura granulata''}}</ref> Similar to the grey reef shark, this species becomes more excited and "confident" in the presence of other individuals of its species, and in extreme situations can be roused into a [[feeding frenzy]].<ref name="hobson"/> Feeding activity may be greater at night than during the day.<ref name="stevens"/>
+Researchers working at [[Enewetak Atoll]] in the Marshall Islands have found the blacktip reef shark can be readily attracted by splashing or striking metal tools against hard objects underwater, as well as by the scent of both healthy and injured fish.<ref name="hobson"/> As with most sharks, the blacktip reef shark does not have any [[cone cell]]s in its [[retina]], limiting its ability to discriminate colors and fine details. Instead, its vision is adapted for sensitivity to movement or contrast under low light conditions, which is further enhanced by the presence of a reflective [[tapetum lucidum]]. Experiments have shown that this shark is capable of detecting small objects up to {{convert|1.5|-|3|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} away, but is unable to clearly discern the shape of the object.<ref name="stevens"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tester, A.L.  |author2=S. Kato  |name-list-style=amp|year=1966 |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/7811|title=Visual target discrimination in blacktip sharks (''Carcharhinus melanopterus'') and grey sharks (''C. menisorrah'') |journal=Pacific Science |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=461–471|hdl=10125/7811 }}</ref> [[Electroreception]] is another means by which this shark can locate prey; its [[ampullae of Lorenzini]] have a sensitivity of approximately 4&nbsp;nV/cm and an effective range of {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Haine, O.S. |author2=P.V. Ridd |author3=R.J. Rowe |journal=Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=291–296 |year=2001 |doi=10.1071/MF00036 |title=Range of electrosensory detection of prey by ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' and ''Himantura granulata''}}</ref> Similar to the grey reef shark, this species becomes more excited and "confident" in the presence of other individuals of its species, and in extreme situations can be roused into a [[feeding frenzy]].<ref name="hobson"/> Feeding activity may be greater at night than during the day.<ref name="stevens"/>
 ==Life history==
 [[File:Carcharhinus melanopterus guam 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Two sharks swimming in the same direction, one behind the other, in front of a massive coral head and a bed of boulders|Blacktip reef sharks follow each other as a prelude to mating.]]
-Like the other members of its family, the blacktip reef shark is [[viviparous]], though the details of its life history vary across its range. Its reproductive cycle is annual off northern [[Australia]], with mating taking place from January to February,<ref name="lyle">{{cite journal |author=Lyle, J.M. |year=1987 |title=Observations on the Biology of ''Carcharhinus cautus'' (Whitley), ''C. melanopterus'' (Quoy & Gainard) and ''C. fitzroyensis'' (Whitley) from Northern Australia |journal=Australian Journal of Marine & Freshwater Research |volume=38 |pages=701–710 |doi=10.1071/MF9870701 |issue=6}}</ref> as well as off [[Moorea]] in [[French Polynesia]], where mating occurs from November to March.<ref name="porcher">{{cite journal |title=On the gestation period of the blackfin reef shark, ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'', in waters off Moorea, French Polynesia |author=Porcher, I.F. |journal=Marine Biology |volume=146 |issue=6 |pages=1207–1211 |date=April 2005 |doi=10.1007/s00227-004-1518-0}}</ref> The cycle is biennial off Aldabra, where intense competition within and between species for food may constrain females to only bearing young every other year.<ref name="stevens">{{cite journal |author=Stevens, J. D. |year=1984 |title=Life history and ecology of sharks at Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B |volume=222 |pages=79–106 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1984.0050 |issue=1226}}</ref> Earlier accounts from the Indian Ocean by Johnson (1978), Madagascar by Fourmanoir (1961), and the Red Sea by Gohar and Mazhar (1964), indicated a biannual cycle in these regions with two breeding seasons per year from June to July and December to January.<ref name="porcher"/><ref name="fourmanoir">{{cite journal |author=Fourmanoir, P. |year=1961 |title=Requins de la cote ouest de Madagascar |journal=Mémoires de l'Institut Scientifique de Madagascar, Série F |volume=4 |pages=1–81}}</ref><ref name="gohar and mazhar">{{cite book |author1=Gohar, H. A. F.  |author2=F.M. Mazhar  |name-list-style=amp|date=1964 |title=The elasmobranchs of the north-western Red Sea |journal=Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa |volume=13 |pages=1–144}}</ref> If accurate, the shorter reproductive cycles of these subpopulations may be a consequence of warmer water.<ref name="porcher"/>
+Like the other members of its family, the blacktip reef shark is [[viviparous]], though the details of its life history vary across its range. Its reproductive cycle is annual off northern [[Australia]], with mating taking place from January to February,<ref name="lyle">{{cite journal |author=Lyle, J.M. |year=1987 |title=Observations on the Biology of ''Carcharhinus cautus'' (Whitley), ''C. melanopterus'' (Quoy & Gainard) and ''C. fitzroyensis'' (Whitley) from Northern Australia |journal=Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research |volume=38 |pages=701–710 |doi=10.1071/MF9870701 |issue=6}}</ref> as well as off [[Moorea]] in [[French Polynesia]], where mating occurs from November to March.<ref name="porcher">{{cite journal |title=On the gestation period of the blackfin reef shark, ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'', in waters off Moorea, French Polynesia |author=Porcher, I.F. |journal=Marine Biology |volume=146 |issue=6 |pages=1207–1211 |date=April 2005 |doi=10.1007/s00227-004-1518-0|bibcode=2005MarBi.146.1207P |s2cid=55824278 }}</ref> The cycle is biennial off Aldabra, where intense competition within and between species for food may constrain females to only bearing young every other year.<ref name="stevens">{{cite journal |author=Stevens, J. D. |year=1984 |title=Life history and ecology of sharks at Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B |volume=222 |pages=79–106 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1984.0050 |issue=1226|bibcode=1984RSPSB.222...79S |s2cid=85954905 }}</ref> Earlier accounts from the Indian Ocean by Johnson (1978), Madagascar by Fourmanoir (1961), and the Red Sea by Gohar and Mazhar (1964), indicated a biannual cycle in these regions with two breeding seasons per year from June to July and December to January.<ref name="porcher"/><ref name="fourmanoir">{{cite journal |author=Fourmanoir, P. |year=1961 |title=Requins de la cote ouest de Madagascar |journal=Mémoires de l'Institut Scientifique de Madagascar, Série F |volume=4 |pages=1–81}}</ref><ref name="gohar and mazhar">{{cite journal |author1=Gohar, H. A. F.  |author2=F.M. Mazhar  |name-list-style=amp|date=1964 |title=The elasmobranchs of the north-western Red Sea |journal=Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa |volume=13 |pages=1–144}}</ref> If accurate, the shorter reproductive cycles of these subpopulations may be a consequence of warmer water.<ref name="porcher"/>
 When receptive to mating, a female blacktip reef shark swims slowly in a [[wikt:sinusoidal|sinusoidal]] pattern near the bottom with her head pointed down; observations in the wild suggest female sharks release chemical signals that allow males to track them. Once the male finds her, he closes to around {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}} and follows her with his snout oriented towards her vent.<ref name="johnson and nelson"/> A courting male may also bite the female behind her gills or on her pectoral fins; these mating wounds heal completely after 4–6 weeks.<ref name="porcher"/> After a period of synchronous swimming, the male pushes the female on her side and positions her so her head is against the bottom and her tail is raised. Once the female is in position, the male inserts one of his [[claspers]] into her [[cloaca]]. [[animal sexual behavior|Copulation]] lasts for several minutes, after which the sharks separate and resume their regular behavior.<ref name="johnson and nelson">{{cite journal |title=Copulation and possible olfaction-mediated pair formation in two species of carcharhinid sharks |author1=Johnson, R.H.  |author2=D.R. Nelson  |name-list-style=amp|journal=Copeia |volume=1978 |issue=3 |pages=539–542 |year=1978 |doi=10.2307/1443626 |jstor=1443626 |publisher=American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists}}</ref> Off [[Moorea]], individual older females mate and give birth at a consistent time every year, often to within a week's precision, whereas younger females exhibit more variability in their timing. Younger females are also more likely to fail to become pregnant after mating.<ref name="porcher"/>
@@ Line 82: / Line 84: @@
 The [[gestation period]] has been reported as 10–11 months long in the Indian Ocean and Pacific islands,<ref name="stevens"/><ref name="porcher"/> and 7–9 months long off northern Australia.<ref name="lyle"/> Earlier authors, such as Melouk (1957), have estimated a gestation period as long as 16 months, though the validity of this figure has subsequently been challenged.<ref name="porcher"/> The female has a single functional [[ovary]] (on the right) and two functional [[uterus]]es, divided into separate compartments for each [[embryo]]. Newly [[ovulation|ovulated]] egg cases measure {{convert|3.9|cm|in|abbr=on}} by {{convert|2.6|cm|in|abbr=on}}; after hatching the embryos are sustained by a [[yolk sac]] during the first stage of development. After two months, the embryo measures {{convert|4|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and has well-developed external gills. After four months, the yolk sac has begun to be converted into a [[placenta]]l connection that attaches to the uterine wall; at this time, the embryo's dark fin markings develop. By five months, the embryo measures {{convert|24|cm|in|abbr=on}} and has resorbed its external gills; the placenta is fully formed, though some yolk remains until seven months into gestation.<ref name="stevens"/>
-Parturition occurs from September to November, with females making use of shallow nursery areas interior of the reef.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2">{{cite journal |title=Scale-dependent effects of habitat on movements and path structure of reef sharks at a predator-dominated atoll |author1=Papastamatiou, Y.P. |author2=C.G. Lowe |author3=J.E. Caselle |author4=A.M. Friedlander |journal=Ecology |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=996–1008 |date=April 2009 |doi=10.1890/08-0491.1 |pmid=19449694}}</ref><ref name="lyle"/><ref name="porcher"/> Newborn pups measure {{convert|40|-|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} long in the Indian Ocean and off northern Australia, while free-swimming pups as small as {{convert|33|cm|in|abbr=on}} long have been observed in the Pacific islands.<ref name="papastamatiou et al">{{cite journal |title=Distribution, size frequency, and sex ratios of blacktip reef sharks ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' at Palmyra Atoll: a predator-dominated ecosystem |author1=Papastamatiou, Y.P. |author2=J.E. Caselle |author3=A.M. Friedlander |author4=C.G. Lowe |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=647–654 |date=September 16, 2009 |pmid=20738562 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02329.x}}</ref><ref name="melouk">{{cite journal |author=Melouk, M.A. |year=1957 |title=On the Development of ''Carcharhinus Melanopterus'' [sic] (Q. & G.) |journal=Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa |volume=9 |pages=229–251}}</ref> The litter size is 2–5 (typically 4), and is not correlated with female size.<ref name="fowler et al"/><ref name="stevens"/> Young blacktip reef sharks commonly form large groups in water barely deep enough to cover their bodies, over sand flats or in mangrove swamps close to shore. During high tide, they also move onto flooded coral platforms or [[seaweed]] beds.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/><ref name="hobson">{{cite journal |author=Hobson, E.S. |year=1963 |title=Feeding behavior in three species of sharks |journal=Pacific Science |volume=17 |pages=171–193}}</ref><ref>Martin, R.A. [http://elasmo-research.org/education/topics/b_dorsal_out.htm Why Do Sharks Expose Their Dorsal Fins?] ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on October 3, 2009.</ref> Growth is initially rapid; one documented captive shark grew an average of {{convert|23|cm|in|abbr=on}} per year in its first two years of life.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Randall, J. E. |year=1977 |title=Contributions to the biology of the whitetip reef shark (''Triaenodon obesus'') |journal=Pacific Science |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=143–164}}</ref> The growth rate slows to around {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} per year in juveniles and adults.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/> Males and females [[sexual maturation|mature sexually]] at lengths of {{convert|95|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|97|cm|in|abbr=on}} respectively off northern Australia,<ref name="lyle"/> and {{convert|105|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|110|cm|in|abbr=on}}, respectively, off Aldabra.<ref name="stevens"/> Males mature at {{convert|97|cm|in|abbr=on}} long off Palmyra Atoll.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/>
+Parturition occurs from September to November, with females making use of shallow nursery areas interior of the reef.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2">{{cite journal |title=Scale-dependent effects of habitat on movements and path structure of reef sharks at a predator-dominated atoll |author1=Papastamatiou, Y.P. |author2=C.G. Lowe |author3=J.E. Caselle |author4=A.M. Friedlander |journal=Ecology |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=996–1008 |date=April 2009 |doi=10.1890/08-0491.1 |pmid=19449694|bibcode=2009Ecol...90..996P }}</ref><ref name="lyle"/><ref name="porcher"/> Newborn pups measure {{convert|40|-|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} long in the Indian Ocean and off northern Australia, while free-swimming pups as small as {{convert|33|cm|in|abbr=on}} long have been observed in the Pacific islands.<ref name="papastamatiou et al">{{cite journal |title=Distribution, size frequency, and sex ratios of blacktip reef sharks ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' at Palmyra Atoll: a predator-dominated ecosystem |author1=Papastamatiou, Y.P. |author2=J.E. Caselle |author3=A.M. Friedlander |author4=C.G. Lowe |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=647–654 |date=September 16, 2009 |pmid=20738562 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02329.x|bibcode=2009JFBio..75..647P }}</ref><ref name="melouk">{{cite journal |author=Melouk, M.A. |year=1957 |title=On the Development of ''Carcharhinus Melanopterus'' [sic] (Q. & G.) |journal=Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa |volume=9 |pages=229–251}}</ref> The litter size is 2–5 (typically 4), and is not correlated with female size.<ref name="fowler et al"/><ref name="stevens"/> Young blacktip reef sharks commonly form large groups in water barely deep enough to cover their bodies, over sand flats or in mangrove swamps close to shore. During high tide, they also move onto flooded coral platforms or [[seaweed]] beds.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/><ref name="hobson">{{cite journal |author=Hobson, E.S. |year=1963 |title=Feeding behavior in three species of sharks |journal=Pacific Science |volume=17 |pages=171–193}}</ref><ref>Martin, R.A. [http://elasmo-research.org/education/topics/b_dorsal_out.htm Why Do Sharks Expose Their Dorsal Fins?] ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on October 3, 2009.</ref> Growth is initially rapid; one documented captive shark grew an average of {{convert|23|cm|in|abbr=on}} per year in its first two years of life.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Randall, J. E. |year=1977 |title=Contributions to the biology of the whitetip reef shark (''Triaenodon obesus'') |journal=Pacific Science |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=143–164}}</ref> The growth rate slows to around {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} per year in juveniles and adults.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/> Males and females [[sexual maturation|mature sexually]] at lengths of {{convert|95|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|97|cm|in|abbr=on}} respectively off northern Australia,<ref name="lyle"/> and {{convert|105|cm|in|abbr=on}} and {{convert|110|cm|in|abbr=on}}, respectively, off Aldabra.<ref name="stevens"/> Males mature at {{convert|97|cm|in|abbr=on}} long off Palmyra Atoll.<ref name="papastamatiou et al2"/>
 ==Human interactions==
 [[File:Snorkeler with blacktip reef shark.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=A snorkeler on the left looks at a small nearby shark, which is swimming away|Submerged swimmers are less likely to be bitten by the blacktip reef shark than waders.]]
-Under most circumstances, the blacktip reef shark has a timid demeanor and is easily frightened away by swimmers. However, its inshore habitat preferences bring it into frequent contact with humans, and thus it is regarded as potentially dangerous.<ref name="compagno"/> As of early 2009, 11 unprovoked attacks and 21 attacks total (none fatal) were listed on the [[International Shark Attack File]] that are attributable to the blacktip reef shark.<ref>[http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/statistics/species2.htm ISAF Statistics on Attacking Species of Shark]. International Shark Attack File, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida. Retrieved on May 18, 2009.</ref> Most attacks involve sharks biting the legs or feet of waders, apparently mistaking them for their natural prey, and do not result in serious injury.<ref name="compagno"/> In the Marshall Islands, native islanders avoid blacktip reef shark attacks by swimming rather than wading through shallow water, and a way of discouraging these sharks is to submerge one's body. The blacktip reef shark has also been known to become aggressive in the presence of bait, and may pose a threat while attempting to steal the catches of [[spearfishing|spear fishers]].<ref name="compagno"/>
+Under most circumstances, the blacktip reef shark has a timid demeanor and is easily frightened away by swimmers. However, its inshore habitat preferences bring it into frequent contact with humans, and thus it is regarded as potentially dangerous.<ref name="compagno"/> As of early 2009, 11 unprovoked attacks and 21 attacks total (none fatal) were listed on the [[International Shark Attack File]] that are attributable to the blacktip reef shark.<ref>[http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/statistics/species2.htm ISAF Statistics on Attacking Species of Shark]. International Shark Attack File, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida. Retrieved on May 18, 2009.</ref> Most attacks involve sharks biting the legs or feet of waders, apparently mistaking them for their natural prey, and do not result in serious injury.<ref name="compagno"/> In the Marshall Islands, native islanders avoid blacktip reef shark attacks by swimming rather than wading through shallow water, as a way of discouraging these sharks is to submerge one's body. The blacktip reef shark has also been known to become aggressive in the presence of bait, and may pose a threat while attempting to steal the catches of [[spearfishing|spear fishers]].<ref name="compagno"/>
-The blacktip reef shark is a normal catch of coastal [[fisheries]], such as those operating off [[Thailand]] and [[India]], but is not targeted or considered commercially important.<ref name="fowler et al"/> The meat (sold fresh, frozen, dried and salted, or smoked for human consumption), [[shark liver oil|liver oil]], and [[shark fin soup|fins]] are used.<ref name="fishbase"/> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] has assessed the blacktip reef shark as [[Near Threatened]]. Though it remains widespread and common overall, substantial local declines due to [[overfishing]] have now been documented in many areas. This species has a low reproductive rate, limiting its capacity for recovering from depletion.<ref name="fowler et al"/><ref name="papastamatiou et al"/> Blacktip reef sharks are popular subjects of [[public aquarium]] exhibits, because of their stereotypically "shark-like" appearance, ability to breed in captivity and modest size, and are also attractions for [[ecotourism]] divers.<ref name="yano and morrissey"/><ref name="press"/>
+The blacktip reef shark is a normal catch of coastal [[fisheries]], such as those operating off [[Thailand]] and [[India]], but is not targeted or considered commercially important.<ref name="fowler et al"/> The meat (sold fresh, frozen, dried and salted, or smoked for human consumption), [[shark liver oil|liver oil]], and [[shark fin soup|fins]] are used.<ref name="fishbase"/> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] has assessed the blacktip reef shark as Vulnerable and declining. Though it remains widespread and common overall, substantial local declines due to [[overfishing]] have now been documented in many areas. This species has a low reproductive rate, limiting its capacity for recovering from depletion.<ref name="fowler et al"/><ref name="papastamatiou et al"/> Blacktip reef sharks are popular subjects of [[public aquarium]] exhibits, because of their stereotypically "shark-like" appearance, ability to breed in captivity and modest size, and are also attractions for [[ecotourism]] divers.<ref name="yano and morrissey"/><ref name="press"/>
 ==See also==
-* [[Oceanic whitetip shark]] – another species of requiem shark known for and named after the coloration of the tips of its fins
+* [[Oceanic whitetip shark]] and [[Whitetip reef shark]] – another species of requiem sharks known for and named after the coloration of the tips of its fins
 ==References==
@@ Line 99: / Line 101: @@
 {{Commons category|Carcharhinus melanopterus|Blacktip reef shark}}
 * [http://fishbase.org/Summary/speciesSummary.php?ID=877 ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'', Blacktip reef shark] at [http://www.fishbase.org/search.php FishBase]
-* [http://oldredlist.iucnredlist.org/details/39375/0 ''Carcharhinus melanopterus'' (Blacktip Reef Shark)]{{Dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} at [http://www.iucnredlist.org/ IUCN Red List]
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160104220746/http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/BlacktipReefShark/BlacktipReefShark.html Biological Profiles: Blacktip Reef Shark] at [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/ Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department]
 * {{SealifePhotos|105795}}
@@ Line 108: / Line 109: @@
 {{Good article}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:shark, reef, blacktip}}
 [[Category:Carcharhinus|blacktip reef shark]]
 [[Category:Fish of the Indian Ocean]]

v t e Extant requiem shark species
Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Chondrichthyes Subclass Elasmobranchii Subdivision Selachii Order Carcharhiniformes
Carcharhinus	Blacknose shark (C. acronotus) Silvertip shark (C. albimarginatus) Bignose shark (C. altimus) Graceful shark (C. amblyrhynchoides) Grey reef shark (C. amblyrhynchos) Pigeye shark (C. amboinensis) Borneo shark (C. borneensis) Copper shark (C. brachyurus) Spinner shark (C. brevipinna) Nervous shark (C. cautus) Pacific smalltail shark (C. cerdale) C. coatesi Whitecheek shark (C. dussumieri) Silky shark (C. falciformis) Creek whaler (C. fitzroyensis) Galapagos shark (C. galapagenisis) Pondicherry shark (C. hemiodon) Finetooth shark (C. isodon) Smoothtooth blacktip shark (C. leiodon) Bull shark (C. leucas) Blacktip shark (C. limbatus) Oceanic whitetip shark (C. longimanus) Hardnose shark (C. macloti) Blacktip reef shark (C. melanopterus) Dusky shark (C. obscurus) Caribbean reef shark (C. perezi) Sandbar shark (C. plumbeus) Smalltail shark (C. porosus) Blackspot shark (C. sealei) Night shark (C. signatus) Spot-tail shark (C. sorrah) Australian blacktip shark (C. tilstoni) C. tjutjot
Galeocerdo	Tiger shark (G. cuvier)
Glyphis	Borneo river shark (G. fowlerae) Ganges shark (G. gangeticus) Northern river shark (G. garricki) Speartooth shark (G. glyphis) Irrawaddy river shark (G. siamensis)
Isogomphodon	Daggernose shark (I. oxyrhynchus)
Lamiopsis	Broadfin shark (L. temminckii) Borneo broadfin shark (L. tephrodes)
Loxodon	Sliteye shark (L. macrorhinus)
Nasolamia	Whitenose shark (N. velox)
Negaprion	Sicklefin lemon shark (N. acutidens) Lemon shark (N. brevirostris)
Prionace	Blue shark (P. glauca)
Rhizoprionodon	Milk shark (R. acutus) Brazilian sharpnose shark (R. lalandii) Pacific sharpnose shark (R. longurio) Grey sharpnose shark (R. oligolinx) Caribbean sharpnose shark (R. porosus) Australian sharpnose shark (R. taylori) Atlantic sharpnose shark (R. terraenovae)
Scoliodon	Spadenose shark (S. laticaudus) Pacific spadenose shark (S. macrorhynchos)
Triaenodon	Whitetip reef shark (T. obesus)