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In the United States, libertarianism is a political philosophy promoting individual liberty.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] According to common meanings of conservatism and liberalism in the United States, libertarianism has been described as conservative on economic issues (fiscal conservatism) and liberal on personal freedom (cultural liberalism),^[7] often associated with a foreign policy of non-interventionism.^[8]^[9] Broadly, there are four principal traditions within libertarianism, namely the libertarianism that developed in the mid-20th century out of the revival tradition of classical liberalism in the United States^[10] after liberalism associated with the New Deal;^[11] the libertarianism developed in the 1950s by anarcho-capitalist author Murray Rothbard, who based it on the anti-New Deal Old Right and 19th-century libertarianism and American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker and Lysander Spooner while rejecting the labor theory of value in favor of Austrian School economics and the subjective theory of value;^[12]^[13] the libertarianism developed in the 1970s by Robert Nozick and founded in American and European classical liberal traditions;^[14] and the libertarianism associated with the Libertarian Party, which was founded in 1971, including politicians such as David Nolan^[15] and Ron Paul.^[16]

The right-libertarianism associated with people such as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick,^[17]^[18] whose book Anarchy, State, and Utopia received significant attention in academia according to David Lewis Schaefer,^[19] is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States, compared to that of left-libertarianism.^[20] The latter is associated with the left-wing of the modern libertarian movement^[21] and more recently to the political positions associated with academic philosophers Hillel Steiner, Philippe Van Parijs and Peter Vallentyne that combine self-ownership with an egalitarian approach to natural resources;^[22] it is also related to anti-capitalist, free-market anarchist strands such as left-wing market anarchism,^[23] referred to as market-oriented left-libertarianism to distinguish itself from other forms of libertarianism.^[24]

Libertarianism includes anarchist and libertarian socialist tendencies, although they are not as widespread as in other countries. Murray Bookchin,^[25] a libertarian within this socialist tradition, argued that anarchists, libertarian socialists and the left should reclaim libertarian as a term, suggesting these other self-declared libertarians to rename themselves propertarians instead.^[26]^[27] Although all libertarians oppose government intervention, there is a division between those anarchist or socialist libertarians as well as anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard and David D. Friedman who adhere to the anti-state position, viewing the state as an unnecessary evil; minarchists such as Nozick who recognize the necessary need for a minimal state, often referred to as a night-watchman state;^[28] and classical liberals who support a minimized small government^[29]^[30]^[31] and a major reversal of the welfare state.^[32]

The major libertarian party in the United States is the Libertarian Party. However, libertarians are also represented within the Democratic and Republican parties while others are independent. Gallup found that voters who identify as libertarians ranged from 17 to 23% of the American electorate.^[33] Yellow, a political color associated with liberalism worldwide, has also been used as a political color for modern libertarianism in the United States.^[34]^[35] The Gadsden flag, a symbol first used by American revolutionaries, is frequently used by libertarians and the libertarian-leaning Tea Party movement.^[36]^[37]^[38]

Although libertarian continues to be widely used to refer to anti-state socialists internationally,^[25]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins to the extent that the common meaning of libertarian in the United States is different from elsewhere.^[17]^[26]^[27]^[28]^[44] The Libertarian Party asserts the following core beliefs of libertarianism: "Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties".^[45]^[46] Libertarians have worked to implement their ideas through the Libertarian Party, the Free State Project, agorism, and other forms of activism.^[47]^[48]^[49]

Definition

Since the 19th century, the term libertarian has referred to advocates for freedom of the will, or anyone who generally advocated for liberty, but its long association with anarchism extends at least as far back as 1858, when it was used for the title of New York anarchist journal Le Libertaire.^[44]^[28] In the late 19th century (around the 1880s and 1890s), Anarchist Sébastien Faure used the term libertarian to differentiate between anarchists and authoritarian socialists.^[28] While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism,^[28]^[50] its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups.^[28] As a term, libertarian can include both the New Left and libertarian Marxists (who do not associate with a vanguard party) as well as extreme liberals (primarily concerned with civil liberties). Additionally, some anarchists use the term libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasize its connections with socialism.^[28]^[51]

The revival of free-market ideologies during the mid-to-late 20th century came with disagreement over what to call the movement. While many of its adherents prefer the term libertarian, many conservative libertarians reject the term's association with the 1960s New Left and its connotations of libertine hedonism.^[52] The movement is divided over the use of conservatism as an alternative.^[53] Those who seek both economic and social liberty within a capitalist order would be known as liberals, but that term developed associations opposite of the limited government, low-taxation, minimal state advocated by the movement.^[54] Name variants of the free-market revival movement include classical liberalism, economic liberalism, free-market liberalism and neoliberalism.^[52] As a term, libertarian or economic libertarian has the most colloquial acceptance to describe a member of the movement, with the latter term being based on both the ideology's primacy of economics and its distinction from libertarians of the New Left.^[53]

According to Ian Adams: "Ideologically, all US parties are liberal and always have been. Essentially they espouse classical liberalism, that is a form of democratised Whig constitutionalism plus the free market. The point of difference comes with the influence of social liberalism" and the proper role of government.^[10] Some modern American libertarians are distinguished from the dominant libertarian tradition by their relation to property and capital. While both historical libertarianism and contemporary economic libertarianism share general antipathy towards power by government authority, the latter exempts power wielded through free-market capitalism. Historically, libertarians including Herbert Spencer and Max Stirner have to some degree supported the protection of an individual's freedom from powers of both government and private property owners.^[55] In contrast, while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, some modern American libertarians support freedoms based on private property rights. Anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners. The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some modern American libertarian writings.^[56]

According to definition in political science, libertarianism cannot be neither to the left or to the right as the resemblance between liberalism and libertarianism is superficial. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against. And the same is the case for social democracy and conservative ideas, originating from liberal democracy. In essence, both political sides support basic rights and liberties, equality of opportunity, and the government's role in supporting efficient markets, public goods, which is incompatible with libertarianism. The idea of libertarianism rejects the notion that political power is a public power, which makes the idea incompatible with democracy as well, in which the state is represented through democratically elected subjects. Libertarianism is therefore most akin to "feudalism without feudal rulers", in which a network of private contracts is the ruling element. For that reason, libertarianism as a movement that only exists in America while Europe is devoid of libertarian movements after the 19th century.^[57]

History

18th century

John Locke, regarded as the father of liberalism

During the 18th century and Age of Enlightenment, liberal ideas flourished in Europe and North America.^[58]^[59] For philosopher Roderick T. Long, libertarians "share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry. [Libertarians] [...] claim the seventeenth century English Levellers and the eighteenth century French Encyclopedists among their ideological forebears; and [...] usually share an admiration for Thomas Jefferson^[60]^[61]^[62] and Thomas Paine".^[63]

The United States Declaration of Independence was inspired by Locke in its statement: "[T]o secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it".^[64] According to American historian Bernard Bailyn, during and after the American Revolution, "the major themes of eighteenth-century libertarianism were brought to realization" in constitutions, bills of rights, and limits on legislative and executive powers, including limits on starting wars.^[65]

According to Murray Rothbard, the libertarian creed emerged from the liberal challenges to an "absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older, restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions" as well as the mercantilism of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants. The object of liberals was individual liberty in the economy, in personal freedoms and civil liberty, separation of state and religion and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement. He cites Locke's contemporaries, the Levellers, who held similar views. Also influential were the English Cato's Letters during the early 1700s, reprinted eagerly by American colonists who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies.^[64]

In January 1776, only two years after coming to America from England, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense calling for independence for the colonies.^[66] Paine promoted liberal ideas in clear and concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites.^[67] Common Sense was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas,^[68] selling hundreds of thousands of copies.^[69] Paine would later write the Rights of Man and The Age of Reason and participate in the French Revolution.^[66] Paine's theory of property showed a "libertarian concern" with the redistribution of resources.^[70]

19th and 20th century

Individualist anarchist Lysander Spooner, whose *No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority* greatly influenced libertarianism in the United States

In the 19th century, libertarian philosophies included libertarian socialism and anarchist schools of thought such as individualist and social anarchism. Key libertarian thinkers included Benjamin Tucker,^[71]^[72]^[73] Lysander Spooner,^[74] Stephen Pearl Andrews and William Batchelder Greene, among others.^[26]^[27]^[75]^[76] While most of these anarchist thinkers advocated for the abolition of the state, other key libertarian thinkers and writers such as Henry David Thoreau,^[77]^[78]^[79] Ralph Waldo Emerson^[80] and Spooner in No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority^[81] argued that government should be kept to a minimum and that it is only legitimate to the extent that people voluntarily support, leaving a significant imprint on libertarianism in the United States. The use of the term libertarianism to describe a left-wing position has been traced to the French cognate libertaire, a word coined in a letter French libertarian communist Joseph Déjacque wrote to anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1857.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[44]^[82] While in New York City, Déjacque was able to serialize his book L'Humanisphère, Utopie anarchique (The Humanisphere: Anarchic Utopia) in his periodical Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social (Libertarian: Journal of Social Movement), published in 27 issues from June 9, 1858, to February 4, 1861.^[83]^[84] Le Libertaire was the first libertarian communist journal published in the United States as well as the first anarchist journal to use libertarian.^[26]^[27] Tucker was the first American born to use libertarian.^[85] By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.^[86]

Benjamin Tucker, an invidualist anarchist who contrapposed his anarchist socialism to state socialism

Moving into the 20th century, the Libertarian League was an anarchist and libertarian socialist organization. The first Libertarian League was founded in Los Angeles between the two World Wars.^[87] It was established mainly by Cassius V. Cook, Charles T. Sprading, Clarence Lee Swartz, Henry Cohen, Hans F. Rossner and Thomas Bell.^[87] In 1954, a second Libertarian League was founded in New York City as a political organization building on the Libertarian Book Club. Members included Sam Dolgoff, Russell Blackwell, Dave Van Ronk, Enrico Arrigoni and Murray Bookchin. This Libertarian League had a narrower political focus than the first, promoting anarchism and syndicalism. Its central principle, stated in its journal Views and Comments, was "equal freedom for all in a free socialist society".^[88] Branches of the Libertarian League opened in a number of other American cities, including Detroit and San Francisco. It was dissolved at the end of the 1960s.^[89]^[90]

The 1960s also saw an alliance between the nascent New Left and other radical libertarians who came from the Old Right tradition like Murray Rothbard,^[91] Ronald Radosh^[92] and Karl Hess^[93] in opposition to imperialism and war, especially in relation to the Vietnam War and its opposition. These radicals had long embraced a reading of American history that emphasized the role of elite privilege in shaping legal and political institutions, one that was naturally agreeable to many on the left, increasingly seeking alliances with the left, especially with members of the New Left, in light of the Vietnam War,^[94] the military draft and the emergence of the Black Power movement.^[95] Rothbard argued that the consensus view of American economic history, according to which a beneficent government has used its power to counter corporate predation, is fundamentally flawed. Rather, he argued that government intervention in the economy has largely benefited established players at the expense of marginalized groups, to the detriment of both liberty and equality. Moreover, the robber baron period, hailed by the right and despised by the left as a heyday of laissez-faire, was not characterized by laissez-faire at all, but it was in fact a time of massive state privilege accorded to capital.^[96] In tandem with his emphasis on the intimate connection between state and corporate power, he defended the seizure of corporations dependent on state largesse by workers and others.^[97] This tradition would continue through the 20th and 21st centuries, being taken up by the left-libertarian,^[98] free-market anti-capitalism^[21] of both Samuel Edward Konkin III's agorism^[99]^[100]^[101] and left-wing market anarchism.^[23]^[24]

Mid-20th century

H. L. Mencken, one of the first people to privately call himself *libertarian*

During the mid-20th century, many with Old Right or classical liberal beliefs began to describe themselves as libertarians.^[11] Important American writers such as Rose Wilder Lane, H. L. Mencken, Albert Jay Nock, Isabel Paterson, Leonard Read (the founder of the Foundation for Economic Education) and the European immigrants Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand carried on the intellectual libertarian tradition. In fiction, one can cite the work of the science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein, whose writing carried libertarian underpinnings. Mencken and Nock were the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.^[102]^[103]^[104] They believed Franklin D. Roosevelt had co-opted the word liberal for his New Deal policies which they opposed and used libertarian to signify their allegiance to individualism. In 1923, Mencken wrote: "My literary theory, like my politics, is based chiefly upon one idea, to wit, the idea of freedom. I am, in belief, a libertarian of the most extreme variety".^[105]

As of the mid-20th century, no word was used to describe the ideological outlook of this group of thinkers. Most of them would have described themselves as liberals before the New Deal, but by the mid-1930s the word liberalism had been widely used to mean social liberalism.^{[citation needed]} The word liberal had ceased to refer to the support of individual rights and limited government and instead came to denote left-leaning ideas that would be seen elsewhere as social-democratic. American advocates of classical liberalism bemoaned the loss of the word liberal and cast about for others to replace it.

In August 1953, Max Eastman proposed the terms New Liberalism and liberal conservative which were not eventually accepted.^[106] In May 1955, the term libertarian was first publicly used in the United States as a synonym for classical liberal when writer Dean Russell (1915–1998), a colleague of Leonard Read and a classical liberal himself, proposed the libertarian solution and justified the choice of the word as follows:

Many of us call ourselves "liberals." And it is true that the word "liberal" once described persons who respected the individual and feared the use of mass compulsions. But the leftists have now corrupted that once-proud term to identify themselves and their program of more government ownership of property and more controls over persons. As a result, those of us who believe in freedom must explain that when we call ourselves liberals, we mean liberals in the uncorrupted classical sense. At best, this is awkward and subject to misunderstanding. Here is a suggestion: Let those of us who love liberty trade-mark and reserve for our own use the good and honorable word "libertarian."^[11]

Subsequently, a growing number of Americans with classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as libertarian. The person most responsible for popularizing the term libertarian was Murray Rothbard, who started publishing libertarian works in the 1960s.^[107] Before the 1950s, H. L. Mencken and Albert Jay Nock had been the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.^[102]^[103]^[104] In the 1950s, Russian-American novelist Ayn Rand developed a philosophical system called Objectivism, expressed in her novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged as well as other works which influenced many libertarians.^[108] However, she rejected the label libertarian and harshly denounced the libertarian movement as the "hippies of the right".^[109]^[110] Nonetheless, philosopher John Hospers, a one-time member of Rand's inner circle, proposed a non-initiation of force principle to unite both groups—this statement later became a required pledge for candidates of the Libertarian Party and Hospers himself became its first presidential candidate in 1972.^[111]^[112] Along with Isabel Paterson and Rose Wilder Lane, Rand is described as one of the three female founding figures of the modern libertarian movement in the United States.^[113]

Although influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, themselves influenced by classical liberalism.^[12] Rothbard thought they had a faulty understanding of economics because they accepted the labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists while he was a student of neoclassical economics and supported the subjective theory of value. Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualists' advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics, arguing that there is a "scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung".^[13]

Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater's libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement^[114] through his book The Conscience of a Conservative and his 1964 presidential campaign.^[115] Goldwater's speech writer Karl Hess became a leading libertarian writer and activist.^[116] The Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians and traditionalist conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the draft resistance and peace movements and organizations such as Students for a Democratic Society. They began founding their own publications like Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum^[117]^[118] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance.^[119] The split was aggravated at the 1969 Young Americans for Freedom convention when more than 300 libertarians coordinated to take control of the organization from conservatives. The burning of a draft card in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walkout by a large number of libertarians, the creation of libertarian organizations like the Society for Individual Liberty and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.^[120] The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley Jr. attempted to divorce libertarianism from the movement, writing in a New York Times article as follows: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded".^[121]

David Nolan, founder of the Libertarian Party

As a result of the split, a small group of Americans led by David Nolan and a few friends formed the Libertarian Party in 1971.^[122] Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, it has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s and others have been created since then.^[123] Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication in 1974 of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia, a response to John Rawls's A Theory of Justice (1971). The book proposed a minimal state on the grounds that it was an inevitable phenomenon that could arise without violating individual rights.^[19] The book won a National Book Award in 1975.^[124] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs, "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia".^[125]

British historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives. They demanded greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control. They angrily complained that the establishment was withholding it. They argue this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal.^[126] Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s, this form of libertarianism has spread beyond North America and Europe,^[127]^[128] having been more successful at spreading worldwide than other conservative ideas.^[129] It has been noted that "[m]ost parties of the Right [today] are run by economically liberal conservatives who, in varying degrees, have marginalized social, cultural, and national conservatives".^[130]

Late 20th century

Academics as well as proponents of the capitalist free-market perspectives note that libertarianism has spread beyond the United States since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties^[131]^[132] and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed as a capitalist free-market position.^[133] However, libertarian intellectuals Noam Chomsky,^[42] Colin Ward^[43] and others argue that the term libertarianism is considered a synonym for anarchism and libertarian socialism by the international community and that the United States is unique in widely associating it with the capitalist free-market ideology.^[26]^[27]^[40]^[41] Modern libertarianism in the United States mainly refers to classical and economic liberalism. It supports capitalist free-market approaches as well as neoliberal policies and economic liberalization reforms such as austerity, deregulation, free trade, privatization and reductions in government spending in order to increase the role of the private sector in the economy and society.^[29]^[30]^[31] This is unlike the common meaning^[17]^[42]^[43] of libertarianism elsewhere,^[28]^[40]^[41]^[44] with libertarianism being used to refer to the largely overlapping right-libertarianism, the most popular conception of libertarianism in the United States,^[20]^[134] where the term itself was first coined and used by Joseph Déjacque to refer to a new political philosophy rejecting all authority and hierarchies, including the market and property.^[26]^[27]

In a 1975 interview with Reason, California Governor Ronald Reagan appealed to libertarians when he stated to "believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism".^[135] Ron Paul was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Reagan's presidential campaign^[136] and actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980.^[137] However, Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration's policies after Reagan's election in 1980 and later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981,^[138]^[139] aghast that "in 1977, Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a $38 billion deficit, and every Republican in the House voted against it. In 1981, Reagan proposed a budget with a $45 billion deficit—which turned out to be $113 billion—and Republicans were cheering his great victory. They were living in a storybook land".^[136] Paul expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a failed run for the Senate and eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan.^[139] By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party as explained in a blistering resignation letter.^[137] While affiliated with both Libertarian and Republican parties at different times, Paul said he had always been a libertarian at heart.^[138]^[139] Paul was the Libertarian Party candidate for president in 1988.^[140]

In the 1980s, libertarians such as Paul and Rothbard^[141]^[142] criticized President Reagan, Reaganomics and policies of the Reagan administration for, among other reasons, having turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt and the United States became a debtor nation for the first time since World War I under the Reagan administration.^[143]^[144] Rothbard argued that the presidency of Reagan has been "a disaster for libertarianism in the United States"^[145] and Paul described Reagan himself as "a dramatic failure".^[137]

21st century

In the 21st century, libertarian groups have been successful in advocating tax cuts and regulatory reform. While some argue that the American public as a whole shifted away from libertarianism following the fall of the Soviet Union, citing the success of multinational organizations such as NAFTA and the increasingly interdependent global financial system,^[146] others argue that libertarian ideas have moved so far into the mainstream that many Americans who do not identify as libertarian now hold libertarian views.^[147] Circa 2006 polls find that the views and voting habits of between 10 and 20 percent (increasing) of voting age Americans may be classified as "fiscally conservative and socially liberal, or libertarian".^[148]^[149] This is based on pollsters and researchers defining libertarian views as fiscally conservative and socially liberal (based on the common United States meanings of the terms) and against government intervention in economic affairs and for expansion of personal freedoms.^[148] Through 20 polls on this topic spanning 13 years, Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17 to 23% of the electorate.^[33] While libertarians make up a larger portion of the electorate than the much-discussed "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads", this is not widely recognized as most of these vote for Democratic and Republican party candidates, leading some libertarians to believe that dividing people's political leanings into "conservative", "liberal" and "confused" is not valid.^[150]

In the United States, libertarians may emphasize economic and constitutional rather than religious and personal policies, or personal and international rather than economic policies^[151] such as the Tea Party movement (founded in 2009) which has become a major outlet for libertarian Republican ideas,^[152]^[153] especially rigorous adherence to the Constitution, lower taxes and an opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care. However, polls show that many people who identify as Tea Party members do not hold traditional libertarian views on most social issues and tend to poll similarly to socially conservative Republicans.^[154]^[155]^[156] During the 2016 presidential election, many Tea Party members eventually abandoned more libertarian-leaning views in favor of Donald Trump and his right-wing populism.^[157] Additionally, the Tea Party was considered to be a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the House of Representatives in 2010.^[158] Texas Congressman Ron Paul's 1988, 2008 and 2012 campaigns for the Republican Party presidential nomination were largely libertarian.^[16] Along with Goldwater and others, Paul popularized laissez-faire economics and libertarian rhetoric in opposition to interventionism and worked to pass some reforms. Likewise, California Governor and future President of the United States Ronald Reagan appealed to cultural conservative libertarians due its social conservatism and in a 1975 interview with Reason stated: "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism".^[159] However, many libertarians are ambivalent about Reagan's legacy as president due its social conservatism and how the Reagan administration turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt, making the United States a debtor nation for the first time since World War I.^[160]^[161] Ron Paul was affiliated with the libertarian-leaning Republican Liberty Caucus^[162] and founded the Campaign for Liberty, a libertarian-leaning membership and lobbying organization.^[163] Rand Paul is a Senator who continues the tradition of his father Ron Paul, albeit more moderately as he has described himself as a constitutional conservative^[164] and has both embraced^[165] and rejected libertarianism.^[166]

Since 2012, former New Mexico Governor and two-time Libertarian Party presidential nominee Gary Johnson has been one of the public faces of the libertarian movement. The 2016 Libertarian National Convention saw Johnson and Bill Weld nominated as the 2016 presidential ticket and resulted in the most successful result for a third-party presidential candidacy since 1996 and the best in the Libertarian Party's history by vote number. Johnson received 3% of the popular vote, amounting to more than 4.3 million votes.^[167] Johnson expressed a desire to win at least 5% of the vote so that the Libertarian Party candidates could get equal ballot access and federal funding, ending the two-party system.^[168]^[169]^[170] While some political commentators have described Senator Rand Paul and Congressman Thomas Massie of Kentucky as Republican libertarians or libertarian-leaning,^[165]^[171] they prefer to identify as constitutional conservatives.^[164]^[166] One federal officeholder openly professing some form of libertarianism is Congressman Justin Amash, who represents Michigan's 3rd congressional district since January 2011.^[172]^[173]^[174]^[175] Initially elected to Congress as a Republican,^[176] Amash left the party and became an independent in July 2019.^[177] In April 2020, Amash joined the Libertarian Party and became the first member of the party in the House of Representatives.^[178] Following the 2022 Libertarian National Convention, the Mises Caucus, a paleolibertarian faction, became the dominant faction on the Libertarian National Committee.^[179]^[180]

A variant of non-intellectual right-libertarianism that has been described as "growing in prominence", "changing the dynamics" of the conservative movement in the U.S.,^[181] and even "largely defin[ing] the Republican coalition"^[182] in the 2020s, has been dubbed "Barstool conservatism". First coined in 2021^[183] by journalist Rod Matthew Walther,^[184] the term describes a movement whose primary base of support is young non-religious males,^[185]^[186]^[182] and combines total opposition to political correctness and "wokism" with the more traditional libertarian opposition to controls on the pursuits of pleasure (sex, gambling, pornography, alcohol).^[185]^[182]^[186]

Anti-capitalist libertarianism has recently aroused renewed interest in the early 21st century. The Winter 2006 issue of the Journal of Libertarian Studies published by the Mises Institute was dedicated to reviews of Kevin Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy.^[187] One variety of this kind of libertarianism has been a resurgent mutualism, incorporating modern economic ideas such as marginal utility theory into mutualist theory.^[188] Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy helped to stimulate the growth of new-style mutualism, articulating a version of the labor theory of value incorporating ideas drawn from Austrian economics.^[189]

In 2022, the term kremlintarian emerged as a description of an individual claiming libertarian identity while defending the behavior of totalitarian regimes.^[190]^[191]

Schools of thought

Consequentialist and deontological libertarianism

There are broadly two ethical viewpoints within libertarianism, namely consequentialist libertarianism and deontological libertarianism. The first type is based on consequentialism, only taking into account the consequences of actions and rules when judging them and holds that free markets and strong property rights have good consequences.^[192]^[193] The second type is based on deontological ethics and is the theory that all individuals possess certain natural or moral rights, mainly a right of individual sovereignty. Acts of initiation of force and fraud are rights-violations and that is sufficient reason to oppose those acts.^[194]

Deontological libertarianism is supported by the Libertarian Party. In order to become a card-carrying member, one must sign an oath opposing the initiation of force to achieve political or social goals.^[195] Prominent consequentialist libertarians include David D. Friedman,^[196] Milton Friedman, Friedrich Hayek,^[197]^[198]^[199] Peter Leeson, Ludwig von Mises^[200] and R. W. Bradford.^[201] Prominent deontological libertarians include Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Ayn Rand and Murray Rothbard.^[194]

In addition to the consequentialist libertarianism as promoted by Hayek, Mark Bevir holds that there is also left and right libertarianism.^[202]

Left and right libertarianism

Left-libertarianism and right-libertarianism is a categorization used by some political analysts, academics and media sources in the United States to contrast related yet distinct approaches to libertarian philosophy.^[203]^[204]^[205] Peter Vallentyne defines right-libertarianism as holding that unowned natural resources "may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them". He contrasts this with left-libertarianism, where such "unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner".^[206] Similarly, Charlotte and Lawrence Becker maintain that left-libertarianism most often refers to the political position that holds natural resources are originally common property while right-libertarianism is the political position that considers them to be originally unowned and therefore may be appropriated at-will by private parties without the consent of, or owing to, others.^[207]

Followers of Samuel Edward Konkin III, who characterized agorism as a form of left-libertarianism^[100]^[101] and strategic branch of left-wing market anarchism,^[99] use the terminology as outlined by Roderick T. Long, who describes left-libertarianism as "an integration, or I'd argue, a reintegration of libertarianism with concerns that are traditionally thought of as being concerns of the left. That includes concerns for worker empowerment, worry about plutocracy, concerns about feminism and various kinds of social equality".^[208] Konkin defined right-libertarianism as an "activist, organization, publication or tendency which supports parliamentarianism exclusively as a strategy for reducing or abolishing the state, typically opposes Counter-Economics, either opposes the Libertarian Party or works to drag it right and prefers coalitions with supposedly 'free-market' conservatives".^[99]

While holding that the important distinction for libertarians is not left or right, but whether they are "government apologists who use libertarian rhetoric to defend state aggression", Anthony Gregory describes left-libertarianism as maintaining interest in personal freedom, having sympathy for egalitarianism and opposing social hierarchy, preferring a liberal lifestyle, opposing big business and having a New Left opposition to imperialism and war. Right-libertarianism is described as having interest in economic freedom, preferring a conservative lifestyle, viewing private business as a "great victim of the state" and favoring a non-interventionist foreign policy, sharing the Old Right's "opposition to empire".^[209]

Although some libertarians such as Walter Block,^[210] Harry Browne,^[211] Leonard Read^[212] and Murray Rothbard^[213] reject the political spectrum (especially the left–right political spectrum)^[213]^[214] whilst denying any association with both the political right and left,^[215] other libertarians such as Kevin Carson,^[216] Karl Hess,^[217] Roderick T. Long^[218] and Sheldon Richman^[219] have written about libertarianism's left-wing opposition to authoritarian rule and argued that libertarianism is fundamentally a left-wing position.^[24]^[220] Rothbard himself previously made the same point, rejecting the association of statism with the left.^[221]

Thin and thick libertarianism

Thin and thick libertarianism are two kinds of libertarianism. Thin libertarianism deals with legal issues involving the non-aggression principle only and would permit a person to speak against other groups as long as they did not support the initiation of force against others.^[222] Walter Block is an advocate of thin libertarianism.^[223] Jeffrey Tucker describes thin libertarianism as "brutalism" which he compares unfavorably to "humanitarianism".^[224]

Thick libertarianism goes further to also cover moral issues. Charles W. Johnson describes four kinds of thickness, namely thickness for application, thickness from grounds, strategic thickness and thickness from consequences.^[225] Thick libertarianism is sometimes viewed as more humanitarian than thin libertarianism.^[226] Wendy McElroy has stated that she would leave the movement if thick libertarianism prevails.^[227]

Stephan Kinsella rejects the dichotomy altogether, writing: "I have never found the thick-thin paradigm to be coherent, consistent, well-defined, necessary, or even useful. It's full of straw men, or seems to try to take credit for quite obvious and uncontroversial assertions".^[228]

Organizations

Alliance of the Libertarian Left

The Alliance of the Libertarian Left is a left-libertarian organization that includes a multi-tendency coalition of agorists, geolibertarians, green libertarians, left-Rothbardians, minarchists, mutualists and voluntaryists.^[229]

Cato Institute

The Cato Institute is a libertarian think tank headquartered in Washington, D.C. It was founded as the Charles Koch Foundation in 1974 by Ed Crane, Murray Rothbard and Charles Koch,^[230] chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the conglomerate Koch Industries, the second largest privately held company by revenue in the United States.^[231] In July 1976, the name was changed to the Cato Institute.^[230]^[232]

The Cato Institute was established to have a focus on public advocacy, media exposure and societal influence.^[233] According to the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania, the Cato Institute is number 16 in the "Top Think Tanks Worldwide" and number 8 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".^[234] The Cato Institute also topped the 2014 list of the budget-adjusted ranking of international development think tanks.^[235]

Center for Libertarian Studies

The Center for Libertarian Studies was a libertarian educational organization founded in 1976 by Murray Rothbard and Burton Blumert which grew out of the Libertarian Scholars Conferences. It published the Journal of Libertarian Studies from 1977 to 2000 (now published by the Mises Institute), a newsletter (In Pursuit of Liberty), several monographs and sponsors conferences, seminars and symposia. Originally headquartered in New York, it later moved to Burlingame, California. Until 2007, it supported LewRockwell.com, web publication of vice president Lew Rockwell. It also had previously supported Antiwar.com, a project of the Randolph Bourne Institute.^[236]

Center for a Stateless Society

The Center for a Stateless Society is a left-libertarian organization and free-market anarchist think tank.^[237] Kevin Carson's Studies in Mutualist Political Economy aims to revive interest in mutualism in an effort to synthesize Austrian economics with the labor theory of value by attempting to incorporate both subjectivism and time preference.^[238]^[239]

Foundation for Economic Education

The Foundation for Economic Education is a libertarian think tank dedicated to the "economic, ethical and legal principles of a free society". It publishes books and daily articles as well as hosting seminars and lectures.^[240]

Free State Project

The Free State Project is an activist libertarian movement formed in 2001. It is working to bring libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to protect and advance liberty. As of July 2022^[update], the project website showed that 19,988 people have pledged to move and 6,232 people identified as Free Staters in New Hampshire.^[241]

Free State Project participants interact with the political landscape in New Hampshire in various ways. In 2017, there were 17 Free Staters in the New Hampshire House of Representatives,^[242] and in 2021, the New Hampshire Liberty Alliance, which ranks bills and elected representatives based on their adherence to what they see as libertarian principles, scored 150 representatives as "A−" or above rated representatives.^[243] Participants also engage with other like-minded activist groups such as Rebuild New Hampshire,^[244] Young Americans for Liberty,^[245] and Americans for Prosperity.^[246]

Libertarian Party

The Libertarian Party is a political party that promotes civil liberties, non-interventionism, laissez-faire capitalism and limiting the size and scope of government. The first-world such libertarian party, it was conceived in August 1971 at meetings in the home of David Nolan in Westminster, Colorado,^[15] in part prompted due to concerns about the Nixon administration, the Vietnam War, conscription and the introduction of fiat money. It was officially formed on December 11, 1971, in Colorado Springs, Colorado.^[247]

Liberty International

The Liberty International is a non-profit, libertarian educational organization based in San Francisco. It encourages activism in libertarian and individual rights areas by the freely chosen strategies of its members. Its history dates back to 1969^[248] as the Society for Individual Liberty founded by Don Ernsberger and Dave Walter.^[249]

The previous name of the Liberty International as the International Society for Individual Liberty^[250] was adopted in 1989 after a merger with the Libertarian International was coordinated by Vince Miller, who became president of the new organization.^[251]^[252]

Mises Institute

The Mises Institute is a tax-exempt, libertarian educative organization located in Auburn, Alabama.^[253] Named after Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises, its website states that it exists to promote "teaching and research in the Austrian school of economics, and individual freedom, honest history, and international peace, in the tradition of Ludwig von Mises and Murray N. Rothbard".^[254] According to the Mises Institute, Nobel Prize winner Friedrich Hayek served on their founding board.^[255]

The Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell, Burton Blumert and Murray Rothbard following a split between the Cato Institute and Rothbard, who had been one of the founders of the Cato Institute.^[256] Additional backing came from Mises's wife Margit von Mises, Henry Hazlitt, Lawrence Fertig and Nobel Economics laureate Friedrich Hayek.^[257] Through its publications, the Mises Institute promotes libertarian political theories, Austrian School economics and a form of heterodox economics known as praxeology ("the logic of action").^[258]^[259]

Molinari Institute

The Molinari Institute is a left-libertarian, free-market anarchist organization directed by philosopher Roderick T. Long. It is named after Gustave de Molinari, whom Long terms the "originator of the theory of Market Anarchism".^[260]

Reason Foundation

The Reason Foundation is a libertarian think tank and non-profit and tax-exempt organization that was founded in 1978.^[261]^[262] It publishes the magazine Reason and is committed to advancing "the values of individual freedom and choice, limited government, and market-friendly policies". In the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report by the Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program of the University of Pennsylvania, the Reason Foundation was number 41 out of 60 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".^[263]

People

Intellectual sources

Stephen Pearl Andrews – individualist anarchist and mutualist
Enrico Arrigoni – individualist anarchist and member of the Libertarian League
Walter Block – Austrian School economist in the Rothbardian tradition, author of Defending the Undefendable and Yes to Ron Paul and Liberty
Murray Bookchin – libertarian socialist philosopher and member of the Libertarian League
Kevin Carson – social theorist, mutualist and left-libertarian
Gary Chartier – legal scholar and left-libertarian philosopher
Roy Childs – essayist and critic
Joseph Déjacque – libertarian communist who first coined the word libertarian in political philosophy and publisher of Libertarian: Journal of Social Movement
Sam Dolgoff – anarcho-syndicalist who co-founded the Libertarian League
Ralph Waldo Emerson – individualist philosopher, whose "Politics" essay belies his feelings on government and the state
Richard Epstein – legal scholar, specializing in the field of law and economics
David D. Friedman – anarcho-capitalist economist of the Chicago school, author of The Machinery of Freedom and son of Milton Friedman
Milton Friedman – Nobel Prize-winning monetarist economist associated with the Chicago school and advocate of economic deregulation and privatization
William Batchelder Greene – individualist anarchist and mutualist
Friedrich Hayek – Nobel Prize-winning Austrian School economist and classical liberal, notable for his political work The Road to Serfdom
Robert A. Heinlein – science-fiction author who considered himself to be a libertarian
Karl Hess – speechwriter and libertarian activist
Hans-Hermann Hoppe – political philosopher and paleolibertarian trained under the Frankfurt School, staunch critic of democracy and developer of argumentation ethics
John Hospers – philosopher and political activist
Michael Huemer – political philosopher, ethical intuitionist and author of The Problem of Political Authority
David Kelley – Objectivist philosopher open to libertarianism and founder of The Atlas Society
Stephan Kinsella – deontological anarcho-capitalist and opponent of intellectual property
Samuel Edward Konkin III – author of the New Libertarian Manifesto and proponent of agorism and counter-economics
Rose Wilder Lane – silent editor of her mother's Little House on the Prairie books and author of The Discovery of Freedom
Robert LeFevre – businessman and primary theorist of autarchism
H. L. Mencken – journalist who privately called himself libertarian
Ludwig von Mises – prominent figure in the Austrian School, classical liberal and founder of the a priori economic method of praxeology
Jan Narveson – political philosopher and opponent of the Lockean proviso
Albert Jay Nock – author, editor of The Freeman and The Nation, Georgist and outspoken opponent of the New Deal
Robert Nozick – multidisciplinary philosopher, minarchist, critic of utilitarianism and author of Anarchy, State, and Utopia
Isabel Paterson – author of The God of the Machine who has been called one of the three founding mothers of libertarianism in the United States
Ronald Radosh – historian and former Marxist who became a New Left and anti-Vietnam War activist
Ayn Rand – philosophical novelist and founder of Objectivism who accused libertarians of haphazardly plagiarizing her ideas
Leonard Read – founder of the Foundation for Economic Education
Lew Rockwell – anarcho-capitalist writer, purveyor of LewRockwell.com and co-founder of paleolibertarianism
Murray Rothbard – Austrian School economist, prolific author and polemicist, founder of anarcho-capitalism and co-founder of paleolibertarianism
Chris Matthew Sciabarra – political theorist and advocate of dialectical libertarianism
Thomas Sowell – economist, social theorist, political philosopher and author
Lysander Spooner – individualist anarchist and mutualist
Clarence Lee Swartz – individualist anarchist and mutualist
Henry David Thoreau – author of Civil Disobedience, an argument for disobedience to an unjust state
Benjamin Tucker – individualist anarchist and libertarian socialist
Dave Van Ronk – folk singer and member of the Libertarian League
Laura Ingalls Wilder – writer who became dismayed with the New Deal and has been referred to as one of the first libertarians in the United States

Politicians

Justin Amash – Representative from Michigan
Eric Brakey – State Representative from Maine and 2018 Senate candidate
Nick Freitas – State Delegate from Virginia and 2018 Senate candidate
Barry Goldwater – former Senator from Arizona and 1964 presidential candidate
Glenn Jacobs (better known as Kane) – professional wrestler, libertarian Republican and Mayor of Knox County, Tennessee since September 2018
Gary Johnson – former New Mexico Governor and 2012 and 2016 Libertarian Party presidential nominee
Jo Jorgensen – Libertarian Party vice presidential nominee in 1996 and 2020 Libertarian Party presidential nominee
Mike Lee – Senator from Utah
Thomas Massie – Representative from Kentucky
David Nolan – founder of the Libertarian Party
Rand Paul – Senator from Kentucky and 2016 presidential candidate
Ron Paul – former Representative from Texas and 1988, 2008 and 2012 presidential candidate
Austin Petersen – 2016 Libertarian Party presidential candidate and 2018 Republican Missouri Senate candidate

Political commentators

Nick Gillespie – Reason contributing editor
Scott Horton – editorial director of Antiwar.com
Lisa Kennedy Montgomery – host of Kennedy
Mary O'Grady – editor of The Wall Street Journal
John Stossel – host of Stossel
Katherine Timpf – Fox News contributor
Matt Welch – editor-in-chief of Reason
Thomas Woods – host of The Tom Woods Show

Contentions

Political spectrum

Corey Robin describes libertarianism as fundamentally a conservative ideology united with more traditionalist conservative thought and goals by a desire to retain hierarchies and traditional social relations.^[264] Others also describe libertarianism as a reactionary ideology for its support of laissez-faire capitalism and a major reversal of the modern welfare state.^[32]

In the 1960s, Rothbard started the publication Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought, believing that the left–right political spectrum had gone "entirely askew". Since conservatives were sometimes more statist than liberals, Rothbard tried to reach out to leftists.^[265] In 1971, Rothbard wrote about his view of libertarianism which he described as supporting free trade, property rights and self-ownership.^[213] He would later describe his brand of libertarianism as anarcho-capitalism^[266]^[267]^[268] and paleolibertarianism.^[269]^[270]

Anthony Gregory points out that within the libertarian movement, "just as the general concepts "left" and "right" are riddled with obfuscation and imprecision, left- and right-libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations".^[209] Some libertarians reject association with either the right or the left. Leonard Read wrote an article titled "Neither Left Nor Right: Libertarians Are Above Authoritarian Degradation".^[212] Harry Browne wrote: "We should never define Libertarian positions in terms coined by liberals or conservatives—nor as some variant of their positions. We are not fiscally conservative and socially liberal. We are Libertarians, who believe in individual liberty and personal responsibility on all issues at all times".^[211]

Tibor R. Machan titled a book of his collected columns Neither Left Nor Right.^[215] Walter Block's article "Libertarianism Is Unique and Belongs Neither to the Right Nor the Left" critiques libertarians he described as left (C. John Baden, Randy Holcombe and Roderick T. Long) and right (Edward Feser, Hans-Hermann Hoppe and Ron Paul). Block wrote that these left and right individuals agreed with certain libertarian premises, but "where we differ is in terms of the logical implications of these founding axioms".^[210] On the other hand, libertarians such as Kevin Carson,^[216] Karl Hess,^[217] Roderick T. Long^[218] and Sheldon Richman^[219] consciously label themselves as left-libertarians.^[21]^[24]

Objectivism

Objectivism is a philosophical system developed by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand. Rand first expressed Objectivism in her fiction, most notably We the Living (1936), The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), but also in later non-fiction essays and books such as The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) and Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1966), among others.^[271] Leonard Peikoff, a professional philosopher and Rand's designated intellectual heir,^[272]^[273] later gave it a more formal structure. Rand described Objectivism as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute".^[274] Peikoff characterizes Objectivism as a "closed system" that is not subject to change.^[275]

Objectivism's central tenets are that reality exists independently of consciousness, that human beings have direct contact with reality through sense perception, that one can attain objective knowledge from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive logic, that the proper moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness, that the only social system consistent with this morality is one that displays full respect for individual rights embodied in laissez-faire capitalism and that the role of art in human life is to transform humans' metaphysical ideas by selective reproduction of reality into a physical form—a work of art—that one can comprehend and to which one can respond emotionally. The Objectivist movement founded by Rand attempts to spread her ideas to the public and in academic settings.^[276]

Objectivism has been and continues to be a major influence on the libertarian movement. Many libertarians justify their political views using aspects of Objectivism.^[277]^[278] However, the views of Rand and her philosophy among prominent libertarians are mixed and many Objectivists are hostile to libertarians in general.^[279] Nonetheless, Objectivists such as David Kelley and his Atlas Society have argued that Objectivism is an "open system" and are more open to libertarians.^[280]^[281] Although academic philosophers have mostly ignored or rejected Rand's philosophy, Objectivism has been a significant influence among conservatives and libertarians in the United States.^[282]^[283]

Analysis, reception and criticism

Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, pragmatic and philosophical concerns,^[284]^[285]^[286]^[192]^[287]^[288] including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty.^[134] It has been argued that laissez-faire capitalism does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome^[289] and that its philosophy of individualism as well as policies of deregulation do not prevent the exploitation of natural resources.^[290]

Michael Lind has observed that of the 195 countries in the world today, none have fully actualized a society as advocated by libertarians, arguing: "If libertarianism was a good idea, wouldn't at least one country have tried it? Wouldn't there be at least one country, out of nearly two hundred, with minimal government, free trade, open borders, decriminalized drugs, no welfare state and no public education system?"^[291] Lind has criticized libertarianism for being incompatible with democracy and apologetic towards autocracy.^[292] In response, libertarian Warren Redlich argues that the United States "was extremely libertarian from the founding until 1860, and still very libertarian until roughly 1930".^[293]

Nancy MacLean has criticized libertarianism, arguing that it is a radical right ideology that has stood against democracy. According to MacLean, libertarian-leaning Charles and David Koch have used anonymous, dark money campaign contributions, a network of libertarian institutes and lobbying for the appointment of libertarian, pro-business judges to United States federal and state courts to oppose taxes, public education, employee protection laws, environmental protection laws and the New Deal Social Security program.^[294]

Left-wing

Libertarianism has been criticized by the political left for being pro-business and anti-labor,^[295] for desiring to repeal government subsidies to disabled people and the poor^[296] and being incapable of addressing environmental issues, therefore contributing to the failure to slow global climate change.^[297] Left-libertarians such as Noam Chomsky have characterized libertarian ideologies as being akin to corporate fascism because they aim to remove all public controls from the economy, leaving it solely in the hands of private corporations. Chomsky has also argued that the more radical forms of libertarianism such as anarcho-capitalism are entirely theoretical and could never function in reality due to business' reliance on the state as well as infrastructure and publicly funded subsidies.^[298] Another criticism is based on the libertarian theory that a distinction can be made between positive and negative rights, according to which negative liberty (negative rights) should be recognized as legitimate, but positive liberty (positive rights) should be rejected.^[299] Socialists also have a different view and definition of liberty, with some arguing that the capitalist mode of production necessarily relies on and reproduces violations of the liberty of members of the working class by the capitalist class such as through exploitation of labor and through alienation from the product of one's labor.^[300]^[301]^[302]^[303]^[304]

Anarchist critics such as Brian Morris have expressed skepticism regarding libertarians' sincerity in supporting a limited or minimal state, or even no state at all, arguing that anarcho-capitalism does not abolish the state and that anarcho-capitalists "simply replaced the state with private security firms, and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood".^[305] Peter Sabatini has noted: "Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist vendors. [...] Rothbard sees nothing at all wrong with the amassing of wealth, therefore those with more capital will inevitably have greater coercive force at their disposal, just as they do now".^[306] For Bob Black, libertarians are conservatives and anarcho-capitalists want to "abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else". Black argues that anarcho-capitalists do not denounce what the state does and only "object to who's doing it".^[307] Similarly, Paul Birch has argued that anarcho-capitalism would dissolve into a society of city states.^[308]

Other libertarians have criticized what they term propertarianism,^[309] with Ursula K. Le Guin contrasting in The Dispossessed (1974) a propertarian society with one that does not recognize private property rights^[310] in an attempt to show that property objectified human beings.^[311]^[312] Left-libertarians such as Murray Bookchin objected to propertarians calling themselves libertarians.^[25] Bookchin described three concepts of possession, namely property itself, possession and usufruct, i.e. appropriation of resources by virtue of use.^[313]

Right-wing

From the political right, traditionalist conservative philosopher Russell Kirk criticized libertarianism by quoting T. S. Eliot's expression "chirping sectaries" to describe them. Kirk had questioned the fusionism between libertarian and traditionalist conservatives that marked much of the post-war conservatism in the United States.^[314] Kirk stated that "although conservatives and libertarians share opposition to collectivism, the totalist state and bureaucracy, they have otherwise nothing in common"^[315] and called the libertarian movement "an ideological clique forever splitting into sects still smaller and odder, but rarely conjugating". Believing that a line of division exists between believers in "some sort of transcendent moral order" and "utilitarians admitting no transcendent sanctions for conduct", he included the libertarians in the latter category.^[316]^[317] He also berated libertarians for holding up capitalism as an absolute good, arguing that economic self-interest was inadequate to hold an economic system together and that it was even less adequate to preserve order.^[315] Kirk believed that by glorifying the individual, the free market and the dog-eat-dog struggle for material success, libertarianism weakened community, promoted materialism and undermined appreciation of tradition, love, learning and aesthetics, all of which in his view were essential components of true community.^[315]

Author and professor Carl Bogus states that there were fundamental differences between libertarians and traditionalist conservatives in the United States as libertarians wanted the market to be unregulated as possible while traditionalist conservatives believed that big business, if unconstrained, could impoverish national life and threaten freedom.^[318] Libertarians also considered that a strong state would threaten freedom while traditionalist conservatives regarded a strong state, one which is properly constructed to ensure that not too much power accumulated in any one branch, was necessary to ensure freedom.^[318]

References

^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349 (online: "Part 1", "Part 2").
^ Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ethics: P–W. 3. Taylor & Francis. p. 1562.
^ Paul, Ellen F. (2007). Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 187.
^ Christiano, Thomas; John P. Christman (2009). Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy. "Individualism and Libertarian Rights". Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 121 Archived June 12, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Vallentyne, Peter (March 3, 2009). "Libertarianism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
^ Bevir, Mark (2010). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. p. 811.
^ Boaz, David; Kirby, David (October 18, 2006). The Libertarian Vote. Cato Institute.
^ Carpenter, Ted Galen; Innocent, Malen (2008). "Foreign Policy". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. pp. 177–180. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n109. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
^ Olsen, Edward A. (2002). US National Defense for the Twenty-First Century: The Grand Exit Strategy. Taylor & Francis. p. 182. ISBN 978-0714681405.
^ ^a ^b Adams, Ian (2001). Political Ideology Today (reprinted, revised ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719060205.
^ ^a ^b ^c Russell, Dean (May 1955). "Who Is A Libertarian?". The Freeman. 5 (5). Foundation for Economic Education. Archived from the original on June 26, 2010. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
^ ^a ^b DeLeon, David (1978). The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8018-2126-4. [O]nly a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in Power and Market, and some article writers were influenced by [past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker]. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment
^ ^a ^b Rothbard, Murray (1965) [2000]. "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View". Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (1): 7.
^ Van der Vossen, Bas (January 28, 2019). "Libertarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 23, 2020.
^ ^a ^b Martin, Douglas (November 22, 2010). "David Nolan, 66, Is Dead; Started Libertarian Party". New York Times. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
^ ^a ^b Caldwell, Christopher (July 22, 2007). "The Antiwar, Anti-Abortion, Anti-Drug-Enforcement-Administration, Anti-Medicare Candidacy of Dr. Ron Paul". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 12, 2022. Retrieved September 22, 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".
^ Marshall, Peter (2008). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "The problem with the term 'libertarian' is that it is now also used by the Right. [...] In its moderate form, right libertarianism embraces laissez-faire liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State, and in its extreme form, anarcho-capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order".
^ ^a ^b Schaefer, David Lewis (April 30, 2008). "Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia" Archived August 21, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Sun. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
^ ^a ^b Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1006. ISBN 1412988764.
^ ^a ^b ^c Long, Riderick T. "Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 227.
^ Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0199264797. "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premise that natural resources should be shared equally. Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land. According to left-libertarians, however, the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property. Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer, and Henry George. Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner."
^ ^a ^b Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–16.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Sheldon Richman (February 3, 2011). "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal". The American Conservative. Archived June 10, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 18, 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bookchin, Murray (January 1986). "The Greening of Politics: Toward a New Kind of Political Practice". Green Perspectives: Newsletter of the Green Program Project (1). "We have permitted cynical political reactionaries and the spokesmen of large corporations to pre-empt these basic libertarian American ideals. We have permitted them not only to become the specious voice of these ideals such that individualism has been used to justify egotism; the pursuit of happiness to justify greed, and even our emphasis on local and regional autonomy has been used to justify parochialism, insularism, and exclusivity – often against ethnic minorities and so-called deviant individuals. We have even permitted these reactionaries to stake out a claim to the word libertarian, a word, in fact, that was literally devised in the 1890s in France by Elisée Reclus as a substitute for the word anarchist, which the government had rendered an illegal expression for identifying one's views. The propertarians, in effect – acolytes of Ayn Rand, the earth mother of greed, egotism, and the virtues of property – have appropriated expressions and traditions that should have been expressed by radicals but were willfully neglected because of the lure of European and Asian traditions of socialism, socialisms that are now entering into decline in the very countries in which they originated".
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (December 11, 2008). "150 years of Libertarian". Anarchist Writers. The Anarchist Library. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (May 17, 2017). "160 years of Libertarian". Anarchist Writers. Anarchist FAQ. Retrieved January 31, 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Marshall, Peter (2009). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sébastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists".
^ ^a ^b Goodman, John C. (December 20, 2005). "What Is Classical Liberalism?". National Center for Policy Analysis. Retrieved June 26, 2019. Archived March 9, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
^ ^a ^b Boaz, David (1998). Libertarianism: A Primer. Free Press. pp. 22–26.
^ ^a ^b Conway, David (2008). "Freedom of Speech". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Liberalism, Classical. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 295–298, quote at p. 296. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n112. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Depending on the context, libertarianism can be seen as either the contemporary name for classical liberalism, adopted to avoid confusion in those countries where liberalism is widely understood to denote advocacy of expansive government powers, or as a more radical version of classical liberalism.
^ ^a ^b Baradat, Leon P. (2015). Political Ideologies. Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-1317345558.
^ ^a ^b Gallup Poll news release, September 7–10, 2006.
^ Adams, Sean; Morioka, Noreen; Stone, Terry Lee (2006). Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design. Gloucester, Massachusetts: Rockport Publishers. pp. 86. ISBN 159253192X. OCLC 60393965.
^ Kumar, Rohit Vishal; Joshi, Radhika (October–December 2006). "Colour, Colour Everywhere: In Marketing Too". SCMS Journal of Indian Management. 3 (4): 40–46. ISSN 0973-3167. SSRN 969272.
^ "Tea Party Adopts 'Don't Tread On Me' Flag". NPR. March 25, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
^ Walker, Rob (October 2, 2016). "The Shifting Symbolism of the Gadsden Flag". The New Yorker. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
^ Parkos, Jack (May 2, 2018). "History of the Gadsden Flag". 71Republic. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
^ Rothbard, Murray (2009) [1970s]. The Betrayal of the American Right (PDF). Mises Institute. ISBN 978-1610165013. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 3, 2015. Retrieved April 17, 2016. One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.
^ ^a ^b ^c Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. London: Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-900384-89-9. OCLC 37529250.
^ ^a ^b ^c Fernandez, Frank (2001). Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. Sharp Press. p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
^ ^a ^b ^c "The Week Online Interviews Chomsky". Z Magazine. February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism."
^ ^a ^b ^c Ward, Colin (2004). Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers."
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Robert Graham, ed. (2005). Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas. Vol. One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300 CE–1939). Montreal: Black Rose Books. §17.
^ "Libertarian Party 2010 Platform". Libertarian Party. May 2010. p. 1. Retrieved September 24, 2010.
^ Watts, Duncan (2006). Understanding American government and politics: a guide for A2 politics students (2nd Revised ed.). Manchester University Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-7190-7327-4.
^ "Platform". Libertarian Party. Retrieved July 15, 2024.
^ "Eric Brakey: How libertarians can attain political power". Reason.com. July 10, 2024. Retrieved July 15, 2024.
^ "BLACK- MARKET ACTIVISM: AGORISM AND SAMUEL EDWARD KONKIN III". www.libertarianism.org. Retrieved July 15, 2024.
^ Cohn, Jesse (April 20, 2009). "Anarchism". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 6. doi:10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0039. ISBN 978-1-4051-9807-3. '[L]ibertarianism' [...] a term that, until the mid-twentieth century, was synonymous with "anarchism" per se.
^ Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. New York City: Monthly Review Press. p. 12. "[A]narchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State." ISBN 978-0853451754.
^ ^a ^b Gamble, Andrew (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Economic Libertarianism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 405. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008.
^ ^a ^b Gamble, Andrew (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Economic Libertarianism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 406. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008.
^ Gamble, Andrew (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Economic Libertarianism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 405–406. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008.
^ Francis, Mark (December 1983). "Human Rights and Libertarians". Australian Journal of Politics & History. 29 (3): 462. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x. ISSN 0004-9522.
^ Francis, Mark (December 1983). "Human Rights and Libertarians". Australian Journal of Politics & History. 29 (3): 462–463. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x. ISSN 0004-9522.
^ Freeman S. (July 2018). "Illiberal Libertarians: Why Libertarianism Is Not a Liberal View" Oxford Academic. Pages 62–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699260.003.0003. Accessed 22 April 2023.
^ Garbooshian, Adrina Michelle (2006). The Concept of Human Dignity in the French and American Enlightenments: Religion, Virtue, Liberty. ProQuest. p. 472 ^{[dead link]}. ISBN 978-0542851605. "Influenced by Locke and Smith, certain segments of society affirmed classical liberalism, with a libertarian bent."
^ Cantor, Paul A. (2012). The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture: Liberty Vs. Authority in American Film and TV. University Press of Kentucky. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0813140827. "[T]he roots of libertarianism lie in [...] the classical liberal tradition".
^ Rocker, Rudolf (1949). Pioneers of American Freedom: Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America. New York: J. J. Little & Ives Company. p. 13. "It was the great service of liberal thinkers like Jefferson and Paine that they recognized the natural limitations of every form of government. That is why they did not want to see the state become a terrestrial Providence which in its infallibility would make on its own every decision, thereby not only blocking the road to higher forms of social development, but also crippling the natural sense of responsibility of the people which is the essential condition for every prosperous society".
^ Tucker, Benjamin (1926) [1976]. Individual Liberty. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 13. "The Anarchists are simply unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats. They believe that 'the best government is that which governs least,' and that that which governs least is no government at all".
^ Scott, James C. (2012). Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play. Princeton University Press. pp. 79–80. "At one end of an institutional continuum one can place the total institutions that routinely destroy the autonomy and initiative of their subjects. At the other end of this continuum lies, perhaps, some ideal version of Jeffersonian democracy composed of independent, self-reliant, self-respecting, landowning farmers, managers of their own small enterprises, answerable to themselves, free of debt, and more generally with no institutional reason for servility or deference. Such free-standing farmers, Jefferson thought, were the basis of a vigorous and independent public sphere where citizens could speak their mind without fear or favor. Somewhere in between these two poles lies the contemporary situation of most citizens of Western democracies: a relatively open public sphere but a quotidian institutional experience that is largely at cross purposes with the implicit assumptions behind this public sphere and encouraging and often rewarding caution, deference, servility, and conformity".
^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 310. doi:10.1017/s0265052500002028. S2CID 145150666.
^ ^a ^b Rothbard, Murray (1973) [2006]. "The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism" Archived 18 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine. In For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto. LewRockwell.com. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
^ Boaz, David (January 30, 2009). "Libertarianism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on May 4, 2015. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
^ ^a ^b Sprading, Charles T. (1913) [1995]. Liberty and the Great Libertarians. Mises Institute. p. 74. ISBN 978-1610161077.
^ Hoffman, David C. (Fall 2006). "Paine and Prejudice: Rhetorical Leadership through Perceptual Framing in Common Sense". Rhetoric and Public Affairs. 9 (3): 373–410.
^ Maier, Pauline (1997). American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York City: Knopf. pp. 90–91.
^ Hitchens, Christopher (2006). Thomas Paine's Rights of Man. Grove Press. p. 37. ISBN 0802143830.
^ Lamb, Robert (2010). "Liberty, Equality, and the Boundaries of Ownership: Thomas Paine's Theory of Property Rights". Review of Politics. 72 (3): 483–511. doi:10.1017/s0034670510000331. hdl:10871/9896. S2CID 55413082.
^ Tucker, Benjamin (1888). State Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree, And Wherein They Differ.
^ Tucker, Benjamin (1926). Individual Liberty.
^ An Anarchist FAQ (2009). "Benjamin Tucker: Capitalist or Anarchist?" Archived February 13, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
^ An Anarchist FAQ (2009). "Lysander Spooner: right-"libertarian" or libertarian socialist?" Archived February 13, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
^ Rocker, Rudolf (1949). Pioneers of American Freedom. New York: J. J. Little and Ives Co.
^ Woodcock, George (1962). Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Melbourne: Penguin.
^ Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. p. 12.
^ Gross, David, ed. (2007). The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals. p. 8. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either". ISBN 978-1-4348-0552-2.
^ Thoreau, Henry David (1849). "Resistance to Civil Government". In Civil Disobedience. "I heartily accept the motto,—"That government is best which governs least;" and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe,—"That government is best which governs not at all;" and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have". Retrieved November 15, 2019.
^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1844). "Politics". In Essays: Second Series.
^ Spooner, Lysander (1867) [1870]. No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority.
^ Déjacque, Joseph (1857). "De l'être-humain mâle et femelle–Lettre à P.J. Proudhon" (in French).
^ Mouton, Jean Claude. "Le Libertaire, Journal du mouvement social" (in French). Retrieved July 18, 2019.
^ Woodcock, George (1962). Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Meridian Books. p. 280. "He called himself a 'social poet,' and published two volumes of heavily didactic verse—Lazaréennes and Les Pyrénées Nivelées. In New York, from 1858 to 1861, he edited an anarchist paper entitled Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social, in whose pages he printed as a serial his vision of the anarchist Utopia, entitled L'Humanisphére."
^ Comegna, Anthony; Gomez, Camillo (October 3, 2018). "Libertarianism, Then and Now". Libertarianism. Cato Institute. "[...] Benjamin Tucker was the first American to really start using the term 'libertarian' as a self-identifier somewhere in the late 1870s or early 1880s." Retrieved March 19, 2020.
^ Avrich, Paul (1995) [2006]. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. Edinburgh, Scotland; Oakland, West Virginia: AK Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1904859277.
^ ^a ^b Avrich, Paul (2005). Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 486.
^ Libertarian League (1963). "What We Stand For".
^ Avrich, Paul (2005). Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 471–472.
^ Weinberg, Bill (January 19, 2012). "The Left-Libertarians – the last of an ancient breed". The Villager.
^ Raimond, Justin (2001). An Enemy of the State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard. Amherst: Prometheus.
^ Rothbard; Murray; Radosh, Ronald, eds. (1972). A New History of Leviathan: Essays on the Rise of the American Corporate State. New York: Dutton.
^ Hess, Karl (1975). Dear America. New York: Morrow.
^ Raimond, Justin (2001). An Enemy of the State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard. Amherst: Prometheus. pp. 151–209.
^ Doherty, Brian (2007). Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement. New York: Public Affairs. p. 338.
^ On partnerships between the state and big business and the role of big business in promoting regulation, see Kolko, Gabriel (1977). The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916. New York: Free; Shaffer, Butler (2008). In Restraint of Trade: The Business Campaign Against Competition, 1918–1938. Auburn: Mises Institute.
^ Rothbard, Murray (June 15, 1969). "Confiscation and the Homestead Principle". Libertarian Forum. 1 (6): 3–4.
^ "Counter-Economics: what it is, how it works" (PDF). Agorism.eu.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 27, 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c Konkin III, Samuel Edward (1983). "New Libertarian Manifesto". Agorism.eu.org. Archived April 27, 2022, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved May 4, 2022.
^ ^a ^b "Smashing the State for Fun and Profit Since 1969: An Interview With the Libertarian Icon Samuel Edward Konkin III (a.k.a. SEK3)". Spaz.org. Retrieved March 15, 2020.
^ ^a ^b D'Amato, David S. (November 27, 2018). "Black-Market Activism: Samuel Edward Konkin III and Agorism". Libertarianism.org. Retrieved November 21, 2019.
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^ ^a ^b Mencken, H. L. (1961). Letters of H. L. Mencken. Knofp, p. xiii and 189.
^ ^a ^b Nock, Albert Jay (1949). Letters from Albert Jay Nock, 1924–1945: to Edmund C. Evans, Mrs. Edmund C. Evans and Ellen Winsor. Caxton Printers. p. 40.
^ Mencken, H. L. (1923). "Autobiographical Notes, 1941". Letter to George Müller as quoted by Marion Elizabeth Rodgers in Mencken: The American Iconoclast (2005). Oxford University Press. p. 105.
^ Eastman, Max . "What to Call Yourself". The Freeman. Foundation for Economic Education. 3 (24). Retrieved April 7, 2020.
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^ Rand, Ayn (September 1971). "Brief Summary". The Objectivist. 10. "More specifically, I disapprove of, disagree with and have no connection with, the latest aberration of some conservatives, the so-called "hippies of the right," who attempt to snare the younger or more careless ones of my readers by claiming simultaneously to be followers of my philosophy and advocates of anarchism".
^ Rand, Ayn (1981). "The Age of Mediocrity". FHF 81. In Mayhew, Robert (2005). Ayn Rand Answers: The Best of Her Q & A. "[L]ibertarians are a monstrous, disgusting bunch of people: they plagiarize my ideas when that fits their purpose, and denounce me in a more vicious manner than any communist publication when that fits their purpose".
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^ Hess, Karl. The Death of Politics Archived August 2, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, Interview in Playboy, July 1976.
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^ Heppell, Timothy (June 2002). "The ideological composition of the Parliamentary Conservative Party 1992–97". British Journal of Politics and International Relations. 4 (2): 299–324. doi:10.1111/1467-856X.t01-1-00006. S2CID 144304577.
^ Walsh, Jason (April 7, 2006). "Libertarianism limited". The Guardian. London. Retrieved February 26, 2008.
^ Teles, Steven; Kenney, Daniel A. "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond". pp. 136–169. In Steinmo, Sven (2008). Growing Apart?: America and Europe in the Twenty-first Century. Cambridge University Press.
^ "National Questions" (June 30, 1997). National Review. 49 (12): pp. 16–17.
^ Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond," (pp. 136–169) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Gregory, Anthony (April 24, 2007). "Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism". LewRockwell.com. Archived June 18, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Boaz, David (November 21, 1998). "Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer". Reprinted at Cato.org.
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^ Riggenbach, Jeff (February 5, 2011). "The Reagan Fraud – and After". Mises Institute. Retrieved September 20, 2020.
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^ Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew (2015). Peak Oil: Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226285436.
^ ^a ^b The Libertarian Vote by David Boaz and David Kirby, Cato Institute, October 18, 2006
^ The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior, 1948–2004 American National Election Studies (Newer edition Archived April 23, 2016, at the Wayback Machine).
^ Beyond Liberal and Conservative William S. Maddox & Stuart A. Lilie, 1984. (Preview on Google Books).
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^ "Tea-Party Movement Gathers Strength" by Peter Wallsten and Danny Yadron. The Wall Street Journal. September 29, 2010.
^ "Is Half the Tea Party Libertarian?" Reason, Emily Ekins, September 26, 2011.
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^ Molly Ball (May 10, 2016). "The New Republican Civil War". The Atlantic. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
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^ "Republican Liberty Caucus endorses Ron Paul" Archived June 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Republican Liberty Caucus. December 30, 2011. Retrieved December 30, 2011.
^ Ambinder, Marc. (June 13, 2008). "Ron Paul's Goal: 100,000 By September". The Atlantic. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
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^ ^a ^b Stewart, Martina (May 4, 2010). "'I'm very serious about running', Ron Paul's son says". CNN. Archived from the original on November 28, 2021. Retrieved November 15, 2010. Like his father, the son also favors notions of limited government. "Libertarian would be a good description," Rand Paul told CNN, "because libertarians believe in freedom in all aspects of your life – your economic life as well as your social life as well as your personal life.
^ ^a ^b Newton-Small, Jay (March 17, 2010). "Is Rand Paul Good or Bad for Republicans?". Time. Retrieved March 30, 2014. They thought all along that they could call me a libertarian and hang that label around my neck like an albatross, but I'm not a libertarian.
^ "Official 2016 Presidential General Election Results" (PDF). Federal Election Commission. December 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2018.
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^ William Maxwell; Ernest Crain; Adolfo Santos (2013). Texas Politics Today, 2013–2014 Edition. p. 121.
^ Curry, Tom. "Libertarian GOP Member Sees Drone Privacy Risk". Rollcall.com. Archived from the original on February 14, 2015. Retrieved February 14, 2015.
^ Andrews, Wilson; Bloch, Matthew; Park, Haeyoun (March 24, 2017). "Who Stopped the Republican Health Bill?". The New York Times. 15 were hard-line conservatives who wanted a complete repeal of the Affordable Care Act. They are all members of the House Freedom Caucus, who are among the most conservative members of the House [...] Justin Amash, MI-3 [...].
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Bibliography

Doherty, Brian (2009). Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement. London: Hachette UK. ISBN 978-0786731886.

External links

Foundation for Economic Education. American libertarian organization founded in 1946.
Libertarianism.org. Sponsored by the Cato Institute, it discusses the history, theory and practice of American libertarianism.
Konkin's History of the Libertarian Movement. Archived July 8, 2011, at archive.today.

[1] Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349 (online: "Part 1", "Part 2").

[2] Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ethics: P–W. 3. Taylor & Francis. p. 1562.

[3] Paul, Ellen F. (2007). Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 187.

[4] Christiano, Thomas; John P. Christman (2009). Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy. "Individualism and Libertarian Rights". Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 121 Archived June 12, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.

[5] Vallentyne, Peter (March 3, 2009). "Libertarianism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010.

[6] Bevir, Mark (2010). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. p. 811.

[BoazKirby06a-7] Boaz, David; Kirby, David (October 18, 2006). The Libertarian Vote. Cato Institute.

[pp._177-180-8] Carpenter, Ted Galen; Innocent, Malen (2008). "Foreign Policy". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. pp. 177–180. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n109. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.

[p._182-9] Olsen, Edward A. (2002). US National Defense for the Twenty-First Century: The Grand Exit Strategy. Taylor & Francis. p. 182. ISBN 978-0714681405.

[Adams_2001-10] Adams, Ian (2001). Political Ideology Today (reprinted, revised ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719060205.

[Russell-11] Russell, Dean (May 1955). "Who Is A Libertarian?". The Freeman. 5 (5). Foundation for Economic Education. Archived from the original on June 26, 2010. Retrieved March 6, 2010.

[DeLeon-12] DeLeon, David (1978). The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8018-2126-4. [O]nly a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in Power and Market, and some article writers were influenced by [past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker]. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment

[Rothbard-13] Rothbard, Murray (1965) [2000]. "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View". Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (1): 7.

[14] Van der Vossen, Bas (January 28, 2019). "Libertarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 23, 2020.

[Martin-15] Martin, Douglas (November 22, 2010). "David Nolan, 66, Is Dead; Started Libertarian Party". New York Times. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

[Caldwell-16] Caldwell, Christopher (July 22, 2007). "The Antiwar, Anti-Abortion, Anti-Drug-Enforcement-Administration, Anti-Medicare Candidacy of Dr. Ron Paul". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 12, 2022. Retrieved September 22, 2012.

[Goodway-17] Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".

[Marshall_2008_p._565-18] Marshall, Peter (2008). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "The problem with the term 'libertarian' is that it is now also used by the Right. [...] In its moderate form, right libertarianism embraces laissez-faire liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State, and in its extreme form, anarcho-capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order".

[Schaefer-19] Schaefer, David Lewis (April 30, 2008). "Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia" Archived August 21, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Sun. Retrieved June 26, 2019.

[Carlson-20] Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1006. ISBN 1412988764.

[routledge-anarchism-21] Long, Riderick T. "Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 227.

[oxfordcompanion-22] Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0199264797. "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premise that natural resources should be shared equally. Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land. According to left-libertarians, however, the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property. Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer, and Henry George. Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner."

[MarketsNotCapitalism-23] Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–16.

[LibertarianLeft-24] Sheldon Richman (February 3, 2011). "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal". The American Conservative. Archived June 10, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 18, 2019.

[Bookchin-25] Bookchin, Murray (January 1986). "The Greening of Politics: Toward a New Kind of Political Practice". Green Perspectives: Newsletter of the Green Program Project (1). "We have permitted cynical political reactionaries and the spokesmen of large corporations to pre-empt these basic libertarian American ideals. We have permitted them not only to become the specious voice of these ideals such that individualism has been used to justify egotism; the pursuit of happiness to justify greed, and even our emphasis on local and regional autonomy has been used to justify parochialism, insularism, and exclusivity – often against ethnic minorities and so-called deviant individuals. We have even permitted these reactionaries to stake out a claim to the word libertarian, a word, in fact, that was literally devised in the 1890s in France by Elisée Reclus as a substitute for the word anarchist, which the government had rendered an illegal expression for identifying one's views. The propertarians, in effect – acolytes of Ayn Rand, the earth mother of greed, egotism, and the virtues of property – have appropriated expressions and traditions that should have been expressed by radicals but were willfully neglected because of the lure of European and Asian traditions of socialism, socialisms that are now entering into decline in the very countries in which they originated".

[150Libertarian-26] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (December 11, 2008). "150 years of Libertarian". Anarchist Writers. The Anarchist Library. Retrieved January 31, 2020.

[160Libertarian-27] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (May 17, 2017). "160 years of Libertarian". Anarchist Writers. Anarchist FAQ. Retrieved January 31, 2020.

[Marshall-28] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Marshall, Peter (2009). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sébastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists".

[ClassicalLiberalism-29] Goodman, John C. (December 20, 2005). "What Is Classical Liberalism?". National Center for Policy Analysis. Retrieved June 26, 2019. Archived March 9, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.

[Boaz-30] Boaz, David (1998). Libertarianism: A Primer. Free Press. pp. 22–26.

[Conway-31] Conway, David (2008). "Freedom of Speech". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Liberalism, Classical. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 295–298, quote at p. 296. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n112. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. Depending on the context, libertarianism can be seen as either the contemporary name for classical liberalism, adopted to avoid confusion in those countries where liberalism is widely understood to denote advocacy of expansive government powers, or as a more radical version of classical liberalism.

[Baradat-32] Baradat, Leon P. (2015). Political Ideologies. Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-1317345558.

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[34] Adams, Sean; Morioka, Noreen; Stone, Terry Lee (2006). Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design. Gloucester, Massachusetts: Rockport Publishers. pp. 86. ISBN 159253192X. OCLC 60393965.

[35] Kumar, Rohit Vishal; Joshi, Radhika (October–December 2006). "Colour, Colour Everywhere: In Marketing Too". SCMS Journal of Indian Management. 3 (4): 40–46. ISSN 0973-3167. SSRN 969272.

[36] "Tea Party Adopts 'Don't Tread On Me' Flag". NPR. March 25, 2010. Retrieved June 26, 2019.

[37] Walker, Rob (October 2, 2016). "The Shifting Symbolism of the Gadsden Flag". The New Yorker. Retrieved June 26, 2019.

[38] Parkos, Jack (May 2, 2018). "History of the Gadsden Flag". 71Republic. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved June 26, 2019.

[RothbardBetrayal-39] Rothbard, Murray (2009) [1970s]. The Betrayal of the American Right (PDF). Mises Institute. ISBN 978-1610165013. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 3, 2015. Retrieved April 17, 2016. One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.

[Nettlau-40] Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. London: Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-900384-89-9. OCLC 37529250.

[Fernandez-41] Fernandez, Frank (2001). Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. Sharp Press. p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."

[Chomsky-42] "The Week Online Interviews Chomsky". Z Magazine. February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism."

[Ward-43] Ward, Colin (2004). Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers."

[Graham-44] Robert Graham, ed. (2005). Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas. Vol. One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300 CE–1939). Montreal: Black Rose Books. §17.

[Statement_of_Principles-45] "Libertarian Party 2010 Platform". Libertarian Party. May 2010. p. 1. Retrieved September 24, 2010.

[Understanding_American_government-46] Watts, Duncan (2006). Understanding American government and politics: a guide for A2 politics students (2nd Revised ed.). Manchester University Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-7190-7327-4.

[47] "Platform". Libertarian Party. Retrieved July 15, 2024.

[48] "Eric Brakey: How libertarians can attain political power". Reason.com. July 10, 2024. Retrieved July 15, 2024.

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[50] Cohn, Jesse (April 20, 2009). "Anarchism". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 6. doi:10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0039. ISBN 978-1-4051-9807-3. '[L]ibertarianism' [...] a term that, until the mid-twentieth century, was synonymous with "anarchism" per se.

[51] Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. New York City: Monthly Review Press. p. 12. "[A]narchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State." ISBN 978-0853451754.

[Gamble_2013_p._405-52] Gamble, Andrew (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Economic Libertarianism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 405. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008.

[Gamble_2013_p._406-53] Gamble, Andrew (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Economic Libertarianism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 406. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008.

[54] Gamble, Andrew (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Economic Libertarianism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 405–406. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008.

[55] Francis, Mark (December 1983). "Human Rights and Libertarians". Australian Journal of Politics & History. 29 (3): 462. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x. ISSN 0004-9522.

[56] Francis, Mark (December 1983). "Human Rights and Libertarians". Australian Journal of Politics & History. 29 (3): 462–463. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x. ISSN 0004-9522.

[57] Freeman S. (July 2018). "Illiberal Libertarians: Why Libertarianism Is Not a Liberal View" Oxford Academic. Pages 62–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699260.003.0003. Accessed 22 April 2023.

[58] Garbooshian, Adrina Michelle (2006). The Concept of Human Dignity in the French and American Enlightenments: Religion, Virtue, Liberty. ProQuest. p. 472 ^{[dead link]}. ISBN 978-0542851605. "Influenced by Locke and Smith, certain segments of society affirmed classical liberalism, with a libertarian bent."

[59] Cantor, Paul A. (2012). The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture: Liberty Vs. Authority in American Film and TV. University Press of Kentucky. p. xiii. ISBN 978-0813140827. "[T]he roots of libertarianism lie in [...] the classical liberal tradition".

[60] Rocker, Rudolf (1949). Pioneers of American Freedom: Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America. New York: J. J. Little & Ives Company. p. 13. "It was the great service of liberal thinkers like Jefferson and Paine that they recognized the natural limitations of every form of government. That is why they did not want to see the state become a terrestrial Providence which in its infallibility would make on its own every decision, thereby not only blocking the road to higher forms of social development, but also crippling the natural sense of responsibility of the people which is the essential condition for every prosperous society".

[61] Tucker, Benjamin (1926) [1976]. Individual Liberty. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 13. "The Anarchists are simply unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats. They believe that 'the best government is that which governs least,' and that that which governs least is no government at all".

[62] Scott, James C. (2012). Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play. Princeton University Press. pp. 79–80. "At one end of an institutional continuum one can place the total institutions that routinely destroy the autonomy and initiative of their subjects. At the other end of this continuum lies, perhaps, some ideal version of Jeffersonian democracy composed of independent, self-reliant, self-respecting, landowning farmers, managers of their own small enterprises, answerable to themselves, free of debt, and more generally with no institutional reason for servility or deference. Such free-standing farmers, Jefferson thought, were the basis of a vigorous and independent public sphere where citizens could speak their mind without fear or favor. Somewhere in between these two poles lies the contemporary situation of most citizens of Western democracies: a relatively open public sphere but a quotidian institutional experience that is largely at cross purposes with the implicit assumptions behind this public sphere and encouraging and often rewarding caution, deference, servility, and conformity".

[63] Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class". Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 310. doi:10.1017/s0265052500002028. S2CID 145150666.

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[311] Davis, Laurence; Stillman, Peter G. (2005). The New Utopian Politics of Ursula K. Le Guin's The Dispossessed. Lexington Books. p. xvii.

[312] Delany, Samuel R. (November 1990). "On Triton and Other Matters: An Interview with Samuel R. Delany". Science Fiction Studies. 52.

[313] Clement, Ellie; Oppenheim, Charles (January 2002). "Anarchism, Alternative Publishers and Copyright". Journal of Anarchist Studies.

[314] Somin, Ilya (December 9, 2006). "Russell Kirk, Libertarianism, and Fusionism". The Volokh Conspiracy. Retrieved June 26, 2019.

[Bogus_p._17-315] Bogus, Carl T. (2011). Buckley: William F. Buckley Jr. and the Rise of American Conservatism. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-596-91580-0.

[316] Kirk, Russell (Fall 1981). "Libertarians: the Chirping Sectaries" (PDF). Modern Age. Wilmington, Delaware: Intercollegiate Studies Institute. pp. 345–351. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 2, 2009.

[317] Kirk, Russell (1981). "Libertarians: Chirping Sectaries". Retrieved June 26, 2019.

[Bogus_p._16-318] Bogus, Carl T. (2011). Buckley: William F. Buckley Jr. and the Rise of American Conservatism. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-596-91580-0.

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 {{about|the origin, history and development of libertarianism in the United States|the broader political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core principle|Libertarianism|the most common type of libertarianism in the United States|Right-libertarianism}}
 {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2021}}
+{{Libertarianism US}}
-{{libertarianism in the United States sidebar}}
 {{libertarianism sidebar}}
-[[File:Gadsden flag.svg|thumb|The historical [[Gadsden flag]] is highly used to represent libertarianism in the [[United States|US]]]]
+[[File:Gadsden flag.svg|thumb|The historical [[Gadsden flag]] is frequently used to represent libertarianism in the U.S.]]
-In the United States, '''libertarianism''' is a [[political philosophy]] promoting [[individual liberty]].<ref>Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class". ''Social Philosophy and Policy''. '''15''' (2): 303–349 (online: [http://praxeology.net/libclass-theory-part-1.pdf "Part 1"], [http://praxeology.net/libclass-theory-part-2.pdf "Part 2"]).</ref><ref>Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of Ethics: P–W''. '''3'''. Taylor & Francis. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gL4Pa1TxP00C&pg=PA1562 p. 1562].</ref><ref>Paul, Ellen F. (2007). ''Liberalism: Old and New''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=hDZObxS3J7AC&pg=PA187 p. 187].</ref><ref>Christiano, Thomas; John P. Christman (2009). ''Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy''. "Individualism and Libertarian Rights". Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. [https://sites.google.com/site/professorericmack/home/selected-papers/Individualism%20and%20Libertarian%20Rights.pdf p. 121].</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/libertarianism/|title=Libertarianism|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|edition=Spring 2009|location=Stanford, California|publisher=[[Stanford University]]|date=March 3, 2009|access-date=March 5, 2010}}</ref><ref>Bevir, Mark (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Political Theory''. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications; Cato Institute. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wVIoCtB3m74C&pg=PA811 p. 811].</ref> According to common meanings of [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatism]] and [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberalism]] in the United States, libertarianism has been described as ''[[Fiscal conservatism|conservative]]'' on economic issues ([[economic liberalism]]) and ''[[Cultural liberalism|liberal]]'' on personal freedom ([[civil libertarianism]]),<ref name="BoazKirby06a">Boaz, David; Kirby, David (October 18, 2006). ''The Libertarian Vote''. Cato Institute.</ref> often associated with a foreign policy of [[non-interventionism]].<ref name="pp. 177-180">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Carpenter|first1=Ted Galen|last2=Innocent|first2=Malen|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&q=libertarianism+foreign+non-interventionism&pg=PT217|year=2008|publisher=SAGE Publications; Cato Institute|location=Thousand Oaks, California|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n109|isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4|oclc=750831024|lccn=2008009151|pages=177–180|chapter=Foreign Policy}}</ref><ref name="p. 182">Olsen, Edward A. (2002). ''US National Defense for the Twenty-First Century: The Grand Exit Strategy''. [[Taylor & Francis]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-0ui1gpNE34C&pg=PA182 p. 182]. {{ISBN|0714681407}}. {{ISBN|9780714681405}}.</ref> Broadly, there are four principal traditions within libertarianism, namely the libertarianism that developed in the mid-20th century out of the revival tradition of [[classical liberalism in the United States]]<ref name="Adams 2001">{{cite book|last=Adams|first=Ian|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA32|title=Political Ideology Today|edition=reprinted, revised|location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=9780719060205}}</ref> after liberalism associated with the [[New Deal]];<ref name="Russell"/> the libertarianism developed in the 1950s by [[anarcho-capitalist]] author [[Murray Rothbard]], who based it on the anti-New Deal [[Old Right (United States)|Old Right]] and 19th-century [[libertarianism]] and American [[Individualist anarchism in the United States|individualist anarchists]] such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Lysander Spooner]] while rejecting the [[labor theory of value]] in favor of [[Austrian School]] economics and the [[subjective theory of value]];<ref name="DeLeon"/><ref name="Rothbard"/> the libertarianism developed in the 1970s by [[Robert Nozick]] and founded in American and European [[classical liberal]] traditions;<ref>Van der Vossen, Bas (January 28, 2019). [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/libertarianism/ "Libertarianism"]. ''Stanford Ecnyclopedia of Philosophy''. Retrieved August 23, 2020.</ref> and the libertarianism associated with the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], which was founded in 1971, including politicians such as [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]]<ref name="Martin"/> and [[Ron Paul]].<ref name="Caldwell"/>
+In the United States, '''libertarianism''' is a [[political philosophy]] promoting [[individual liberty]].<ref>Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class". ''Social Philosophy and Policy''. '''15''' (2): 303–349 (online: [http://praxeology.net/libclass-theory-part-1.pdf "Part 1"], [http://praxeology.net/libclass-theory-part-2.pdf "Part 2"]).</ref><ref>Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of Ethics: P–W''. '''3'''. Taylor & Francis. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gL4Pa1TxP00C&pg=PA1562 p. 1562].</ref><ref>Paul, Ellen F. (2007). ''Liberalism: Old and New''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=hDZObxS3J7AC&pg=PA187 p. 187].</ref><ref>Christiano, Thomas; John P. Christman (2009). ''Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy''. "Individualism and Libertarian Rights". Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. [https://sites.google.com/site/professorericmack/home/selected-papers/Individualism%20and%20Libertarian%20Rights.pdf p. 121] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612125047/https://sites.google.com/site/professorericmack/home/selected-papers/Individualism%20and%20Libertarian%20Rights.pdf/ |date=June 12, 2020 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/libertarianism/|title=Libertarianism|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|edition=Spring 2009|location=Stanford, California|publisher=[[Stanford University]]|date=March 3, 2009|access-date=March 5, 2010}}</ref><ref>Bevir, Mark (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Political Theory''. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; Cato Institute. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wVIoCtB3m74C&pg=PA811 p. 811].</ref> According to common meanings of [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatism]] and [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberalism]] in the United States, libertarianism has been described as ''[[Fiscal conservatism|conservative]]'' on economic issues ([[fiscal conservatism]]) and ''[[Cultural liberalism|liberal]]'' on personal freedom ([[cultural liberalism]]),<ref name="BoazKirby06a">Boaz, David; Kirby, David (October 18, 2006). ''The Libertarian Vote''. Cato Institute.</ref> often associated with a foreign policy of [[non-interventionism]].<ref name="pp. 177-180">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Carpenter|first1=Ted Galen|last2=Innocent|first2=Malen|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&q=libertarianism+foreign+non-interventionism&pg=PT217|year=2008|publisher=Sage Publications; Cato Institute|location=Thousand Oaks, California|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n109|isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4|oclc=750831024|lccn=2008009151|pages=177–180|chapter=Foreign Policy}}</ref><ref name="p. 182">Olsen, Edward A. (2002). ''US National Defense for the Twenty-First Century: The Grand Exit Strategy''. [[Taylor & Francis]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-0ui1gpNE34C&pg=PA182 p. 182]. {{ISBN|978-0714681405}}.</ref> Broadly, there are four principal traditions within libertarianism, namely the libertarianism that developed in the mid-20th century out of the revival tradition of [[classical liberalism in the United States]]<ref name="Adams 2001">{{cite book|last=Adams|first=Ian|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA32|title=Political Ideology Today|edition=reprinted, revised|location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0719060205}}</ref> after liberalism associated with the [[New Deal]];<ref name="Russell"/> the libertarianism developed in the 1950s by [[anarcho-capitalist]] author [[Murray Rothbard]], who based it on the anti-New Deal [[Old Right (United States)|Old Right]] and 19th-century [[libertarianism]] and American [[Individualist anarchism in the United States|individualist anarchists]] such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Lysander Spooner]] while rejecting the [[labor theory of value]] in favor of [[Austrian School]] economics and the [[subjective theory of value]];<ref name="DeLeon"/><ref name="Rothbard"/> the libertarianism developed in the 1970s by [[Robert Nozick]] and founded in American and European [[classical liberal]] traditions;<ref>Van der Vossen, Bas (January 28, 2019). [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/libertarianism/ "Libertarianism"]. ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. Retrieved August 23, 2020.</ref> and the libertarianism associated with the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], which was founded in 1971, including politicians such as [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]]<ref name="Martin"/> and [[Ron Paul]].<ref name="Caldwell"/>
 The [[right-libertarianism]] associated with people such as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick,<ref name="Goodway"/><ref name="Marshall 2008 p. 565">Marshall, Peter (2008). ''[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]''. London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "The problem with the term 'libertarian' is that it is now also used by the Right. [...] In its moderate form, right libertarianism embraces ''laissez-faire'' liberals like Robert Nozick who call for a minimal State, and in its extreme form, anarcho-capitalists like Murray Rothbard and David Friedman who entirely repudiate the role of the State and look to the market as a means of ensuring social order".</ref> whose book ''[[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]]'' received significant attention in academia according to David Lewis Schaefer,<ref name="Schaefer"/> is the dominant form of libertarianism in the United States, compared to that of [[left-libertarianism]].<ref name="Carlson">Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. ''The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America''. London: Sage Publications. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA1006 p. 1006]. {{ISBN|1412988764}}.</ref> The latter is associated with the left-wing of the modern libertarian movement<ref name="routledge-anarchism">Long, Riderick T. "Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. (2012). ''The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy''. p. 227.</ref> and more recently to the political positions associated with academic philosophers [[Hillel Steiner]], [[Philippe Van Parijs]] and [[Peter Vallentyne]] that combine [[self-ownership]] with an egalitarian approach to [[natural resource]]s;<ref name="oxfordcompanion">[[Will Kymlicka|Kymlicka, Will]] (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In [[Ted Honderich|Honderich, Ted]]. ''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy''. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 516. {{ISBN|978-0199264797}}. "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premise that natural resources should be shared equally. Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land. According to left-libertarians, however, the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property. Historic proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer, and Henry George. Recent exponents include Philippe Van Parijs and Hillel Steiner."</ref> it is also related to [[anti-capitalist]], [[free-market anarchist]] strands such as [[left-wing market anarchism]],<ref name="MarketsNotCapitalism">Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). ''Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty''. Brooklyn: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1–16.</ref> referred to as market-oriented left-libertarianism to distinguish itself from other forms of libertarianism.<ref name="LibertarianLeft">Sheldon Richman (February 3, 2011). [http://www.theamericanconservative.com/blog/libertarian-left/ "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal"]. ''The American Conservative''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610075037/https://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/libertarian-left/|date=June 10, 2019}}. Retrieved November 18, 2019.</ref>
-Libertarianism includes anarchist and libertarian socialist tendencies, although they are not as widespread as in other countries. [[Murray Bookchin]],<ref name="Bookchin"/> a libertarian within this socialist tradition, argued that anarchists, libertarian socialists and the left should reclaim ''libertarian'' as a term, suggesting these other self-declared ''libertarians'' to rename themselves ''[[Propertarianism|propertarians]]'' instead.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/> Although all libertarians oppose government intervention, there is a division between those anarchist or socialist libertarians as well as anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard and [[David D. Friedman]] who adhere to the [[anti-state]] position, viewing the [[State (polity)|state]] as an unnecessary evil; minarchists such as Nozick who recognize the necessary need for a minimal state, often referred to as a [[night-watchman state]];<ref name="Marshall"/> and classical liberals who support a minimized [[small government]]<ref name="ClassicalLiberalism">Goodman, John C. (December 20, 2005). [http://www.ncpa.org/pub/what-is-classical-liberalism "What Is Classical Liberalism?"]. National Center for Policy Analysis. Retrieved June 26, 2019. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309151259/http://www.ncpa.org/pub/what-is-classical-liberalism|date=March 9, 2009}}.</ref><ref name="Boaz">Boaz, David (1998). ''Libertarianism: A Primer''. Free Press. pp. 22–26.</ref><ref name="Conway">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Conway|first=David|author-link=David Conway (academic)|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|title=Liberalism, Classical|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC|year=2008|publisher=SAGE; Cato Institute|location=Thousand Oaks, California|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n112|isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4|oclc=750831024|lccn=2008009151|pages=295–298; quote at p. 296|quote=Depending on the context, libertarianism can be seen as either the contemporary name for classical liberalism, adopted to avoid confusion in those countries where liberalism is widely understood to denote advocacy of expansive government powers, or as a more radical version of classical liberalism.|chapter=Freedom of Speech}}</ref> and a major reversal of the [[welfare state]].<ref name="Baradat"/>
+Libertarianism includes anarchist and libertarian socialist tendencies, although they are not as widespread as in other countries. [[Murray Bookchin]],<ref name="Bookchin"/> a libertarian within this socialist tradition, argued that anarchists, libertarian socialists and the left should reclaim ''libertarian'' as a term, suggesting these other self-declared ''libertarians'' to rename themselves ''[[Propertarianism|propertarians]]'' instead.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/> Although all libertarians oppose government intervention, there is a division between those anarchist or socialist libertarians as well as anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard and [[David D. Friedman]] who adhere to the [[anti-state]] position, viewing the [[State (polity)|state]] as an unnecessary evil; minarchists such as Nozick who recognize the necessary need for a minimal state, often referred to as a [[night-watchman state]];<ref name="Marshall"/> and classical liberals who support a minimized [[small government]]<ref name="ClassicalLiberalism">Goodman, John C. (December 20, 2005). [http://www.ncpa.org/pub/what-is-classical-liberalism "What Is Classical Liberalism?"]. National Center for Policy Analysis. Retrieved June 26, 2019. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309151259/http://www.ncpa.org/pub/what-is-classical-liberalism|date=March 9, 2009}}.</ref><ref name="Boaz">Boaz, David (1998). ''Libertarianism: A Primer''. Free Press. pp. 22–26.</ref><ref name="Conway">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Conway|first=David|author-link=David Conway (academic)|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|title=Liberalism, Classical|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC|year=2008|publisher=Sage; Cato Institute|location=Thousand Oaks, California|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n112|isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4|oclc=750831024|lccn=2008009151|pages=295–298; quote at p. 296|quote=Depending on the context, libertarianism can be seen as either the contemporary name for classical liberalism, adopted to avoid confusion in those countries where liberalism is widely understood to denote advocacy of expansive government powers, or as a more radical version of classical liberalism.|chapter=Freedom of Speech}}</ref> and a major reversal of the [[welfare state]].<ref name="Baradat"/>
-The major [[libertarian party]] in the United States is the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], but libertarians are also represented within the [[Libertarian Democrat|Democratic]] and [[Libertarian Republican|Republican]] parties while others are [[Independent voter|independent]]. Through twenty polls on this topic spanning thirteen years, Gallup found that voters who identify as libertarians ranged from 17 to 23% of the American electorate.<ref name="Gallup2006">Gallup Poll news release, September 7–10, 2006.</ref> However, a 2014 Pew Poll found that 23% of Americans who identify as libertarians have little understanding of libertarianism.<ref>Kiley, Jocelyn (August 25, 2014). [http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/08/25/in-search-of-libertarians/ "In Search of Libertarians"]. Pew Research Center. "14% say the term libertarian describes them well; 77% of those know the definition (11% of total), while 23% do not (3% of total)."</ref> [[Yellow#Politics|Yellow]], a [[political color]] associated with [[liberalism worldwide]], has also been used as a political color for modern libertarianism in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|title=Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design|last1=Adams|first1=Sean|last2=Morioka|first2=Noreen|last3=Stone|first3=Terry Lee|year=2006|publisher=Rockport Publishers|isbn=159253192X|location=Gloucester, Massachusetts|pages=[https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86 86]|oclc=60393965|url=https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Rohit Vishal|last2=Joshi|first2=Radhika|date=October–December 2006|title=Colour, Colour Everywhere: In Marketing Too|journal=SCMS Journal of Indian Management|volume=3|issue=4|pages=40–46|issn=0973-3167|ssrn=969272}}</ref> The [[Gadsden flag]], a symbol first used by [[American Revolution|American revolution]]aries, is frequently used by libertarians and the libertarian-leaning [[Tea Party movement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=125184586|title=Tea Party Adopts 'Don't Tread On Me' Flag|publisher=NPR|date=March 25, 2010|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-shifting-symbolism-of-the-gadsden-flag|title=The Shifting Symbolism of the Gadsden Flag|last=Walker|first=Rob|magazine=The New Yorker|date=October 2, 2016|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://71republic.com/2018/05/02/history-gadsden-flag/|title=History of the Gadsden Flag|last=Parkos|first=Jack|publisher=71Republic|date=May 2, 2018|access-date=June 26, 2019|archive-date=February 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213145318/https://71republic.com/2018/05/02/history-gadsden-flag/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+The major [[libertarian party]] in the United States is the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]]. However, libertarians are also represented within the [[Libertarian Democrat|Democratic]] and [[Libertarian Republican|Republican]] parties while others are [[Independent voter|independent]]. Gallup found that voters who identify as libertarians ranged from 17 to 23% of the American electorate.<ref name="Gallup2006">Gallup Poll news release, September 7–10, 2006.</ref> [[Yellow#Politics|Yellow]], a [[political color]] associated with [[liberalism worldwide]], has also been used as a political color for modern libertarianism in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|title=Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design|last1=Adams|first1=Sean|last2=Morioka|first2=Noreen|last3=Stone|first3=Terry Lee|year=2006|publisher=Rockport Publishers|isbn=159253192X|location=Gloucester, Massachusetts|pages=[https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86 86]|oclc=60393965|url=https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Rohit Vishal|last2=Joshi|first2=Radhika|date=October–December 2006|title=Colour, Colour Everywhere: In Marketing Too|journal=SCMS Journal of Indian Management|volume=3|issue=4|pages=40–46|issn=0973-3167|ssrn=969272}}</ref> The [[Gadsden flag]], a symbol first used by [[American Revolution|American revolution]]aries, is frequently used by libertarians and the libertarian-leaning [[Tea Party movement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=125184586|title=Tea Party Adopts 'Don't Tread On Me' Flag|publisher=NPR|date=March 25, 2010|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-shifting-symbolism-of-the-gadsden-flag|title=The Shifting Symbolism of the Gadsden Flag|last=Walker|first=Rob|magazine=The New Yorker|date=October 2, 2016|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://71republic.com/2018/05/02/history-gadsden-flag/|title=History of the Gadsden Flag|last=Parkos|first=Jack|publisher=71Republic|date=May 2, 2018|access-date=June 26, 2019|archive-date=February 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213145318/https://71republic.com/2018/05/02/history-gadsden-flag/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-Although ''libertarian'' continues to be widely used to refer to [[anti-state]] [[Libertarian socialism|socialists]] internationally,<ref name="Bookchin">Bookchin, Murray (January 1986). [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/gp/perspectives1.html "The Greening of Politics: Toward a New Kind of Political Practice"]. ''Green Perspectives: Newsletter of the Green Program Project'' (1). "We have permitted cynical political reactionaries and the spokesmen of large corporations to pre-empt these basic libertarian American ideals. We have permitted them not only to become the specious voice of these ideals such that individualism has been used to justify egotism; the pursuit of happiness to justify greed, and even our emphasis on local and regional autonomy has been used to justify parochialism, insularism, and exclusivity – often against ethnic minorities and so-called deviant individuals. We have even permitted these reactionaries to stake out a claim to the word libertarian, a word, in fact, that was literally devised in the 1890s in France by Elisée Reclus as a substitute for the word anarchist, which the government had rendered an illegal expression for identifying one's views. The propertarians, in effect – acolytes of Ayn Rand, the earth mother of greed, egotism, and the virtues of property – have appropriated expressions and traditions that should have been expressed by radicals but were willfully neglected because of the lure of European and Asian traditions of socialism, socialisms that are now entering into decline in the very countries in which they originated".</ref><ref name="RothbardBetrayal">{{cite book|last=Rothbard|first=Murray|url=https://mises.org/sites/default/files/The%20Betrayal%20of%20the%20American%20Right_2.pdf#page=108|title=The Betrayal of the American Right|year=2009|orig-year=1970s|publisher=Mises Institute|isbn=978-1610165013|quote=One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.|access-date=April 17, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703022059/https://mises.org/sites/default/files/The%20Betrayal%20of%20the%20American%20Right_2.pdf#page=108|archive-date=July 3, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Nettlau"/><ref name="Fernandez"/><ref name="Chomsky"/><ref name="Ward"/> its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins to the extent that the common meaning of ''libertarian'' in the United States is different from elsewhere.<ref name="Goodway">Goodway, David (2006). ''[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward]]''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".</ref><ref name="150Libertarian">The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (December 11, 2008). [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-150-years-of-libertarian "150 years of Libertarian"]. ''Anarchist Writers''. The Anarchist Library. Retrieved January 31, 2020.</ref><ref name="160Libertarian">The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (May 17, 2017). [https://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/160-years-libertarian "160 years of Libertarian"]. ''Anarchist Writers''. [[Anarchist FAQ]]. Retrieved January 31, 2020.</ref><ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Graham"/> The Libertarian Party asserts the following core beliefs of libertarianism: "Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties".<ref name="Statement of Principles">{{cite web|url=http://www.lp.org/platform|title=Libertarian Party 2010 Platform|date=May 2010|publisher=Libertarian Party|page=1|access-date=September 24, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Understanding American government">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Duncan|title=Understanding American government and politics: a guide for A2 politics students|edition=2nd Revised|date=March 16, 2006|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-7327-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/understandingame0000watt/page/246 246]|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingame0000watt/page/246}}</ref>
+Although ''libertarian'' continues to be widely used to refer to [[anti-state]] [[Libertarian socialism|socialists]] internationally,<ref name="Bookchin">Bookchin, Murray (January 1986). [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/gp/perspectives1.html "The Greening of Politics: Toward a New Kind of Political Practice"]. ''Green Perspectives: Newsletter of the Green Program Project'' (1). "We have permitted cynical political reactionaries and the spokesmen of large corporations to pre-empt these basic libertarian American ideals. We have permitted them not only to become the specious voice of these ideals such that individualism has been used to justify egotism; the pursuit of happiness to justify greed, and even our emphasis on local and regional autonomy has been used to justify parochialism, insularism, and exclusivity – often against ethnic minorities and so-called deviant individuals. We have even permitted these reactionaries to stake out a claim to the word libertarian, a word, in fact, that was literally devised in the 1890s in France by Elisée Reclus as a substitute for the word anarchist, which the government had rendered an illegal expression for identifying one's views. The propertarians, in effect – acolytes of Ayn Rand, the earth mother of greed, egotism, and the virtues of property – have appropriated expressions and traditions that should have been expressed by radicals but were willfully neglected because of the lure of European and Asian traditions of socialism, socialisms that are now entering into decline in the very countries in which they originated".</ref><ref name="RothbardBetrayal">{{cite book|last=Rothbard|first=Murray|url=https://mises.org/sites/default/files/The%20Betrayal%20of%20the%20American%20Right_2.pdf#page=108|title=The Betrayal of the American Right|year=2009|orig-year=1970s|publisher=Mises Institute|isbn=978-1610165013|quote=One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy. 'Libertarians' had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over.|access-date=April 17, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703022059/https://mises.org/sites/default/files/The%20Betrayal%20of%20the%20American%20Right_2.pdf#page=108|archive-date=July 3, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Nettlau"/><ref name="Fernandez"/><ref name="Chomsky"/><ref name="Ward"/> its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins to the extent that the common meaning of ''libertarian'' in the United States is different from elsewhere.<ref name="Goodway">Goodway, David (2006). ''[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward]]''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition".</ref><ref name="150Libertarian">The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (December 11, 2008). [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-150-years-of-libertarian "150 years of Libertarian"]. ''Anarchist Writers''. The Anarchist Library. Retrieved January 31, 2020.</ref><ref name="160Libertarian">The Anarchist FAQ Editorial Collective (May 17, 2017). [https://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/160-years-libertarian "160 years of Libertarian"]. ''Anarchist Writers''. [[Anarchist FAQ]]. Retrieved January 31, 2020.</ref><ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Graham"/> The Libertarian Party asserts the following core beliefs of libertarianism: "Libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians tend to embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties".<ref name="Statement of Principles">{{cite web|url=http://www.lp.org/platform|title=Libertarian Party 2010 Platform|date=May 2010|publisher=Libertarian Party|page=1|access-date=September 24, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Understanding American government">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Duncan|title=Understanding American government and politics: a guide for A2 politics students|edition=2nd Revised|date= 2006|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-7327-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/understandingame0000watt/page/246 246]|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingame0000watt/page/246}}</ref> Libertarians have worked to implement their ideas through the Libertarian Party, the [[Free State Project]], [[agorism]], and other forms of activism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Platform |url=https://www.lp.org/platform/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Libertarian Party |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-10 |title=Eric Brakey: How libertarians can attain political power |url=https://reason.com/podcast/2024/07/10/eric-brakey-how-libertarians-can-attain-political-power/ |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Reason.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BLACK- MARKET ACTIVISM: AGORISM AND SAMUEL EDWARD KONKIN III |url=https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/black-market-activism-agorism-samuel-edward-konkin-iii |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=www.libertarianism.org}}</ref>
 == Definition ==
 {{main|Definition of anarchism and libertarianism}}
-Since the 19th century, the term ''libertarian'' has referred to advocates for freedom of the will, or anyone who generally advocated for liberty, but its long association with [[anarchism]] extends at least as far back as 1858, when it was used for the title of New York anarchist journal ''[[Le Libertaire]]''.<ref name="Graham"/><ref name="Marshall"/> In the late 19th century around the 1880s and 1890s, Anarchist [[Sébastien Faure]] used the term ''libertarian'' to differentiate between anarchists and [[authoritarian socialists]].<ref name="Marshall"/> While the term ''libertarian'' has been largely synonymous with ''anarchism'',<ref name="Marshall"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Cohn|first=Jesse|editor-last1=Ness|editor-first1=Immanuel|chapter=Anarchism|title=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest|date=April 20, 2009|location=Oxford|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|page=6|quote='[L]ibertarianism' [...] a term that, until the mid-twentieth century, was synonymous with "anarchism" per se.|doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0039|isbn=978-1-4051-9807-3}}</ref> its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups.<ref name="Marshall"/> As a term, ''libertarian'' can include both the [[New Left]] and [[libertarian Marxists]] (who do not associate with a [[vanguard party]]) as well as extreme [[Liberalism|liberals]] (primarily concerned with [[civil liberties]]). Additionally, some anarchists use the term ''[[libertarian socialist]]'' to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasize its connections with [[socialism]].<ref name="Marshall"/><ref>Guérin, Daniel (1970). ''[[Anarchism: From Theory to Practice]]''. New York City: Monthly Review Press. p. 12. "[A]narchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State." {{ISBN|978-0853451754}}.</ref>
+Since the 19th century, the term ''libertarian'' has referred to advocates for freedom of the will, or anyone who generally advocated for liberty, but its long association with [[anarchism]] extends at least as far back as 1858, when it was used for the title of New York anarchist journal ''[[Le Libertaire]]''.<ref name="Graham"/><ref name="Marshall"/> In the late 19th century (around the 1880s and 1890s), Anarchist [[Sébastien Faure]] used the term ''libertarian'' to differentiate between anarchists and [[authoritarian socialists]].<ref name="Marshall"/> While the term ''libertarian'' has been largely synonymous with ''anarchism'',<ref name="Marshall"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Cohn|first=Jesse|editor-last1=Ness|editor-first1=Immanuel|chapter=Anarchism|title=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest|date=April 20, 2009|location=Oxford|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|page=6|quote='[L]ibertarianism' [...] a term that, until the mid-twentieth century, was synonymous with "anarchism" per se.|doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0039|isbn=978-1-4051-9807-3}}</ref> its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups.<ref name="Marshall"/> As a term, ''libertarian'' can include both the [[New Left]] and [[libertarian Marxists]] (who do not associate with a [[vanguard party]]) as well as extreme [[Liberalism|liberals]] (primarily concerned with [[civil liberties]]). Additionally, some anarchists use the term ''[[libertarian socialist]]'' to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasize its connections with [[socialism]].<ref name="Marshall"/><ref>Guérin, Daniel (1970). ''[[Anarchism: From Theory to Practice]]''. New York City: Monthly Review Press. p. 12. "[A]narchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State." {{ISBN|978-0853451754}}.</ref>
 The revival of [[free-market]] ideologies during the mid-to-late 20th century came with disagreement over what to call the movement. While many of its adherents prefer the term ''libertarian'', many [[conservative libertarian]]s reject the term's association with the 1960s New Left and its connotations of [[libertine]] [[hedonism]].<ref name="Gamble 2013 p. 405">{{cite journal|last=Gamble|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Gamble|editor-last1=Freeden|editor-first1=Michael|editor-last2=Stears|editor-first2=Marc|title=Economic Libertarianism|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies|date=August 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=405|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008}}</ref> The movement is divided over the use of ''[[Right-libertarianism|conservatism]]'' as an alternative.<ref name="Gamble 2013 p. 406">{{cite journal|last=Gamble|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Gamble|editor-last1=Freeden|editor-first1=Michael|editor-last2=Stears|editor-first2=Marc|title=Economic Libertarianism|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies|date=August 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=406|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008}}</ref> Those who seek both economic and social liberty within a capitalist order would be known as ''liberals'', but that term developed associations opposite of the [[limited government]], low-taxation, minimal state advocated by the movement.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gamble|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Gamble|editor-last1=Freeden|editor-first1=Michael|editor-last2=Stears|editor-first2=Marc|title=Economic Libertarianism|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies|date=August 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=405–406|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0008}}</ref> Name variants of the free-market revival movement include ''[[classical liberalism]]'', ''[[economic liberalism]]'', ''[[free-market liberalism]]'' and ''[[neoliberalism]]''.<ref name="Gamble 2013 p. 405"/> As a term, ''libertarian'' or ''economic libertarian'' has the most colloquial acceptance to describe a member of the movement, with the latter term being based on both the ideology's primacy of economics and its distinction from libertarians of the New Left.<ref name="Gamble 2013 p. 406"/>
@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 According to Ian Adams: "Ideologically, all US parties are liberal and always have been. Essentially they espouse classical liberalism, that is a form of democratised [[Whiggism|Whig]] [[constitutionalism]] plus the [[free market]]. The point of difference comes with the influence of [[social liberalism]]" and the proper role of government.<ref name="Adams 2001"/> Some modern American libertarians are distinguished from the dominant libertarian tradition by their relation to [[Property rights (economics)|property]] and [[Capital (economics)|capital]]. While both historical libertarianism and contemporary economic libertarianism share general antipathy towards power by government authority, the latter exempts power wielded through [[free-market capitalism]]. Historically, libertarians including [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Max Stirner]] have to some degree supported the protection of an individual's freedom from powers of both government and private property owners.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Francis|first1=Mark|title=Human Rights and Libertarians|journal=[[Australian Journal of Politics & History]]|volume=29|issue=3|page=462|date=December 1983|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x|issn=0004-9522}}</ref> In contrast, while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, some modern American libertarians support freedoms based on private property rights. [[Anarcho-capitalist]] theorist [[Murray Rothbard]] argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners. The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some modern American libertarian writings.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Francis|first1=Mark|title=Human Rights and Libertarians|journal=[[Australian Journal of Politics & History]]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=462–463|date=December 1983|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x|issn=0004-9522}}</ref>
-According to definition in [[political science]], libertarianism cannot be neither to the left or to the right as the resemblance between [[liberalism]] and libertarianism is superficial. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against. And the same is the case for [[social democracy]] and conservative ideas, originating from [[liberal democracy]]. In essence, both political sides support basic rights and liberties, equality of opportunity, and the government’s role in supporting efficient markets, public goods, which is incompatible with libertarianism. The idea of libertarianism rejects the notion that political power is a public power, which makes the idea incompatible with [[democracy]] as well, in which the state is represented through democratically elected subjects. Libertarianism is therefore most akin to "feudalism without feudal rulers", in which a network of private contracts is the ruling element. For that reason, libertarianism as a movement that only exists in America while Europe is devoid of libertarian movements after the 19th century.<ref> Freeman S. (July 2018). [https://academic.oup.com/book/5897/chapter-abstract/149192794?redirectedFrom=fulltext "Illiberal Libertarians: Why Libertarianism Is Not a Liberal View"] ''Oxford Academic''. Pages 62–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699260.003.0003. Accessed 22 April 2023.</ref>
+According to definition in [[political science]], libertarianism cannot be neither to the left or to the right as the resemblance between [[liberalism]] and libertarianism is superficial. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against. And the same is the case for [[social democracy]] and conservative ideas, originating from [[liberal democracy]]. In essence, both political sides support basic rights and liberties, equality of opportunity, and the government's role in supporting efficient markets, public goods, which is incompatible with libertarianism. The idea of libertarianism rejects the notion that political power is a public power, which makes the idea incompatible with [[democracy]] as well, in which the state is represented through democratically elected subjects. Libertarianism is therefore most akin to "feudalism without feudal rulers", in which a network of private contracts is the ruling element. For that reason, libertarianism as a movement that only exists in America while Europe is devoid of libertarian movements after the 19th century.<ref>Freeman S. (July 2018). [https://academic.oup.com/book/5897/chapter-abstract/149192794?redirectedFrom=fulltext "Illiberal Libertarians: Why Libertarianism Is Not a Liberal View"] ''Oxford Academic''. Pages 62–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699260.003.0003. Accessed 22 April 2023.</ref>
 == History ==
@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 === 18th century ===
 [[File:JohnLocke.png|thumb|[[John Locke]], regarded as the father of liberalism]]
-During the 18th century and [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas flourished in Europe and North America.<ref>Garbooshian, Adrina Michelle (2006). ''The Concept of Human Dignity in the French and American Enlightenments: Religion, Virtue, Liberty''. ProQuest. [https://books.google.com/books?id=e1vAW-Ie58YC&pg=PA472 p. 472] {{dead link|date=June 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. {{ISBN|978-0542851605}}. "Influenced by Locke and Smith, certain segments of society affirmed classical liberalism, with a libertarian bent."</ref><ref>Cantor, Paul A. (2012). ''The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture: Liberty Vs. Authority in American Film and TV''. [[University Press of Kentucky]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pZjuIM7ziMkC&pg=PR13 p. xiii].  {{ISBN|978-0813140827}}. "[T]he roots of libertarianism lie in [...] the classical liberal tradition".</ref> For philosopher Roderick T. Long, libertarians "share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry. [Libertarians] [...] claim the seventeenth century English Levellers and the eighteenth century French [[Encyclopedists]] among their ideological forebears; and [...] usually share an admiration for [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]] (1949). ''[[Pioneers of American Freedom]]: Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America''. New York: J. J. Little & Ives Company. p. 13. "It was the great service of liberal thinkers like Jefferson and Paine that they recognized the natural limitations of every form of government. That is why they did not want to see the state become a terrestrial Providence which in its infallibility would make on its own every decision, thereby not only blocking the road to higher forms of social development, but also crippling the natural sense of responsibility of the people which is the essential condition for every prosperous society".</ref><ref>Tucker, Benjamin (1926) [1976]. ''Individual Liberty''. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 13. "The Anarchists are simply unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats. They believe that 'the best government is that which governs least,' and that that which governs least is no government at all".</ref><ref>[[James C. Scott|Scott, James C.]] (2012). ''[[Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play]]''. Princeton University Press. pp. 79–80. "At one end of an institutional continuum one can place the total institutions that routinely destroy the autonomy and initiative of their subjects. At the other end of this continuum lies, perhaps, some ideal version of Jeffersonian democracy composed of independent, self-reliant, self-respecting, landowning farmers, managers of their own small enterprises, answerable to themselves, free of debt, and more generally with no institutional reason for servility or deference. Such free-standing farmers, Jefferson thought, were the basis of a vigorous and independent public sphere where citizens could speak their mind without fear or favor. Somewhere in between these two poles lies the contemporary situation of most citizens of Western democracies: a relatively open public sphere but a quotidian institutional experience that is largely at cross purposes with the implicit assumptions behind this public sphere and encouraging and often rewarding caution, deference, servility, and conformity".</ref> and [[Thomas Paine]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Long |first=Roderick T. |year=1998 |title=Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class |journal=Social Philosophy and Policy |volume=15 |issue=2 |page=310 |doi=10.1017/s0265052500002028 |s2cid=145150666}}</ref>
+During the 18th century and [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas flourished in Europe and North America.<ref>Garbooshian, Adrina Michelle (2006). ''The Concept of Human Dignity in the French and American Enlightenments: Religion, Virtue, Liberty''. ProQuest. [https://books.google.com/books?id=e1vAW-Ie58YC&pg=PA472 p. 472] {{dead link|date=June 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. {{ISBN|978-0542851605}}. "Influenced by Locke and Smith, certain segments of society affirmed classical liberalism, with a libertarian bent."</ref><ref>Cantor, Paul A. (2012). ''The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture: Liberty Vs. Authority in American Film and TV''. [[University Press of Kentucky]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pZjuIM7ziMkC&pg=PR13 p. xiii]. {{ISBN|978-0813140827}}. "[T]he roots of libertarianism lie in [...] the classical liberal tradition".</ref> For philosopher Roderick T. Long, libertarians "share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry. [Libertarians] [...] claim the seventeenth century English Levellers and the eighteenth century French [[Encyclopedists]] among their ideological forebears; and [...] usually share an admiration for [[Thomas Jefferson]]<ref>[[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]] (1949). ''[[Pioneers of American Freedom]]: Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America''. New York: J. J. Little & Ives Company. p. 13. "It was the great service of liberal thinkers like Jefferson and Paine that they recognized the natural limitations of every form of government. That is why they did not want to see the state become a terrestrial Providence which in its infallibility would make on its own every decision, thereby not only blocking the road to higher forms of social development, but also crippling the natural sense of responsibility of the people which is the essential condition for every prosperous society".</ref><ref>Tucker, Benjamin (1926) [1976]. ''Individual Liberty''. New York: Vanguard Press. p. 13. "The Anarchists are simply unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats. They believe that 'the best government is that which governs least,' and that that which governs least is no government at all".</ref><ref>[[James C. Scott|Scott, James C.]] (2012). ''[[Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play]]''. Princeton University Press. pp. 79–80. "At one end of an institutional continuum one can place the total institutions that routinely destroy the autonomy and initiative of their subjects. At the other end of this continuum lies, perhaps, some ideal version of Jeffersonian democracy composed of independent, self-reliant, self-respecting, landowning farmers, managers of their own small enterprises, answerable to themselves, free of debt, and more generally with no institutional reason for servility or deference. Such free-standing farmers, Jefferson thought, were the basis of a vigorous and independent public sphere where citizens could speak their mind without fear or favor. Somewhere in between these two poles lies the contemporary situation of most citizens of Western democracies: a relatively open public sphere but a quotidian institutional experience that is largely at cross purposes with the implicit assumptions behind this public sphere and encouraging and often rewarding caution, deference, servility, and conformity".</ref> and [[Thomas Paine]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Long |first=Roderick T. |year=1998 |title=Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class |journal=Social Philosophy and Policy |volume=15 |issue=2 |page=310 |doi=10.1017/s0265052500002028 |s2cid=145150666}}</ref>
-The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] was inspired by Locke in its statement: "[T]o secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the [[consent of the governed]]. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it".<ref name="Rothbard1">Rothbard, Murray (1973) [2006]. [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html "The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618045238/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html|date=18 June 2015}}. In ''[[For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto]]''. [[LewRockwell.com]]. Retrieved 10 December 2019.</ref> According to American historian [[Bernard Bailyn]], during and after the [[American Revolution]], "the major themes of eighteenth-century libertarianism were brought to realization" in [[Constitution|constitutions]], [[Bill of rights|bills of rights]], and limits on legislative and executive powers, including limits on starting wars.<ref name="Boaz2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Libertarianism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism |access-date=21 February 2017 |date=30 January 2009 |author-link=David Boaz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504222253/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism |archive-date=4 May 2015 |quote= |author=Boaz, David |url-status=live}}</ref>
+The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] was inspired by Locke in its statement: "[T]o secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the [[consent of the governed]]. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it".<ref name="Rothbard1">Rothbard, Murray (1973) [2006]. [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html "The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618045238/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html|date=18 June 2015}}. In ''[[For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto]]''. [[LewRockwell.com]]. Retrieved 10 December 2019.</ref> According to American historian [[Bernard Bailyn]], during and after the [[American Revolution]], "the major themes of eighteenth-century libertarianism were brought to realization" in [[constitution]]s, [[Bill of rights|bills of rights]], and limits on legislative and executive powers, including limits on starting wars.<ref name="Boaz2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Libertarianism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism |access-date=21 February 2017 |date=30 January 2009 |author-link=David Boaz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504222253/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339321/libertarianism |archive-date=4 May 2015 |quote= |author=Boaz, David |url-status=live}}</ref>
-According to [[Murray Rothbard]], the libertarian creed emerged from the liberal challenges to an "absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older, restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions" as well as the [[mercantilism]] of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants. The object of liberals was individual liberty in the economy, in personal freedoms and civil liberty, separation of state and religion and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement. He cites Locke's contemporaries, the Levellers, who held similar views. Also influential were the English ''[[Cato's Letters]]'' during the early 1700s, reprinted eagerly by [[Colonial history of the United States|American colonists]] who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies.<ref name="Rothbard12">Rothbard, Murray (1973) [2006]. [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html "The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618045238/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html|date=18 June 2015}}. In ''[[For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto]]''. [[LewRockwell.com]]. Retrieved 10 December 2019.</ref>
+According to [[Murray Rothbard]], the libertarian creed emerged from the liberal challenges to an "absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older, restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions" as well as the [[mercantilism]] of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants. The object of liberals was individual liberty in the economy, in personal freedoms and civil liberty, separation of state and religion and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement. He cites Locke's contemporaries, the Levellers, who held similar views. Also influential were the English ''[[Cato's Letters]]'' during the early 1700s, reprinted eagerly by [[Colonial history of the United States|American colonists]] who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies.<ref name="Rothbard1"/>
-In January 1776, only two years after coming to America from England, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'' calling for independence for the colonies.<ref name="Sprading">Sprading, Charles T. (1913) [1995]. ''Liberty and the Great Libertarians''. [[Mises Institute]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=STQJ_DjQuw8C&pg=PA74 p. 74]. {{ISBN|978-1610161077}}.</ref> Paine promoted liberal ideas in clear and concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites.<ref>Hoffman, David C. (Fall 2006). "Paine and Prejudice: Rhetorical Leadership through Perceptual Framing in Common Sense". ''Rhetoric and Public Affairs''. '''9''' (3): 373–410.</ref> ''Common Sense'' was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas,<ref>Maier, Pauline (1997). ''American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence''. New York City: Knopf. pp. 90–91.</ref> selling hundreds of thousands of copies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hitchens |first=Christopher |title=Thomas Paine's Rights of Man |publisher=Grove Press |year=2006 |isbn=0802143830 |page=37}}</ref> Paine would later write the ''[[Rights of Man]]'' and ''[[The Age of Reason]]'' and participate in the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Sprading" /> Paine's theory of property showed a "libertarian concern" with the redistribution of resources.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lamb |first=Robert |year=2010 |title=Liberty, Equality, and the Boundaries of Ownership: Thomas Paine's Theory of Property Rights |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/a176b1ceaa106c703806e7aaa11e6c1b850edc35 |url-status=live |journal=Review of Politics |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=483–511 |doi=10.1017/s0034670510000331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419203438/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Liberty%2C-Equality%2C-and-the-Boundaries-of-Ownership%3A-Lamb/a176b1ceaa106c703806e7aaa11e6c1b850edc35 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |access-date=1 December 2019 |hdl=10871/9896 |s2cid=55413082|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
+In January 1776, only two years after coming to America from England, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'' calling for independence for the colonies.<ref name="Sprading">Sprading, Charles T. (1913) [1995]. ''Liberty and the Great Libertarians''. [[Mises Institute]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=STQJ_DjQuw8C&pg=PA74 p. 74]. {{ISBN|978-1610161077}}.</ref> Paine promoted liberal ideas in clear and concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites.<ref>Hoffman, David C. (Fall 2006). "Paine and Prejudice: Rhetorical Leadership through Perceptual Framing in Common Sense". ''Rhetoric and Public Affairs''. '''9''' (3): 373–410.</ref> ''Common Sense'' was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas,<ref>Maier, Pauline (1997). ''American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence''. New York City: Knopf. pp. 90–91.</ref> selling hundreds of thousands of copies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hitchens |first=Christopher |title=Thomas Paine's Rights of Man |publisher=Grove Press |year=2006 |isbn=0802143830 |page=37}}</ref> Paine would later write the ''[[Rights of Man]]'' and ''[[The Age of Reason]]'' and participate in the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Sprading" /> Paine's theory of property showed a "libertarian concern" with the redistribution of resources.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lamb |first=Robert |year=2010 |title=Liberty, Equality, and the Boundaries of Ownership: Thomas Paine's Theory of Property Rights |journal=Review of Politics |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=483–511 |doi=10.1017/s0034670510000331 |hdl=10871/9896 |s2cid=55413082|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
 === 19th and 20th century ===
-{{American socialism}}
+{{Socialism US}}
 [[File:LysanderSpooner.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Individualist anarchist [[Lysander Spooner]], whose ''[[No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority]]'' greatly influenced libertarianism in the United States]]
-In the 19th century, libertarian philosophies included [[libertarian socialism]] and [[anarchist schools of thought]] such as [[Individualist anarchism in the United States|individualist]] and [[social anarchism]]. Key libertarian thinkers included [[Benjamin Tucker]],<ref name="StateSocialism">Tucker, Benjamin (1888). [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree, And Wherein They Differ''].</ref><ref name="IndividualLiberty">Tucker, Benjamin (1926). [http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=2803 ''Individual Liberty''].</ref><ref name="TuckerFAQ">''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]'' (2009). [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc23 "Benjamin Tucker: Capitalist or Anarchist?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213133040/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc23|date=February 13, 2020}}. Retrieved July 5, 2019.</ref> [[Lysander Spooner]],<ref name="SpoonerFAQ">''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]'' (2009). [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc25 "Lysander Spooner: right-"libertarian" or libertarian socialist?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213133040/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc25|date=February 13, 2020}}. Retrieved July 5, 2019.</ref> [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]] and [[William Batchelder Greene]], among others.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/><ref name="Rocker">Rocker, Rudolf (1949). ''Pioneers of American Freedom''. New York: J. J. Little and Ives Co.</ref><ref name="Woodcock">Woodcock, George (1962). ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements''. Melbourne: Penguin.</ref> While most of these anarchist thinkers advocated for the abolition of the state, other key libertarian thinkers and writers such as [[Henry David Thoreau]],<ref>Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences''. p. 12.</ref><ref>Gross, David, ed. (2007). ''The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals''. p. 8. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either". {{ISBN|978-1-4348-0552-2}}.</ref><ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1849). [https://sniggle.net/TPL/index5.php?entry=rtcg#p03 "Resistance to Civil Government"]. In ''[[Civil Disobedience]]''. "I heartily accept the motto, — "That government is best which governs least;" and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe, — "That government is best which governs not at all;" and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have". Retrieved November 15, 2019.</ref> [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]<ref>Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1844). "[[Politics (essay)|Politics]]". In ''Essays: Second Series''.</ref> and Spooner in ''[[No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority]]''<ref>Spooner, Lysander (1867) [1870]. ''[[No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority]]''.</ref> argued that government should be kept to a minimum and that it is only legitimate to the extent that people voluntarily support, leaving a significant imprint on libertarianism in the United States. The use of the term ''libertarianism'' to describe a [[left-wing]] position has been traced to the French cognate ''libertaire'', a word coined in a letter French [[libertarian communist]] [[Joseph Déjacque]] wrote to anarchist [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1857.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/><ref name="Marshall">Marshall, Peter (2009). ''[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]''. p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal ''Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social'' published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sébastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists".</ref><ref name="Graham">{{cite book|title=Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas|volume=One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300 CE–1939)|year=2005|location=Montreal|publisher=Black Rose Books|editor=Robert Graham|at=§17|editor-link=Robert Graham (historian)}}</ref><ref name="Déjacque">Déjacque, Joseph (1857). [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm "De l'être-humain mâle et femelle–Lettre à P.J. Proudhon"] (in French).</ref> While in New York City, Déjacque was able to serialize his book ''L'Humanisphère, Utopie anarchique'' (''The Humanisphere: Anarchic Utopia'') in his periodical ''[[Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social]]'' (''Libertarian: Journal of Social Movement''), published in 27 issues from June 9, 1858 to February 4, 1861.<ref name="LeLibertaire">{{cite web|url=http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/libertaire/libertaire.htm|title=Le Libertaire, Journal du mouvement social|first=Jean Claude|last=Mouton|language=fr|access-date=July 18, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Woodcock p. 280">Woodcock, George (1962). ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements''. Meridian Books. p. 280. "He called himself a 'social poet,' and published two volumes of heavily didactic verse—Lazaréennes and Les Pyrénées Nivelées. In New York, from 1858 to 1861, he edited an anarchist paper entitled ''Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social'', in whose pages he printed as a serial his vision of the anarchist Utopia, entitled L'Humanisphére."</ref> ''Le Libertaire'' was the first libertarian communist journal published in the United States as well as the first [[anarchist journal]] to use ''libertarian''.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/> Tucker was the first American born to use ''libertarian''.<ref>Comegna, Anthony; Gomez, Camillo (October 3, 2018). [https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/libertarianism-then-now "Libertarianism, Then and Now"]. ''Libertarianism''. Cato Institute. "[...] Benjamin Tucker was the first American to really start using the term 'libertarian' as a self-identifier somewhere in the late 1870s or early 1880s." Retrieved March 19, 2020.</ref> By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.<ref>[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]] (1995) [2006]. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Edinburgh, Scotland; Oakland, West Virginia: [[AK Press]]. p. 6. {{ISBN|978-1904859277}}.</ref>
+In the 19th century, libertarian philosophies included [[libertarian socialism]] and [[anarchist schools of thought]] such as [[Individualist anarchism in the United States|individualist]] and [[social anarchism]]. Key libertarian thinkers included [[Benjamin Tucker]],<ref name="StateSocialism">Tucker, Benjamin (1888). [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree, And Wherein They Differ''].</ref><ref name="IndividualLiberty">Tucker, Benjamin (1926). [http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=2803 ''Individual Liberty''].</ref><ref name="TuckerFAQ">''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]'' (2009). [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc23 "Benjamin Tucker: Capitalist or Anarchist?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213133040/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc23|date=February 13, 2020}}. Retrieved July 5, 2019.</ref> [[Lysander Spooner]],<ref name="SpoonerFAQ">''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]'' (2009). [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc25 "Lysander Spooner: right-"libertarian" or libertarian socialist?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213133040/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/the-anarchist-faq-editorial-collective-an-anarchist-faq-08-17#toc25|date=February 13, 2020}}. Retrieved July 5, 2019.</ref> [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]] and [[William Batchelder Greene]], among others.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/><ref name="Rocker">Rocker, Rudolf (1949). ''Pioneers of American Freedom''. New York: J. J. Little and Ives Co.</ref><ref name="Woodcock">Woodcock, George (1962). ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements''. Melbourne: Penguin.</ref> While most of these anarchist thinkers advocated for the abolition of the state, other key libertarian thinkers and writers such as [[Henry David Thoreau]],<ref>Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences''. p. 12.</ref><ref>Gross, David, ed. (2007). ''The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals''. p. 8. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either". {{ISBN|978-1-4348-0552-2}}.</ref><ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1849). [https://sniggle.net/TPL/index5.php?entry=rtcg#p03 "Resistance to Civil Government"]. In ''[[Civil Disobedience]]''. "I heartily accept the motto,—"That government is best which governs least;" and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe,—"That government is best which governs not at all;" and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have". Retrieved November 15, 2019.</ref> [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]<ref>Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1844). "[[Politics (essay)|Politics]]". In ''Essays: Second Series''.</ref> and Spooner in ''[[No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority]]''<ref>Spooner, Lysander (1867) [1870]. ''[[No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority]]''.</ref> argued that government should be kept to a minimum and that it is only legitimate to the extent that people voluntarily support, leaving a significant imprint on libertarianism in the United States. The use of the term ''libertarianism'' to describe a [[left-wing]] position has been traced to the French cognate ''libertaire'', a word coined in a letter French [[libertarian communist]] [[Joseph Déjacque]] wrote to anarchist [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1857.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/><ref name="Marshall">Marshall, Peter (2009). ''[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]''. p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal ''Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social'' published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sébastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists".</ref><ref name="Graham">{{cite book|title=Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas|volume=One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300 CE–1939)|year=2005|location=Montreal|publisher=Black Rose Books|editor=Robert Graham|at=§17|editor-link=Robert Graham (historian)}}</ref><ref name="Déjacque">Déjacque, Joseph (1857). [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm "De l'être-humain mâle et femelle–Lettre à P.J. Proudhon"] (in French).</ref> While in New York City, Déjacque was able to serialize his book ''L'Humanisphère, Utopie anarchique'' (''The Humanisphere: Anarchic Utopia'') in his periodical ''[[Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social]]'' (''Libertarian: Journal of Social Movement''), published in 27 issues from June 9, 1858, to February 4, 1861.<ref name="LeLibertaire">{{cite web|url=http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/libertaire/libertaire.htm|title=Le Libertaire, Journal du mouvement social|first=Jean Claude|last=Mouton|language=fr|access-date=July 18, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Woodcock p. 280">Woodcock, George (1962). ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements''. Meridian Books. p. 280. "He called himself a 'social poet,' and published two volumes of heavily didactic verse—Lazaréennes and Les Pyrénées Nivelées. In New York, from 1858 to 1861, he edited an anarchist paper entitled ''Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social'', in whose pages he printed as a serial his vision of the anarchist Utopia, entitled L'Humanisphére."</ref> ''Le Libertaire'' was the first libertarian communist journal published in the United States as well as the first [[anarchist journal]] to use ''libertarian''.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/> Tucker was the first American born to use ''libertarian''.<ref>Comegna, Anthony; Gomez, Camillo (October 3, 2018). [https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/libertarianism-then-now "Libertarianism, Then and Now"]. ''Libertarianism''. Cato Institute. "[...] Benjamin Tucker was the first American to really start using the term 'libertarian' as a self-identifier somewhere in the late 1870s or early 1880s." Retrieved March 19, 2020.</ref> By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.<ref>[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]] (1995) [2006]. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Edinburgh, Scotland; Oakland, West Virginia: [[AK Press]]. p. 6. {{ISBN|978-1904859277}}.</ref>
 [[File:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Benjamin Tucker]], an invidualist anarchist who contrapposed his [[anarchist socialism]] to [[state socialism]]]]
-Moving into the 20th century, the [[Libertarian League]] was an anarchist and libertarian socialist organization. The first Libertarian League was founded in Los Angeles between the two World Wars.<ref name="Avrich p. 486">[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]] (2005). ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. AK Press. p. 486.</ref> It was established mainly by Cassius V. Cook, Charles T. Sprading, [[Clarence Lee Swartz]], Henry Cohen, Hans F. Rossner and Thomas Bell.<ref name="Avrich p. 486"/> In 1954, a second Libertarian League was founded in New York City as a political organization building on the [[Libertarian Book Club]]. Members included [[Sam Dolgoff]], [[Russell Blackwell]], [[Dave Van Ronk]], [[Enrico Arrigoni]] and [[Murray Bookchin]]. This Libertarian League had a narrower political focus than the first, promoting anarchism and syndicalism. Its central principle, stated in its journal ''Views and Comments'', was "equal freedom for all in a free socialist society".<ref>Libertarian League (1963). [http://radicalarchives.org/2010/05/11/libertarian-league-manifesto/ "What We Stand For"].</ref> Branches of the Libertarian League opened in a number of other American cities, including Detroit and San Francisco. It was dissolved at the end of the 1960s.<ref>[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]] (2005). ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. AK Press. p. 471–472.</ref><ref>Weinberg, Bill (January 19, 2012). [http://thevillager.com/2012/01/19/the-left-libertarians-the-last-of-an-ancient-breed/ "The Left-Libertarians — the last of an ancient breed"]. ''The Villager''.</ref>
+Moving into the 20th century, the [[Libertarian League]] was an anarchist and libertarian socialist organization. The first Libertarian League was founded in Los Angeles between the two World Wars.<ref name="Avrich p. 486">[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]] (2005). ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. AK Press. p. 486.</ref> It was established mainly by Cassius V. Cook, Charles T. Sprading, [[Clarence Lee Swartz]], Henry Cohen, Hans F. Rossner and Thomas Bell.<ref name="Avrich p. 486"/> In 1954, a second Libertarian League was founded in New York City as a political organization building on the [[Libertarian Book Club]]. Members included [[Sam Dolgoff]], [[Russell Blackwell]], [[Dave Van Ronk]], [[Enrico Arrigoni]] and [[Murray Bookchin]]. This Libertarian League had a narrower political focus than the first, promoting anarchism and syndicalism. Its central principle, stated in its journal ''Views and Comments'', was "equal freedom for all in a free socialist society".<ref>Libertarian League (1963). [http://radicalarchives.org/2010/05/11/libertarian-league-manifesto/ "What We Stand For"].</ref> Branches of the Libertarian League opened in a number of other American cities, including Detroit and San Francisco. It was dissolved at the end of the 1960s.<ref>[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]] (2005). ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. AK Press. p. 471–472.</ref><ref>Weinberg, Bill (January 19, 2012). [http://thevillager.com/2012/01/19/the-left-libertarians-the-last-of-an-ancient-breed/ "The Left-Libertarians – the last of an ancient breed"]. ''The Villager''.</ref>
 The 1960s also saw an alliance between the nascent [[New Left]] and other radical libertarians who came from the [[Old Right (United States)|Old Right]] tradition like [[Murray Rothbard]],<ref>Raimond, Justin (2001). ''An Enemy of the State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard''. Amherst: Prometheus.</ref> [[Ronald Radosh]]<ref>Rothbard; Murray; Radosh, Ronald, eds. (1972). ''A New History of Leviathan: Essays on the Rise of the American Corporate State''. New York: Dutton.</ref> and [[Karl Hess]]<ref>Hess, Karl (1975). ''Dear America''. New York: Morrow.</ref> in opposition to [[Anti-imperialism|imperialism]] and [[Anti-war movement|war]], especially in relation to the [[Vietnam War]] and [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|its opposition]]. These radicals had long embraced a reading of American history that emphasized the role of elite privilege in shaping legal and political institutions, one that was naturally agreeable to many on the left, increasingly seeking alliances with the left, especially with members of the New Left, in light of the Vietnam War,<ref>Raimond, Justin (2001). ''An Enemy of the State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard''. Amherst: Prometheus. pp. 151–209.</ref> the [[military draft]] and the emergence of the [[Black Power movement]].<ref>Doherty, Brian (2007). ''Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement''. New York: Public Affairs. p. 338.</ref> Rothbard argued that the consensus view of American economic history, according to which a beneficent government has used its power to counter corporate predation, is fundamentally flawed. Rather, he argued that government intervention in the economy has largely benefited established players at the expense of marginalized groups, to the detriment of both liberty and equality. Moreover, the [[Robber baron (industrialist)|robber baron]] period, hailed by the right and despised by the left as a heyday of ''[[laissez-faire]]'', was not characterized by ''laissez-faire'' at all, but it was in fact a time of massive state privilege accorded to capital.<ref>On partnerships between the state and big business and the role of big business in promoting regulation, see Kolko, Gabriel (1977). ''The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900–1916''. New York: Free; Shaffer, Butler (2008). ''In Restraint of Trade: The Business Campaign Against Competition, 1918–1938''. Auburn: Mises Institute.</ref> In tandem with his emphasis on the intimate connection between [[Sovereign state|state]] and [[corporate power]], he defended the seizure of corporations dependent on state largesse by workers and others.<ref>Rothbard, Murray (June 15, 1969). "Confiscation and the Homestead Principle". ''Libertarian Forum''. '''1''' (6): 3–4.</ref> This tradition would continue through the 20th and 21st centuries, being taken up by the left-libertarian,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://agorism.eu.org/Counter-Economics.pdf|title=Counter-Economics: what it is, how it works|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427030909/https://agorism.eu.org/docs/Counter-Economics.pdf|archive-date=April 27, 2022|website=Agorism.eu.org}}</ref> free-market anti-capitalism<ref name="routledge-anarchism"/> of both [[Samuel Edward Konkin III]]'s [[agorism]]<ref name="Konkin 1983">Konkin III, Samuel Edward (1983). [https://agorism.eu.org/NewLibertarianManifesto.pdf "New Libertarian Manifesto"]. Agorism.eu.org. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427030909/https://agorism.eu.org/docs/NewLibertarianManifesto.pdf|date=April 27, 2022}} Retrieved May 4, 2022.</ref><ref name="konkin-interview">[http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/software/konkin-interview.html "Smashing the State for Fun and Profit Since 1969: An Interview With the Libertarian Icon Samuel Edward Konkin III (a.k.a. SEK3)"]. Spaz.org. Retrieved March 15, 2020.</ref><ref name="D'Amato 2018">D'Amato, David S. (November 27, 2018). [http://www.libertarianism.org/columns/black-market-activism-samuel-edward-konkin-iii-agorism "Black-Market Activism: Samuel Edward Konkin III and Agorism"]. Libertarianism.org. Retrieved November 21, 2019.</ref> and [[left-wing market anarchism]].<ref name="MarketsNotCapitalism"/><ref name="LibertarianLeft"/>
@@ Line 58: / Line 58: @@
 [[File:Murray Rothbard.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Murray Rothbard]], who popularized the term ''libertarian'' in the 1960s]]
-Subsequently, a growing number of Americans with classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as ''libertarian''. The person most responsible for popularizing the term ''libertarian'' was [[Murray Rothbard]], who started publishing libertarian works in the 1960s.<ref>[[Paul Cantor|Cantor, Paul]] (2012). ''The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture: Liberty Vs. Authority in American Film and TV''. University Press of Kentucky (2). p. 353.</ref> Before the 1950s, H. L. Mencken and Albert Jay Nock had been the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.<ref name="Burns"/><ref name="Mencken"/><ref name="Nock"/> In the 1950s, Russian-American novelist [[Ayn Rand]] developed a philosophical system called [[Objectivism]], expressed in her novels ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' as well as other works which influenced many libertarians.<ref name="Rubin">{{cite news|first=Harriet|last=Rubin|title=Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html|work=The New York Times|date=September 15, 2007|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref> However, she rejected the label ''libertarian'' and harshly denounced the libertarian movement as the "hippies of the right".<ref>Rand, Ayn (September 1971). "Brief Summary". ''The Objectivist''. '''10'''. "More specifically, I disapprove of, disagree with and have no connection with, the latest aberration of some conservatives, the so-called "hippies of the right," who attempt to snare the younger or more careless ones of my readers by claiming simultaneously to be followers of my philosophy and advocates of anarchism".</ref><ref>Rand, Ayn (1981). "The Age of Mediocrity". [https://books.google.com/books?id=-2D6VqMXfFIC&pg=PT10 FHF 81]. In Mayhew, Robert (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=-2D6VqMXfFIC&pg=PT72 ''Ayn Rand Answers: The Best of Her Q & A'']. "[L]ibertarians are a monstrous, disgusting bunch of people: they plagiarize my ideas when that fits their purpose, and denounce me in a more vicious manner than any communist publication when that fits their purpose".</ref> Nonetheless, philosopher [[John Hospers]], a one-time member of Rand's inner circle, proposed a [[Non-aggression principle|non-initiation of force]] principle to unite both groups—this statement later became a required pledge for candidates of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] and Hospers himself became its first presidential candidate in 1972.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reason.com/blog/2011/06/13/john-hospers-rip|title=John Hospers, RIP|last=Walker|first=Jesse|work=Reason|date=June 13, 2011|access-date=July 13, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/jul/13/john-hospers-obituary|title=John Hospers obituary|last=O'Grady|first=Jane|work=The Guardian|date=July 13, 2011|access-date=July 13, 2019}}</ref> Along with [[Isabel Paterson]] and [[Rose Wilder Lane]], Rand is described as one of the three female founding figures of the modern libertarian movement in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Brian|year=2009|chapter=The Three Furies of Libertarianism|title=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement|location=London|publisher=Hachette UK|isbn=9780786731886}}</ref>
+Subsequently, a growing number of Americans with classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as ''libertarian''. The person most responsible for popularizing the term ''libertarian'' was [[Murray Rothbard]], who started publishing libertarian works in the 1960s.<ref>[[Paul Cantor|Cantor, Paul]] (2012). ''The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture: Liberty Vs. Authority in American Film and TV''. University Press of Kentucky (2). p. 353.</ref> Before the 1950s, H. L. Mencken and Albert Jay Nock had been the first prominent figures in the United States to privately call themselves libertarians.<ref name="Burns"/><ref name="Mencken"/><ref name="Nock"/> In the 1950s, Russian-American novelist [[Ayn Rand]] developed a philosophical system called [[Objectivism]], expressed in her novels ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' as well as other works which influenced many libertarians.<ref name="Rubin">{{cite news|first=Harriet|last=Rubin|title=Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html|work=The New York Times|date=September 15, 2007|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref> However, she rejected the label ''libertarian'' and harshly denounced the libertarian movement as the "hippies of the right".<ref>Rand, Ayn (September 1971). "Brief Summary". ''The Objectivist''. '''10'''. "More specifically, I disapprove of, disagree with and have no connection with, the latest aberration of some conservatives, the so-called "hippies of the right," who attempt to snare the younger or more careless ones of my readers by claiming simultaneously to be followers of my philosophy and advocates of anarchism".</ref><ref>Rand, Ayn (1981). "The Age of Mediocrity". [https://books.google.com/books?id=-2D6VqMXfFIC&pg=PT10 FHF 81]. In Mayhew, Robert (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=-2D6VqMXfFIC&pg=PT72 ''Ayn Rand Answers: The Best of Her Q & A'']. "[L]ibertarians are a monstrous, disgusting bunch of people: they plagiarize my ideas when that fits their purpose, and denounce me in a more vicious manner than any communist publication when that fits their purpose".</ref> Nonetheless, philosopher [[John Hospers]], a one-time member of Rand's inner circle, proposed a [[Non-aggression principle|non-initiation of force]] principle to unite both groups—this statement later became a required pledge for candidates of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] and Hospers himself became its first presidential candidate in 1972.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reason.com/blog/2011/06/13/john-hospers-rip|title=John Hospers, RIP|last=Walker|first=Jesse|work=Reason|date=June 13, 2011|access-date=July 13, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/jul/13/john-hospers-obituary|title=John Hospers obituary|last=O'Grady|first=Jane|work=The Guardian|date=July 13, 2011|access-date=July 13, 2019}}</ref> Along with [[Isabel Paterson]] and [[Rose Wilder Lane]], Rand is described as one of the three female founding figures of the modern libertarian movement in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Brian|year=2009|chapter=The Three Furies of Libertarianism|title=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement|location=London|publisher=Hachette UK|isbn=978-0786731886}}</ref>
-Although influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, themselves influenced by classical liberalism.<ref name="DeLeon">{{harvnb|DeLeon|1978|p=127}}. "[O]nly a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in ''Power and Market'', and some article writers were influenced by [past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker]. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment".</ref> Rothbard thought they had a faulty understanding of economics because they accepted the [[labor theory of value]] as influenced by the [[classical economists]] while he was a student of [[neoclassical economics]] and supported the [[subjective theory of value]]. Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualists' advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics, arguing that there is a "scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung".<ref name="Rothbard">Rothbard, Murray (1965) [2000]. [https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/20_1/20_1_2.pdf "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View"]. ''Journal of Libertarian Studies''. '''20''' (1): 7.</ref>
+Although influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, themselves influenced by classical liberalism.<ref name="DeLeon">{{cite book |last1=DeLeon |first1=David |title=The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism |date=1978 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-2126-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w63aAAAAMAAJ |language=en |page=127 |quote="[O]nly a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in ''Power and Market'', and some article writers were influenced by [past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker]. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment"}}</ref> Rothbard thought they had a faulty understanding of economics because they accepted the [[labor theory of value]] as influenced by the [[classical economists]] while he was a student of [[neoclassical economics]] and supported the [[subjective theory of value]]. Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualists' advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics, arguing that there is a "scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung".<ref name="Rothbard">Rothbard, Murray (1965) [2000]. [https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/20_1/20_1_2.pdf "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View"]. ''Journal of Libertarian Studies''. '''20''' (1): 7.</ref>
 [[File:Senator Goldwater 1960.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Barry Goldwater]], whose libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement]]
 {{Conservatism US}}
-Arizona Senator [[Barry Goldwater]]'s libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement<ref>Henry J. Silverman, ''American radical thought: the libertarian tradition'', p. 279, 1970, Heath publishing.</ref> through his book ''[[The Conscience of a Conservative]]'' and his [[Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign|1964 presidential campaign]].<ref>Robert Poole, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1568/is_n4_v30/ai_20954419 "In memoriam: Barry Goldwater – Obituary"], {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120525155900/findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1568/is_n4_v30/ai_20954419|date=May 25, 2012}}, ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', August–September 1998.</ref> Goldwater's speech writer [[Karl Hess]] became a leading libertarian writer and activist.<ref>Hess, Karl. [http://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html ''The Death of Politics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802164945/http://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html |date=August 2, 2019 }}, Interview in ''[[Playboy]]'', July 1976.</ref> The [[Vietnam War]] split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians and [[Traditionalist conservatism in the United States|traditionalist conservatives]] who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the [[Draft dodger|draft resistance]] and [[peace movement]]s and organizations such as [[Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)|Students for a Democratic Society]]. They began founding their own publications like Rothbard's ''[[The Libertarian Forum]]''<ref>Murray Rothbard, [https://mises.org/story/2760 "The Early 1960s: From Right to Left"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100202021832/http://mises.org/story/2760|date=February 2, 2010}}, excerpt from chapter 13 of Murray Rothbard ''The Betrayal of the American Right'', Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007.</ref><ref name=Lora-Longton>Ronald Lora, William Henry Longton, ''Conservative press in 20th-century America'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ioakmq8yxA4C&pg=PA367 pp. 367–374], Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999</ref> and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance.<ref>Marc Jason Gilbert, ''The Vietnam War on campus: other voices, more distant drums'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVTBZe4JzCwC&pg=PA35 p. 35], 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, {{ISBN|0-275-96909-6}}.</ref> The split was aggravated at the 1969 [[Young Americans for Freedom]] convention when more than 300 libertarians coordinated to take control of the organization from conservatives. The [[Draft-card burning|burning of a draft card]] in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walkout by a large number of libertarians, the creation of libertarian organizations like the [[Liberty International (organization)|Society for Individual Liberty]] and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.<ref>Rebecca E. Klatch, [https://archive.org/details/generationdivide0000klat ''A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s''], [[University of California Press]], 1999, pp. 215–237.</ref> The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] attempted to divorce libertarianism from the movement, writing in a ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' article as follows: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded".<ref name="Blanchette">Jude Blanchette, [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/orig5/blanchette1.html What Libertarians and Conservatives Say About Each Other: An Annotated Bibliography], LewRockwell.com, October 27, 2004.</ref>
+Arizona Senator [[Barry Goldwater]]'s libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement<ref>Henry J. Silverman, ''American radical thought: the libertarian tradition'', p. 279, 1970, Heath publishing.</ref> through his book ''[[The Conscience of a Conservative]]'' and his [[Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign|1964 presidential campaign]].<ref>Robert Poole, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1568/is_n4_v30/ai_20954419 "In memoriam: Barry Goldwater – Obituary"], {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120525155900/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1568/is_n4_v30/ai_20954419|date=May 25, 2012}}, ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', August–September 1998.</ref> Goldwater's speech writer [[Karl Hess]] became a leading libertarian writer and activist.<ref>Hess, Karl. [http://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html ''The Death of Politics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802164945/http://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html |date=August 2, 2019 }}, Interview in ''[[Playboy]]'', July 1976.</ref> The [[Vietnam War]] split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians and [[Traditionalist conservatism in the United States|traditionalist conservatives]] who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the [[Draft dodger|draft resistance]] and [[peace movement]]s and organizations such as [[Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)|Students for a Democratic Society]]. They began founding their own publications like Rothbard's ''[[The Libertarian Forum]]''<ref>Murray Rothbard, [https://mises.org/story/2760 "The Early 1960s: From Right to Left"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100202021832/http://mises.org/story/2760|date=February 2, 2010}}, excerpt from chapter 13 of Murray Rothbard ''The Betrayal of the American Right'', Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007.</ref><ref name=Lora-Longton>Ronald Lora, William Henry Longton, ''Conservative press in 20th-century America'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ioakmq8yxA4C&pg=PA367 pp. 367–374], Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999</ref> and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance.<ref>Marc Jason Gilbert, ''The Vietnam War on campus: other voices, more distant drums'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVTBZe4JzCwC&pg=PA35 p. 35], 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, {{ISBN|0-275-96909-6}}.</ref> The split was aggravated at the 1969 [[Young Americans for Freedom]] convention when more than 300 libertarians coordinated to take control of the organization from conservatives. The [[Draft-card burning|burning of a draft card]] in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walkout by a large number of libertarians, the creation of libertarian organizations like the [[Liberty International (organization)|Society for Individual Liberty]] and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.<ref>Rebecca E. Klatch, [https://archive.org/details/generationdivide0000klat ''A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s''], [[University of California Press]], 1999, pp. 215–237.</ref> The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] attempted to divorce libertarianism from the movement, writing in a ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' article as follows: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded".<ref name="Blanchette">Jude Blanchette, [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/orig5/blanchette1.html What Libertarians and Conservatives Say About Each Other: An Annotated Bibliography], LewRockwell.com, October 27, 2004.</ref>
 [[File:NolanwithNolanChart1996.jpg|thumb|upright|[[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]], founder of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]]]]
 As a result of the split, a small group of Americans led by [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]] and a few friends formed the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] in 1971.<ref>Bill Winter, [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525185828/https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/cp3/conversations/topics/9701 "1971–2001: The Libertarian Party's 30th Anniversary Year: Remembering the first three decades of America's 'Party of Principle'"] LP News.</ref> Attracting former [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Independent voter|independents]], it has run a [[President of the United States|presidential candidate]] every election year since 1972. Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the [[Center for Libertarian Studies]] and the [[Cato Institute]] were formed in the 1970s and others have been created since then.<ref>[http://www.isil.org/network/global/C19/ "International Society for Individual Liberty Freedom Network list"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716024031/http://www.isil.org/network/global/C19/|date=July 16, 2011}}.</ref> Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication in 1974 of [[Harvard University]] professor [[Robert Nozick]]'s ''[[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]]'', a response to [[John Rawls]]'s ''[[A Theory of Justice]]'' (1971). The book proposed a [[minimal state]] on the grounds that it was an inevitable phenomenon that could arise without violating [[individual rights]].<ref name="Schaefer">Schaefer, David Lewis (April 30, 2008). [http://www.nysun.com/sports/reconsiderations-robert-nozick-and-coast-utopia "Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821170556/http://www.nysun.com/sports/reconsiderations-robert-nozick-and-coast-utopia |date=August 21, 2014 }}. ''The New York Sun''. Retrieved June 26, 2019.</ref> The book won a [[National Book Award]] in 1975.<ref>[http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1975.html "National Book Award: 1975 – Philosophy and Religion"] (1975). National Book Foundation. Retrieved September 9, 2011. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909065656/http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1975.html|date=September 9, 2011}}.</ref> According to libertarian essayist [[Roy Childs]], "Nozick's ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia".<ref>[http://www.theadvocates.org/celebrities/robert-nozick.html The Advocates Robert Nozick page] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100424220215/http://www.theadvocates.org/celebrities/robert-nozick.html|date=April 24, 2010}}.</ref>
-British historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives. They demanded greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control. They angrily complained that the establishment was withholding it. They argue this shift in concerns helped cause [[Thatcherism]] and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal.<ref>Robinson, Emily; ''et al.'' (2017). [https://academic.oup.com/tcbh/article/28/2/268/3061496 "Telling stories about post-war Britain: popular individualism and the 'crisis' of the 1970s"]. ''Twentieth Century British History''. '''28''' (2): 268–304.</ref> Since the resurgence of [[neoliberalism]] in the 1970s, this form of libertarianism has spread beyond North America and Europe,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Heppell|first=Timothy|date=June 2002|title=The ideological composition of the Parliamentary Conservative Party 1992–97|journal=British Journal of Politics and International Relations|volume=4|issue=2|pages=299–324|doi=10.1111/1467-856X.t01-1-00006|s2cid=144304577}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2006/apr/07/libertarianismleftbehind|title=Libertarianism limited|last=Walsh|first=Jason|date=April 7, 2006|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=February 26, 2008}}</ref> having been more successful at spreading worldwide than other conservative ideas.<ref>Teles, Steven; Kenney, Daniel A. "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond". pp. 136–169. In Steinmo, Sven (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mfy3k0BWBNAC ''Growing Apart?: America and Europe in the Twenty-first Century'']. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> It has been noted that "[m]ost parties of the Right [today] are run by [[economically liberal]] [[Liberal conservatism|conservatives]] who, in varying degrees, have marginalized [[Social conservatism|social]], [[Cultural conservatism|cultural]], and [[National conservatism|national conservatives]]".<ref>"National Questions" (June 30, 1997). ''National Review''. '''49''' (12): pp. 16–17.</ref>
+British historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives. They demanded greater personal autonomy and [[self-determination]] and less outside control. They angrily complained that the establishment was withholding it. They argue this shift in concerns helped cause [[Thatcherism]] and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal.<ref>Robinson, Emily; ''et al.'' (2017). [https://academic.oup.com/tcbh/article/28/2/268/3061496 "Telling stories about post-war Britain: popular individualism and the 'crisis' of the 1970s"]. ''Twentieth Century British History''. '''28''' (2): 268–304.</ref> Since the resurgence of [[neoliberalism]] in the 1970s, this form of libertarianism has spread beyond North America and Europe,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Heppell|first=Timothy|date=June 2002|title=The ideological composition of the Parliamentary Conservative Party 1992–97|journal=British Journal of Politics and International Relations|volume=4|issue=2|pages=299–324|doi=10.1111/1467-856X.t01-1-00006|s2cid=144304577}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2006/apr/07/libertarianismleftbehind|title=Libertarianism limited|last=Walsh|first=Jason|date=April 7, 2006|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=February 26, 2008}}</ref> having been more successful at spreading worldwide than other conservative ideas.<ref>Teles, Steven; Kenney, Daniel A. "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond". pp. 136–169. In Steinmo, Sven (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mfy3k0BWBNAC ''Growing Apart?: America and Europe in the Twenty-first Century'']. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> It has been noted that "[m]ost parties of the Right [today] are run by [[economically liberal]] [[Liberal conservatism|conservatives]] who, in varying degrees, have marginalized [[Social conservatism|social]], [[Cultural conservatism|cultural]], and [[National conservatism|national conservatives]]".<ref>"National Questions" (June 30, 1997). ''National Review''. '''49''' (12): pp. 16–17.</ref>
 === Late 20th century ===
 {{see also|Right-libertarianism#By country}}
-[[File:Anarchy, State, and Utopia (first edition).JPG|thumb|upright|[[Robert Nozick]]'s ''[[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]]'' helped spread libertarian ideas worldwide in the 1970s]]
+[[File:Anarchy, State, and Utopia (first edition).JPG|thumb|upright|[[Robert Nozick]]'s ''[[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]]'' helped spread libertarian ideas worldwide in the 1970s.]]
-Academics as well as proponents of the [[capitalist]] [[free-market]] perspectives note that libertarianism has spread beyond the United States since the 1970s via [[think tank]]s and [[political parties]]<ref name="teles2008diffusion">Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond," (pp. 136–69) in [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mfy3k0BWBNAC Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century] by Sven Steinmo, [[Cambridge University Press]], 2008, ISBN, The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.</ref><ref name="lewrockwell.com">Gregory, Anthony (April 24, 2007). [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gregory/gregory136.html "Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism"]. [[LewRockwell.com]]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618072909/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gregory/gregory136.html|date=June 18, 2015}}.</ref> and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed as a capitalist free-market position.<ref name="cato.org">Boaz, David (November 21, 1998). [http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=5779 "Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer"]. Reprinted at [[Cato Institute|Cato.org]].</ref><ref name="nypost.com">Silber, Kenneth (February 4, 2007). [http://www.nypost.com/seven/02042007/postopinion/postopbooks/freedoms_philosophy_postopbooks_kenneth_silber.htm "Radicals for Capitalism (Book Review)"]. ''[[The New York Post]]''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208071359/http://www.nypost.com/seven/02042007/postopinion/postopbooks/freedoms_philosophy_postopbooks_kenneth_silber.htm|date=December 8, 2008}}.</ref> However, libertarian intellectuals [[Noam Chomsky]],<ref name="Chomsky">[https://archive.today/20130113110804/http://www.zmag.org/zspace/commentaries/1137 "The Week Online Interviews Chomsky"]. [[Z Communications|Z Magazine]]. February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism."</ref> [[Colin Ward]]<ref name="Ward">Ward, Colin (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kksrWshoIkYC ''Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction'']. Oxford University Press. p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers."</ref> and others argue that the term ''libertarianism'' is considered a synonym for ''[[anarchism]]'' and ''[[libertarian socialism]]'' by the international community and that the United States is unique in widely associating it with the capitalist free-market ideology.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/><ref name="Nettlau">{{cite book|title=A Short History of Anarchism|last=Nettlau|first=Max|author-link=Max Nettlau|year=1996|publisher=Freedom Press|isbn=978-0-900384-89-9|language=en|location=London|page=162|oclc=37529250}}</ref><ref name="Fernandez">Fernandez, Frank (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=jKdztbIaHegC ''Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement'']. Sharp Press. p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."</ref> Modern libertarianism in the United States mainly refers to classical and economic liberalism. It supports capitalist free-market approaches as well as neoliberal policies and [[economic liberalization]] reforms such as [[austerity]], [[deregulation]], [[free trade]], [[privatization]] and reductions in [[government spending]] in order to increase the role of the [[private sector]] in the economy and society.<ref name="ClassicalLiberalism"/><ref name="Boaz"/><ref name="Conway"/> This is unlike the common meaning<ref name="Goodway"/><ref name="Chomsky"/><ref name="Ward"/> of libertarianism elsewhere,<ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Nettlau"/><ref name="Fernandez"/><ref name="Graham"/> with ''libertarianism'' being used to refer to the largely overlapping [[right-libertarianism]], the most popular conception of libertarianism in the United States,<ref name="Carlson"/><ref name="Lester">Lester, J. C. (October 22, 2017). [https://philpapers.org/rec/INDNLA "New-Paradigm Libertarianism: a Very Brief Explanation"]. PhilPapers. Retrieved June 26, 2019.</ref> where the term itself was first coined and used by Joseph Déjacque to refer to a new political philosophy rejecting all authority and hierarchies, including the market and property.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/>
+Academics as well as proponents of the [[capitalist]] [[free-market]] perspectives note that libertarianism has spread beyond the United States since the 1970s via [[think tank]]s and [[political parties]]<ref name="teles2008diffusion">Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond," (pp. 136–169) in [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mfy3k0BWBNAC Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century] by Sven Steinmo, [[Cambridge University Press]], 2008, The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.{{ISBN?}}</ref><ref name="lewrockwell.com">Gregory, Anthony (April 24, 2007). [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gregory/gregory136.html "Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism"]. [[LewRockwell.com]]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618072909/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/gregory/gregory136.html|date=June 18, 2015}}.</ref> and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed as a capitalist free-market position.<ref name="cato.org">Boaz, David (November 21, 1998). [http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=5779 "Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer"]. Reprinted at [[Cato Institute|Cato.org]].</ref> However, libertarian intellectuals [[Noam Chomsky]],<ref name="Chomsky">[https://archive.today/20130113110804/http://www.zmag.org/zspace/commentaries/1137 "The Week Online Interviews Chomsky"]. [[Z Communications|Z Magazine]]. February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism."</ref> [[Colin Ward]]<ref name="Ward">Ward, Colin (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kksrWshoIkYC ''Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction'']. Oxford University Press. p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers."</ref> and others argue that the term ''libertarianism'' is considered a synonym for ''[[anarchism]]'' and ''[[libertarian socialism]]'' by the international community and that the United States is unique in widely associating it with the capitalist free-market ideology.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/><ref name="Nettlau">{{cite book|title=A Short History of Anarchism|last=Nettlau|first=Max|author-link=Max Nettlau|year=1996|publisher=Freedom Press|isbn=978-0-900384-89-9|language=en|location=London|page=162|oclc=37529250}}</ref><ref name="Fernandez">Fernandez, Frank (2001). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZhQkMQAACAAJ ''Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement'']. Sharp Press. p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."</ref> Modern libertarianism in the United States mainly refers to classical and economic liberalism. It supports capitalist free-market approaches as well as neoliberal policies and [[economic liberalization]] reforms such as [[austerity]], [[deregulation]], [[free trade]], [[privatization]] and reductions in [[government spending]] in order to increase the role of the [[private sector]] in the economy and society.<ref name="ClassicalLiberalism"/><ref name="Boaz"/><ref name="Conway"/> This is unlike the common meaning<ref name="Goodway"/><ref name="Chomsky"/><ref name="Ward"/> of libertarianism elsewhere,<ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Nettlau"/><ref name="Fernandez"/><ref name="Graham"/> with ''libertarianism'' being used to refer to the largely overlapping [[right-libertarianism]], the most popular conception of libertarianism in the United States,<ref name="Carlson"/><ref name="Lester">Lester, J. C. (October 22, 2017). [https://philpapers.org/rec/INDNLA "New-Paradigm Libertarianism: a Very Brief Explanation"]. PhilPapers. Retrieved June 26, 2019.</ref> where the term itself was first coined and used by Joseph Déjacque to refer to a new political philosophy rejecting all authority and hierarchies, including the market and property.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/>
 In a 1975 interview with ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', California Governor [[Ronald Reagan]] appealed to libertarians when he stated to "believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism".<ref name=rm200507>Klausner, Manuel (July 1975). [https://reason.com/1975/07/01/inside-ronald-reagan/ "Inside Ronald Reagan"]. ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]''. Retrieved May 2, 2020.</ref> [[Ron Paul]] was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Reagan's presidential campaign<ref name="Roberts 1988">{{cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Jerry|title=Libertarian Candidate Rolls Out His Values|journal=San Francisco Chronicle|date=September 17, 1988}}</ref> and actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980.<ref name="Nichols 1987">{{cite journal|last=Nichols|first=Bruce|title=Ron Paul Wants to Get Americans Thinking: Republican-Turned-Libertarian Seeks Presidency|journal=Dallas Morning News|date=March 15, 1987}}</ref> However, Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration's policies after Reagan's election in 1980 and later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981,<ref name="Kennedy 1988">{{cite journal|last=Kennedy|first=J. Michael|title=Politics 88: Hopeless Presidential Race: Libertarian Plods On – Alone and Unheard|journal=Los Angeles Times|date=May 10, 1988|url=https://articles.latimes.com/1988-05-10/news/mn-2480_1_libertarian-party|access-date=January 31, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Kutzmann 1988">{{cite journal|last=Kutzmann|first=David M.|title=Small Party Battles Big Government Libertarian Candidate Opposes Intrusion into Private Lives|journal=San Jose Mercury News|date=May 24, 1988|page=12A}}</ref> aghast that "in 1977, [[Jimmy Carter]] proposed a budget with a $38 billion deficit, and every Republican in the House voted against it. In 1981, Reagan proposed a budget with a $45 billion deficit—which turned out to be $113 billion—and Republicans were cheering his great victory. They were living in a storybook land".<ref name="Roberts 1988"/> Paul expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the [[House of Representatives (United States)|House of Representatives]] to prepare for a failed run for the Senate and eventually apologized to his libertarian friends for having supported Reagan.<ref name="Kutzmann 1988"/> By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party as explained in a blistering resignation letter.<ref name="Nichols 1987"/> While affiliated with both Libertarian and Republican parties at different times, Paul said he had always been a libertarian at heart.<ref name="Kennedy 1988"/><ref name="Kutzmann 1988"/> Paul was the Libertarian Party candidate for president in 1988.<ref>Friedersdorf, Conor (May 7, 2012). [https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/05/comparing-gary-johnson-to-past-libertarian-party-nominees/256782/ "Comparing Gary Johnson to Past Libertarian Party Nominees"]. ''The Atlantic''. Retrieved October 7, 2020.</ref>
-In the 1980s, libertarians such as Paul and Rothbard<ref>Rothbard, Murray (1984). [https://mises.org/library/reagan-phenomenon "The Reagan Phenomenon"]. ''Free Life: The Journal of the Libertarian Alliance''. Libertarian Alliance. ''''4''' (1): 1–7. Retrieved September 20, 2020 – via the Mises Institute.</ref><ref>Riggenbach, Jeff (February 5, 2011). [https://mises.org/library/reagan-fraud-%E2%80%94-and-after "The Reagan Fraud — and After"]. Mises Institute. Retrieved September 20, 2020.</ref> criticized President Reagan, [[Reaganomics]] and policies of the [[Reagan administration]] for, among other reasons, having turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt and the United States became a debtor nation for the first time since World War I under the [[Reagan administration]].<ref>Kilborn, Peter T. (September 17, 1985). [https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/17/business/us-turns-into-debtor-nation.html "U.S. Turns Into Debtor Nation"]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved May 2, 2020.</ref><ref>Johnston, Oswald (September 17, 1985). [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-09-17-mn-20088-story.html "Big Trade Deficit Turns U.S. Into Debtor Nation : First Time Since 1914"]. ''Los Angeles Times''. Retrieved May 2, 2020.</ref> Rothbard argued that the [[presidency of Reagan]] has been "a disaster for libertarianism in the United States"<ref>Weltch, Matt (September 9, 2011). [https://reason.com/2011/09/09/rothbard-on-reagan-in-reason/ "Rothbard on Reagan in Reason"]. ''Reason''. Reason Foundation. Retrieved September 20, 2020.</ref> and Paul described Reagan himself as "a dramatic failure".<ref name="Nichols 1987"/>
+In the 1980s, libertarians such as Paul and Rothbard<ref>Rothbard, Murray (1984). [https://mises.org/library/reagan-phenomenon "The Reagan Phenomenon"]. ''Free Life: The Journal of the Libertarian Alliance''. Libertarian Alliance. ''''4''' (1): 1–7. Retrieved September 20, 2020 – via the Mises Institute.</ref><ref>Riggenbach, Jeff (February 5, 2011). [https://mises.org/library/reagan-fraud-%E2%80%94-and-after "The Reagan Fraud – and After"]. Mises Institute. Retrieved September 20, 2020.</ref> criticized President Reagan, [[Reaganomics]] and policies of the [[Reagan administration]] for, among other reasons, having turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt and the United States became a debtor nation for the first time since World War I under the [[Reagan administration]].<ref>Kilborn, Peter T. (September 17, 1985). [https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/17/business/us-turns-into-debtor-nation.html "U.S. Turns Into Debtor Nation"]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved May 2, 2020.</ref><ref>Johnston, Oswald (September 17, 1985). [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-09-17-mn-20088-story.html "Big Trade Deficit Turns U.S. Into Debtor Nation : First Time Since 1914"]. ''Los Angeles Times''. Retrieved May 2, 2020.</ref> Rothbard argued that the [[presidency of Reagan]] has been "a disaster for libertarianism in the United States"<ref>Weltch, Matt (September 9, 2011). [https://reason.com/2011/09/09/rothbard-on-reagan-in-reason/ "Rothbard on Reagan in Reason"]. ''Reason''. Reason Foundation. Retrieved September 20, 2020.</ref> and Paul described Reagan himself as "a dramatic failure".<ref name="Nichols 1987"/>
 === 21st century ===
-In the 21st century, libertarian groups have been successful in advocating tax cuts and regulatory reform. While some argue that the American public as a whole shifted away from libertarianism following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]], citing the success of multinational organizations such as [[NAFTA]] and the increasingly interdependent [[global financial system]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/04/defused/556934/|title=The Passing of the Libertarian Moment|author=Kevin D. Williamson|work=The Atlantic|date=April 2, 2018|access-date=April 16, 2018}}</ref> others argue that libertarian ideas have moved so far into the mainstream that many Americans who do not identify as libertarian now hold libertarian views.<ref>{{cite book|title=Peak Oil: Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture|last=Schneider-Mayerson|first=Matthew|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2015|isbn=9780226285436}}</ref> Circa 2006 polls find that the views and voting habits of between 10 and 20 percent (increasing) of voting age Americans may be classified as "fiscally conservative and socially liberal, or libertarian".<ref name="BoazKirby06">[http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa580.pdf ''The Libertarian Vote''] by David Boaz and David Kirby, Cato Institute, October 18, 2006</ref><ref name="anes2004">''The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior, 1948–2004'' American National Election Studies ([http://www.electionstudies.org/nesguide/nesguide.htm Newer edition] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423201305/http://www.electionstudies.org/nesguide/nesguide.htm|date=April 23, 2016}}).</ref> This is based on pollsters and researchers defining libertarian views as [[fiscally conservative]] and [[Cultural liberalism|socially liberal]] (based on the common United States meanings of the terms) and against [[government intervention]] in economic affairs and for expansion of [[personal freedom]]s.<ref name="BoazKirby06"/> Through 20 polls on this topic spanning 13 years, Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17 to 23% of the electorate.<ref name="Gallup2006"/> While libertarians make up a larger portion of the electorate than the much-discussed "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads", this is not widely recognized as most of these vote for [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] party candidates, leading some libertarians to believe that dividing people's political leanings into "conservative", "liberal" and "confused" is not valid.<ref name="MaddoxStuart84">''Beyond Liberal and Conservative'' William S. Maddox & Stuart A. Lilie, 1984. ([https://books.google.com/books?id=3_GdfKGni28C&q=gallup+libertarian Preview on Google Books]).</ref>
+In the 21st century, libertarian groups have been successful in advocating tax cuts and regulatory reform. While some argue that the American public as a whole shifted away from libertarianism following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]], citing the success of multinational organizations such as [[NAFTA]] and the increasingly interdependent [[global financial system]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/04/defused/556934/|title=The Passing of the Libertarian Moment|author=Kevin D. Williamson|work=The Atlantic|date=April 2, 2018|access-date=April 16, 2018}}</ref> others argue that libertarian ideas have moved so far into the mainstream that many Americans who do not identify as libertarian now hold libertarian views.<ref>{{cite book|title=Peak Oil: Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture|last=Schneider-Mayerson|first=Matthew|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0226285436}}</ref> Circa 2006 polls find that the views and voting habits of between 10 and 20 percent (increasing) of voting age Americans may be classified as "fiscally conservative and socially liberal, or libertarian".<ref name="BoazKirby06">[http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa580.pdf ''The Libertarian Vote''] by David Boaz and David Kirby, Cato Institute, October 18, 2006</ref><ref name="anes2004">''The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior, 1948–2004'' American National Election Studies ([http://www.electionstudies.org/nesguide/nesguide.htm Newer edition] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423201305/http://www.electionstudies.org/nesguide/nesguide.htm|date=April 23, 2016}}).</ref> This is based on pollsters and researchers defining libertarian views as [[fiscally conservative]] and [[Cultural liberalism|socially liberal]] (based on the common United States meanings of the terms) and against [[government intervention]] in economic affairs and for expansion of [[personal freedom]]s.<ref name="BoazKirby06"/> Through 20 polls on this topic spanning 13 years, Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17 to 23% of the electorate.<ref name="Gallup2006"/> While libertarians make up a larger portion of the electorate than the much-discussed "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads", this is not widely recognized as most of these vote for [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] party candidates, leading some libertarians to believe that dividing people's political leanings into "conservative", "liberal" and "confused" is not valid.<ref name="MaddoxStuart84">''Beyond Liberal and Conservative'' William S. Maddox & Stuart A. Lilie, 1984. ([https://books.google.com/books?id=3_GdfKGni28C&q=gallup+libertarian Preview on Google Books]).</ref>
 [[File:Ron Paul 0723.jpg|left|thumb|168x168px|Former United States Rep. [[Ron Paul]] of Texas, who set off a surge of libertarian ideology in the US while running for head of state in [[Ron Paul 2008 presidential campaign|2008]] and [[Ron Paul 2012 presidential campaign|2012]]]]
 In the United States, libertarians may emphasize economic and constitutional rather than religious and personal policies, or personal and international rather than economic policies<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4hqpJEJp7cUC&pg=PA197 ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History''], p. 197, Adam Rothman (2009).</ref> such as the [[Tea Party movement]] (founded in 2009) which has become a major outlet for libertarian Republican ideas,<ref name="wsj1">[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703882404575520252928390046 "Tea-Party Movement Gathers Strength"] by Peter Wallsten and Danny Yadron. ''The Wall Street Journal''. September 29, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://reason.com/poll/2011/09/26/is-half-the-tea-part-libertart "Is Half the Tea Party Libertarian?"] ''Reason'', Emily Ekins, September 26, 2011.</ref> especially rigorous adherence to the Constitution, lower taxes and an opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care. However, polls show that many people who identify as Tea Party members do not hold traditional libertarian views on most social issues and tend to poll similarly to [[Cultural conservatism|socially conservative]] Republicans.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Poll: Tea Party Overwhelmingly Christian And Socially Conservative.|website=NPR|date=October 5, 2010|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2010/10/05/130353765/new-poll-tea-party-overwhelmingly-christian-and-socially-conservative|publisher=National Public Radio|access-date=October 15, 2013|last1=Sutherland|first1=J. J.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=On Social Issues, Tea Partiers Are Not Libertarians|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/10/on-social-issues-tea-partiers-are-not-libertarians/64169/|work=The Atlantic|access-date=October 15, 2013|date=October 6, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Is Half the Tea Party Libertarian?|url=http://reason.com/poll/2011/09/26/is-half-the-tea-part-libertart|work=Reason|access-date=October 15, 2013|date=September 26, 2011}}</ref> During the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 presidential election]], many Tea Party members eventually abandoned more libertarian-leaning views in favor of [[Donald Trump]] and his [[right-wing populism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/05/did-the-tea-party-create-donald-trump/482004/|title=The New Republican Civil War|author=Molly Ball|work=The Atlantic|access-date=February 11, 2017|date=May 10, 2016}}</ref> Additionally, the Tea Party was considered to be a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] in 2010.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-12030-503544.html "Katie Couric interviews Tea Party Leaders"]. CBS News. January 25, 2010.</ref>
-Texas Congressman Ron Paul's [[Ron Paul 1988 presidential campaign|1988]], [[Ron Paul 2008 presidential campaign|2008]] and [[Ron Paul 2012 presidential campaign|2012]] campaigns for the Republican Party presidential nomination were largely libertarian.<ref name="Caldwell">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/22/magazine/22Paul-t.html|title=The Antiwar, Anti-Abortion, Anti-Drug-Enforcement-Administration, Anti-Medicare Candidacy of Dr. Ron Paul|last=Caldwell|first=Christopher|work=The New York Times|date=July 22, 2007|access-date=September 22, 2012|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6ArO66WOK?url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/22/magazine/22Paul-t.html?_r=0|archive-date=September 22, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Along with Goldwater and others, Paul popularized ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economics and libertarian rhetoric in opposition to [[Economic interventionism|interventionism]] and worked to pass some reforms. Likewise, California Governor and future [[President of the United States]] [[Ronald Reagan]] appealed to [[Cultural conservatism|cultural conservative]] libertarians due its [[Social conservatism in the United States|social conservatism]] and in a 1975 interview with ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'' stated: "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism".<ref>[http://reason.com/7507/int_reagan.shtml "Inside Ronald Reagan: A Reason Interview"]. ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]''. July 1975. Retrieved February 11, 2010.</ref> However, many libertarians are ambivalent about Reagan's legacy as president due its social conservatism and how the [[Reagan administration]] turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt, making the United States a debtor nation for the first time since World War I.<ref>Kilborn, Peter T. (September 17, 1985). [https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/17/business/us-turns-into-debtor-nation.html "U.S. Turns Into Debtor Nation"]. ''The New York times''. Retrieved July 6, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://notices.californiatimes.com/gdpr/latimes.com/ "Big Trade Deficit Turns U.S. Into Debtor Nation : First Time Since 1914"]. ''Los Angeles times''. September 17, 1985. Retrieved July 6, 2019.</ref> Ron Paul was affiliated with the libertarian-leaning [[Republican Liberty Caucus]]<ref>[http://www.rlc.org/2011/12/30/republican-liberty-caucus-endorses-ron-paul-for-president "Republican Liberty Caucus endorses Ron Paul"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609175058/http://www.rlc.org/2011/12/30/republican-liberty-caucus-endorses-ron-paul-for-president/ |date=June 9, 2012 }}. Republican Liberty Caucus. December 30, 2011. Retrieved December 30, 2011.</ref> and founded the [[Campaign for Liberty]], a libertarian-leaning membership and lobbying organization.<ref>Ambinder, Marc. (June 13, 2008). [https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2008/06/ron-pauls-goal-100-000-by-september/53519/ "Ron Paul's Goal: 100,000 By September"]. ''The Atlantic''. Retrieved July 5, 2019.</ref> [[Rand Paul]] is a Senator who continues the tradition of his father Ron Paul, albeit more moderately as he has described himself as a [[Constitutionalism in the United States|constitutional conservative]]<ref name="Solomon">{{cite news|last=Solomon|first=Deborah|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/04/magazine/04fob-q4-t.html|title=Questions for Rand Paul – Tea Time Interview|work=The New York Times|access-date=October 23, 2010|date=March 29, 2010}}</ref> and has both embraced<ref name="Stewart">{{cite news|last=Stewart|first=Martina|url=http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2009/05/04/im-very-serious-about-running-ron-pauls-son-says|title='I'm very serious about running', Ron Paul's son says|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 15, 2010|date=May 4, 2010|quote=Like his father, the son also favors notions of limited government. "Libertarian would be a good description," Rand Paul told CNN, "because libertarians believe in freedom in all aspects of your life – your economic life as well as your social life as well as your personal life.}}</ref> and rejected libertarianism.<ref name="Newton-Small">{{cite news|last=Newton-Small|first=Jay|date=March 17, 2010|url=http://content.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1972721,00.html|title=Is Rand Paul Good or Bad for Republicans?|magazine=Time|access-date=March 30, 2014|quote=They thought all along that they could call me a libertarian and hang that label around my neck like an albatross, but I'm not a libertarian.}}</ref>
+Texas Congressman Ron Paul's [[Ron Paul 1988 presidential campaign|1988]], [[Ron Paul 2008 presidential campaign|2008]] and [[Ron Paul 2012 presidential campaign|2012]] campaigns for the Republican Party presidential nomination were largely libertarian.<ref name="Caldwell">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/22/magazine/22Paul-t.html|title=The Antiwar, Anti-Abortion, Anti-Drug-Enforcement-Administration, Anti-Medicare Candidacy of Dr. Ron Paul|last=Caldwell|first=Christopher|work=The New York Times|date=July 22, 2007|access-date=September 22, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612042634/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/22/magazine/22Paul-t.html?_r=0|archive-date=June 12, 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Along with Goldwater and others, Paul popularized ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economics and libertarian rhetoric in opposition to [[Economic interventionism|interventionism]] and worked to pass some reforms. Likewise, California Governor and future [[President of the United States]] [[Ronald Reagan]] appealed to [[Cultural conservatism|cultural conservative]] libertarians due its [[Social conservatism in the United States|social conservatism]] and in a 1975 interview with ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'' stated: "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism".<ref>[http://reason.com/7507/int_reagan.shtml "Inside Ronald Reagan: A Reason Interview"]. ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]''. July 1975. Retrieved February 11, 2010.</ref> However, many libertarians are ambivalent about Reagan's legacy as president due its social conservatism and how the [[Reagan administration]] turned the United States' big trade deficit into debt, making the United States a debtor nation for the first time since World War I.<ref>Kilborn, Peter T. (September 17, 1985). [https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/17/business/us-turns-into-debtor-nation.html "U.S. Turns Into Debtor Nation"]. ''The New York times''. Retrieved July 6, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://notices.californiatimes.com/gdpr/latimes.com/ "Big Trade Deficit Turns U.S. Into Debtor Nation : First Time Since 1914"]. ''Los Angeles times''. September 17, 1985. Retrieved July 6, 2019.</ref> Ron Paul was affiliated with the libertarian-leaning [[Republican Liberty Caucus]]<ref>[http://www.rlc.org/2011/12/30/republican-liberty-caucus-endorses-ron-paul-for-president "Republican Liberty Caucus endorses Ron Paul"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609175058/http://www.rlc.org/2011/12/30/republican-liberty-caucus-endorses-ron-paul-for-president/ |date=June 9, 2012 }}. Republican Liberty Caucus. December 30, 2011. Retrieved December 30, 2011.</ref> and founded the [[Campaign for Liberty]], a libertarian-leaning membership and lobbying organization.<ref>Ambinder, Marc. (June 13, 2008). [https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2008/06/ron-pauls-goal-100-000-by-september/53519/ "Ron Paul's Goal: 100,000 By September"]. ''The Atlantic''. Retrieved July 5, 2019.</ref> [[Rand Paul]] is a Senator who continues the tradition of his father Ron Paul, albeit more moderately as he has described himself as a [[Constitutionalism in the United States|constitutional conservative]]<ref name="Solomon">{{cite news|last=Solomon|first=Deborah|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/04/magazine/04fob-q4-t.html|title=Questions for Rand Paul – Tea Time Interview|work=The New York Times|access-date=October 23, 2010|date=March 29, 2010}}</ref> and has both embraced<ref name="Stewart">{{cite news|last=Stewart|first=Martina|url=http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2009/05/04/im-very-serious-about-running-ron-pauls-son-says|title='I'm very serious about running', Ron Paul's son says|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 15, 2010|date=May 4, 2010|quote=Like his father, the son also favors notions of limited government. "Libertarian would be a good description," Rand Paul told CNN, "because libertarians believe in freedom in all aspects of your life – your economic life as well as your social life as well as your personal life.|archive-date=November 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128103034/https://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2009/05/04/im-very-serious-about-running-ron-pauls-son-says/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and rejected libertarianism.<ref name="Newton-Small">{{cite news|last=Newton-Small|first=Jay|date=March 17, 2010|url=http://content.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1972721,00.html|title=Is Rand Paul Good or Bad for Republicans?|magazine=Time|access-date=March 30, 2014|quote=They thought all along that they could call me a libertarian and hang that label around my neck like an albatross, but I'm not a libertarian.}}</ref>
-[[File:Gary Johnson (6287557789).jpg|thumb|194x194px|Former New Mexico Gov. [[Gary Johnson]], nicknamed "Governor Veto", ran for head of state within the Libertarian Party in [[Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign|2012]] and [[Gary Johnson 2016 presidential campaign|2016]]]]
+[[File:Gary Johnson (6287557789).jpg|thumb|194x194px|Former New Mexico Gov. [[Gary Johnson]], nicknamed "Governor Veto", ran for head of state within the Libertarian Party in [[Gary Johnson 2012 presidential campaign|2012]] and [[Gary Johnson 2016 presidential campaign|2016]].]]
 Since 2012, former New Mexico Governor and two-time Libertarian Party presidential nominee [[Gary Johnson]] has been one of the public faces of the libertarian movement. The [[2016 Libertarian National Convention]] saw Johnson and [[Bill Weld]] nominated as the 2016 presidential ticket and resulted in the most successful result for a third-party presidential candidacy since 1996 and the best in the Libertarian Party's history by vote number. Johnson received 3% of the popular vote, amounting to more than 4.3&nbsp;million votes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Official 2016 Presidential General Election Results|url=https://transition.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2016/federalelections2016.pdf|publisher=Federal Election Commission|date=December 2017|access-date=February 12, 2018}}</ref> Johnson expressed a desire to win at least 5% of the vote so that the Libertarian Party candidates could get equal [[ballot access]] and [[Presidential election campaign fund checkoff|federal funding]], ending the [[two-party system]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Karoun Demirjian|url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2012/oct/05/libertarian-candidate-makes-push-nevadas-ron-paul-/|title=Libertarian candidate makes push for Nevada's Ron Paul supporters|work=Las Vegas Sun|date=October 5, 2012|access-date=November 2, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Why 5% matters to Gary Johnson|url=http://ivn.us/2012/11/01/why-5-matters-to-gary-johnson/|author=Lucas Eaves|date=November 1, 2012|publisher=Independent Voter Network|access-date=November 6, 2012|archive-date=June 18, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618034013/http://ivn.us/2012/11/01/why-5-matters-to-gary-johnson/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>William Maxwell; Ernest Crain; Adolfo Santos (2013). ''Texas Politics Today, 2013–2014 Edition''. p. 121.</ref> While some political commentators have described Senator Rand Paul and Congressman [[Thomas Massie]] of Kentucky as [[Libertarian Republican|Republican libertarians]] or libertarian-leaning,<ref name="Stewart"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Curry|first=Tom|title=Libertarian GOP Member Sees Drone Privacy Risk|url=http://blogs.rollcall.com/the-container/libertarian-gop-member-sees-drone-privacy-risk/|publisher=Rollcall.com|access-date=February 14, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214235304/http://blogs.rollcall.com/the-container/libertarian-gop-member-sees-drone-privacy-risk/|archive-date=February 14, 2015}}</ref> they prefer to identify as [[Constitutionalism in the United States|constitutional conservatives]].<ref name="Solomon"/><ref name="Newton-Small"/> One federal officeholder openly professing some form of libertarianism is Congressman [[Justin Amash]], who represents [[Michigan's 3rd congressional district]] since January 2011.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Andrews|first1=Wilson|last2=Bloch|first2=Matthew|last3=Park|first3=Haeyoun|title=Who Stopped the Republican Health Bill?|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/03/24/us/politics/republicans-opposed-health-care-bill.html|date=March 24, 2017|quote=15 were hard-line conservatives who wanted a complete repeal of the Affordable Care Act. They are all members of the House Freedom Caucus, who are among the most conservative members of the House [...] Justin Amash, MI-3 [...].}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2019/05/18/justin-amash-trump-impeachable-mueller-1332780|title=Michigan GOP congressman says Trump's conduct impeachable|last=Desiderio|first=Andrew|publisher=Politico|date=May 18, 2019|access-date=May 18, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Phillips|first=Amber Phillips|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/05/20/why-justin-amashs-impeachment-comments-probably-wont-change-nancy-pelosis-mind/|title=Why Justin Amash's impeachment comments probably won't change Nancy Pelosi's mind|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=May 20, 2019|access-date=May 20, 2019|quote=Amash is one of the most conservative lawmakers in Congress, which gives him street cred when he calls for impeaching a Republican president. But Amash is also a different strain of conservative; he leans libertarian.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Sabad|first=Rebecca|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/congress/amash-s-impeachment-call-comes-political-price-how-high-n1007831|title=Amash's impeachment call comes with a political price. How high?|publisher=NBC News|date=May 20, 2019|access-date=May 20, 2019|quote=Amash, 39, who identifies as a libertarian Republican, is considered among the most conservative members of the House. [...] Conservative groups like the Club for Growth, Heritage Action for America and Americans for Prosperity have awarded him lifetime ratings of more than 85 percent.}}</ref> Initially elected to Congress as a Republican,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/05/attacks-justin-amash-disgraceful/590059/|title=The Justin Amash Test|last=Friedersdorf|first=Conor|work=The Atlantic|date=May 24, 2019|access-date=July 12, 2019}}</ref> Amash left the party and became an [[Independent politician|independent]] in July 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://nbc25news.com/news/local/rep-justin-amash-leaving-the-republican-party|title=Rep. Justin Amash declares his independence from the Republican Party|last=Paxson|first=Heidi|publisher=NBC 25 News|date=July 4, 2019|access-date=July 12, 2019}}</ref> In April 2020, Amash joined the Libertarian Party and became the first member of the party in the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite news|last=Welch|first=Matt|date=April 29, 2020|url=https://reason.com/2020/04/29/justin-amash-becomes-the-first-libertarian-member-of-congress/|title=Justin Amash Becomes the First Libertarian Member of Congress|newspaper=Reason|publisher=Reason Foundation|access-date=May 12, 2020}}</ref> Following the [[2022 Libertarian National Convention]], the [[Mises Caucus]], a [[Paleolibertarianism|paleolibertarian]] faction, became the dominant faction on the Libertarian National Committee.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Doherty |first=Brian |date=2022-05-29 |title=Mises Caucus Takes Control of Libertarian Party |url=https://reason.com/2022/05/29/mises-caucus-takes-control-of-libertarian-party/ |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mas |first=Frederic |date=2022-06-01 |title=United States: the libertarian party veers to the right |url=https://www.contrepoints.org/2022/06/01/431241-etats-unis-le-parti-libertarien-vire-a-droite |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=[[Contrepoints]] |language=fr-FR}}</ref>
+[[File:Justin Amash (15294806046).jpg|thumb|150x150px|Only member of the Libertarian Party to hold a seat in the United States Congress, Michigan Rep. [[Justin Amash]]]] A variant of non-intellectual right-libertarianism that has been described as "growing in prominence", "changing the dynamics" of the conservative movement in the U.S.,<ref name="Schnurr-MDC-3-11-2022">{{cite news |last1=Schnurr |first1=Benjamin |title=The growing prominence of Barstool conservatism |url=https://dailycollegian.com/2022/11/the-growing-prominence-of-barstool-conservatism/ |access-date=10 August 2023 |agency=Massachusetts Daily Collegian |date=3 November 2022}}</ref> and even "largely defin[ing] the Republican coalition"<ref name="ROBERTSON-politico-20-6-2023"/> in the 2020s, has been dubbed "[[Barstool conservatism]]". First coined in 2021<ref name="Walther-rise-2021">{{cite news |last1=Walther |first1=Matthew |date=2021-02-01 |title=Rise of the Barstool conservatives |work=[[The Week]] |url=https://theweek.com/articles/964006/rise-barstool-conservatives |access-date=2023-08-10}}</ref> by journalist Rod Matthew Walther,<ref name="Cecchini-W&L-2022">{{cite news |last1=Cecchini |first1=Evan |title=Where Barstool Conservatism Belongs in the Republican Party |url=https://www.wluspectator.com/home/2022/9/16/where-barstool-conservatism-belongs-in-the-republican-party |access-date=14 August 2023 |work=W & L Speculator |date=16 September 2022}}</ref> the term describes a movement whose primary base of support is young non-religious males,<ref name="Hochman-NYT-1-6-2022">{{cite news |last1=Hochman |first1=Nate |date=2022-06-01 |title=What Comes After the Religious Right? |work=[[The New York Times]] |agency= |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/01/opinion/republicans-religion-conservatism.html |access-date=2023-08-10}}</ref><ref name="MCGREW-NR-29-6-2022">{{cite web |last1=McGrew |first1=Bethel |date=2022-06-29 |title=The Problem with 'Barstool Conservatives' |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2022/06/the-problem-with-barstool-conservatives/ |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=[[National Review]]}}</ref><ref name="ROBERTSON-politico-20-6-2023">{{cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=Derek |date=2021-06-20 |title=How Republicans Became the 'Barstool' Party |agency=Politico |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/06/20/barstool-sports-republican-politics-portnoy-trump-495221 |access-date=2023-08-10}}</ref> and combines total opposition to [[political correctness]] and "[[Woke|wokism]]" with the more traditional libertarian opposition to controls on the pursuits of pleasure (sex, gambling, pornography, alcohol).<ref name="Hochman-NYT-1-6-2022"/><ref name="ROBERTSON-politico-20-6-2023"/><ref name="MCGREW-NR-29-6-2022"/>
-[[File:Justin Amash (15294806046).jpg|thumb|129x129px|The only member of the Libertarian Party to win a seat in the United States Congress, Michigan Rep. [[Justin Amash]]]]
 Anti-capitalist libertarianism has recently aroused renewed interest in the early 21st century. The Winter 2006 issue of the ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]'' published by the [[Mises Institute]] was dedicated to reviews of [[Kevin Carson]]'s ''[[Studies in Mutualist Political Economy]]''.<ref>Carson, Kevin (Winter 2006). [https://cdn.mises.org/20_1_7.pdf "Carson's Rejoinders"]. ''Journal of Libertarian Studies''. Mises Institute. '''20''' (1): 97–136. Retrieved February 1, 2020.</ref> One variety of this kind of libertarianism has been a resurgent mutualism, incorporating modern economic ideas such as [[marginal utility]] theory into mutualist theory.<ref>Carson, Kevin. [http://www.mutualist.org/id112.html "Preface"]. Mutualist.Org: Free Market Anti-Capitalism. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415135834/http://www.mutualist.org/id112.html|date=April 15, 2011}}. Retrieved February 1, 2020.</ref> Carson's ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy'' helped to stimulate the growth of new-style mutualism, articulating a version of the [[labor theory of value]] incorporating ideas drawn from Austrian economics.<ref>Carson, Kevin (2007). ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy''. Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge.</ref>
+In 2022, the term ''kremlintarian'' emerged as a description of an individual claiming libertarian identity while defending the behavior of totalitarian regimes.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/kremlintarians-russia-s-war-on-ukraine-exposes-great-libertarian-divide-20221006-p5bnp9.html | title=Kremlintarians: Russia's war on Ukraine exposes great libertarian divide | date=October 19, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://coldwardaily.com/2023/05/06/kremlintarian-tendency-of-american-liberatarians/ | title=The Kremlintarian tendency of American libertarians | date=May 6, 2023 }}</ref>
 == Schools of thought ==
@@ Line 97: / Line 100: @@
 * Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). ''Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty''. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia.
 * "It introduces an eye-opening approach to radical social thought, rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism." Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). ''Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty''. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. p. back cover.
-* "But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on [[Jesse Walker]]'s link to the Kelly article, put it: “every trade is a cooperative act.” In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label “socialism.”" [http://c4ss.org/content/670 "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated"] by [[Kevin Carson]] at website of Center for a Stateless Society.
+* "But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on [[Jesse Walker]]'s link to the Kelly article, put it: "every trade is a cooperative act." In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label 'socialism.'" [http://c4ss.org/content/670 "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated"] by [[Kevin Carson]] at website of Center for a Stateless Society.
 * Carson, Kevin A. (2008). ''Organization Theory: A Libertarian Perspective''. Charleston, SC: BookSurge.
-* Carson, Kevin A. (2010).  ''The Homebrew Industrial Revolution: A Low-Overhead Manifesto''. Charleston, SC: BookSurge.
+* Carson, Kevin A. (2010). ''The Homebrew Industrial Revolution: A Low-Overhead Manifesto''. Charleston, SC: BookSurge.
 * Long, Roderick T. (2000). ''Reason and Value: Aristotle versus Rand''. Washington, D.C.: Objectivist Center.
 * Long, Roderick T. (2008). [http://en.liberalis.pl/2008/01/04/interview-with-roderick-long/ "An Interview With Roderick Long"].
-* Johnson, Charles W. (2008). [http://radgeek.com/gt/2010/03/02/liberty-equality-solidarity-toward-a-dialectical-anarchism/ "Liberty, Equality, Solidarity: Toward a Dialectical Anarchism"]. ''Anarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country?''. In Long, Roderick T. and Machan, Tibor  Aldershot:Ashgate  pp. 155–188.
+* Johnson, Charles W. (2008). [http://radgeek.com/gt/2010/03/02/liberty-equality-solidarity-toward-a-dialectical-anarchism/ "Liberty, Equality, Solidarity: Toward a Dialectical Anarchism"]. ''Anarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country?''. In Long, Roderick T. and Machan, Tibor Aldershot:Ashgate pp. 155–188.
 * Spangler, Brad (September 15, 2006). [http://bradspangler.com/blog/archives/473 "Market Anarchism as Stigmergic Socialism"]. {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20110510102306/http://bradspangler.com/blog/archives/473|date=May 10, 2011}}.
 * Richman, Sheldon (June 23, 2010). [http://sheldonfreeassociation.blogspot.com/2006/07/why-left-libertarian.html "Why Left-Libertarian?"]. ''The Freeman''. Foundation for Economic Education.
@@ Line 116: / Line 119: @@
 * Sundstrom, William A. [http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/submitted/sundstrom/Sundstrommanifesto.pdf "An Egalitarian-Libertarian Manifesto"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029212045/http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/submitted/sundstrom/Sundstrommanifesto.pdf|date=October 29, 2013}}.
 * Bookchin, Murray and Biehl, Janet (1997). ''The Murray Bookchin Reader''. New York: Cassell. p. 170.
-* Sullivan, Mark A. (July 2003). "Why the Georgist Movement Has Not Succeeded: A Personal Response to the Question Raised by Warren J. Samuels." ''[[American Journal of Economics and Sociology]]''. '''62''' (3): 612.</ref><ref name="WhyNotIncoherent">{{cite journal|last1=Vallentyne|first1=Peter|last2=Steiner|first2=Hillel|last3=Otsuka|first3=Michael|year=2005|title=Why Left-Libertarianism Is Not Incoherent, Indeterminate, or Irrelevant: A Reply to Fried|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctymio/leftlibP&PA.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Philosophy and Public Affairs|publisher=Blackwell Publishing, Inc.|volume=33|issue=2|pages=201–215|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103160534/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctymio/leftlibP%26PA.pdf|archive-date=November 3, 2012|access-date=July 23, 2013|doi=10.1111/j.1088-4963.2005.00030.x}}</ref><ref name="encyclolib">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Narveson|first1=Jan|last2=Trenchard|first2=David|title=Left Libertarianism |author-link1=Jan Narveson|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC|year=2008|publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]]|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n174|isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4|oclc=750831024|lccn=2008009151|pages=288–289}}</ref> as well as [[Right-libertarianism|right-libertarian]]<ref name="Goodway"/><ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Newman">{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Saul|author-link=Saul Newman|title=The Politics of Postanarchism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43|year=2010|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|pages=53|isbn=978-0-7486-3495-8|quote=It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism). There is a complex debate within this tradition between those like Robert Nozick, who advocate a 'minimal state', and those like Rothbard who want to do away with the state altogether and allow all transactions to be governed by the market alone. From an anarchist perspective, however, both positions—the minimal state (minarchist) and the no-state ('anarchist') positions—neglect the problem of economic domination; in other words, they neglect the hierarchies, oppressions, and forms of exploitation that would inevitably arise in a laissez-faire 'free' market. [...] Anarchism, therefore, has no truck with this right-wing libertarianism, not only because it neglects economic inequality and domination, but also because in practice (and theory) it is highly inconsistent and contradictory. The individual freedom invoked by right-wing libertarians is only a narrow economic freedom within the constraints of a capitalist market, which, as anarchists show, is no freedom at all.}}</ref> tendencies such as [[anarcho-capitalism]],<ref>"The philosophy of "anarcho-capitalism" dreamed up by the "libertarian" New Right, has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper." [[Albert Meltzer|Meltzer, Albert]]. ''[https://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe Anarchism: Arguments For and Against]'' [[AK Press]], (2000) p. 50.</ref><ref>"In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called [[Right-libertarianism|right-wing libertarians]] rather than anarchists." Peter Marshall. ''[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]''. Harper Perennial. London. 2008. p. 565.</ref><ref>"It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)." [[Saul Newman]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20right%20libertarian The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press,]'' 2010, p. 43 {{ISBN|0748634959}}.</ref><ref>[http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secFcon.html Section F – Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?] at [[An Anarchist FAQ]] published in physical book form by An Anarchist FAQ as "Volume I"; by [[AK Press]], Oakland/Edinburgh 2008; 558 pages, {{ISBN|9781902593906}}</ref><ref>"'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of ‘anarchy’ and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, ‘minimal statism’ and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words ‘libertarian’ and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition." ''[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward]]'' by David Goodway. Liverpool University Press. Liverpool. 2006. p. 4.</ref><ref>"Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist venders. [...] [S]o what remains is shrill anti-statism conjoined to a vacuous freedom in hackneyed defense of capitalism. In sum, the "anarchy" of Libertarianism reduces to a liberal fraud." [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy" by Peter Sabatini] in issue #41 (Fall/Winter 1994–95) of ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]''.</ref> [[classical liberalism]],<ref name="google.com2">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/modernpoliticalp00hude|title=Modern Political Philosophy|last=Hudelson|first=Richard|date=1999|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=9780765600219}}</ref><ref name="Steven M. Dworetz 19942">Steven M. Dworetz (1994). ''The Unvarnished Doctrine: Locke, Liberalism, and the American Revolution''.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83HlqTJjLcgC&pg=PA58|title=Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination|last=Appleby|first=Joyce|date=1992|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674530133|author-link=Joyce Appleby}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXjXKlb79cgC&pg=PA422|title=Handbook of Political Theory|last1=Gaus|first1=Gerald F.|last2=Kukathas|first2=Chandran|date=2004|publisher=SAGE|isbn=9780761967873|author2-link=Chandran Kukathas}}</ref> [[Libertarian conservatism|conservative libertarianism]],<ref>Heywood, Andrew (2015). ''Key Concepts in Politics and International Relations:Palgrave Key Concepts''. Macmillan International Higher Education. {{ISBN|978-1-1374-9477-1}}.</ref><ref name="Piper">Piper, J. Richard (1997). ''Ideologies and Institutions: American Conservative and Liberal Governance Prescriptions Since 1933''. [[Rowman & Littlefield]]. {{ISBN|0847684598}}. {{ISBN|978-0847684595}}.</ref><ref>[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]. [https://mises.org/library/getting-libertarianism-right "Getting Libertarianism Right"]. [[Mises Institute]]. {{ISBN|978-1-61016-690-4}}.</ref> [[fusionism]],<ref>Dionne Jr., E. J. (1991). ''Why Americans Hate Politics''. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 161.</ref><ref>Meyer, Frank S. (1996). ''In Defense of Freedom and Other Essays''. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.</ref> [[neoliberalism]],<ref>Richardson, James L. (2001). ''Contending Liberalisms in World Politics: Ideology and Power''. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers. {{ISBN|1-55587-939-X}}.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090309151259/http://www.ncpa.org/pub/what-is-classical-liberalism "What Is Classical Liberalism?"].</ref> [[Objectivism]],<ref>Burns, Jennifer (2009). ''Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-532487-7}}. OCLC 313665028.</ref><ref>Gladstein, Mimi Reisel (2009). ''Ayn Rand (Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers)''. New York: Continuum. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-4513-1}}. OCLC 319595162.</ref> [[Neo-libertarianism#Modern incarnations|neolibertarianism]],<ref name="reason">{{cite web|url=http://reason.com/blog/2005/04/01/you-know-youre-neolibertarian|title=You Know You're Neolibertarian If...|last=Freund|first=Charles Paul|date=April 2005|work=Reason|access-date=October 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qando.net/2012/11/10/bryan-picks-suggestions-for-the-gop/|title=Bryan Pick's Suggestions for the GOP|last=Franks|first=Dale|author-link=Dale Franks|date=November 2012|work=QandO|access-date=October 12, 2018}}</ref> [[paleolibertarianism]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rockwell|first=Lew|title=The Case for Paleo-libertarianism|url=http://www.pericles.press/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Liberty_Magazine.pdf|journal=Liberty|issue=January 1990|pages=34–38}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://reason.com/archives/2008/01/16/who-wrote-ron-pauls-newsletter|title=Who Wrote Ron Paul's Newsletters?|last1=Sanchez|first1=Julian|last2=Weigel|first2=David|publisher=Reason Foundation|quote=Rothbard pointed to David Duke and Joseph McCarthy as models for an "Outreach to the Rednecks," which would fashion a broad libertarian/paleoconservative coalition by targeting the disaffected working and middle classes}}.</ref> and [[propertarianism]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.google.co.jp/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=word.such.as.propertrian&btnG=#hl=en&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22Since+their+use+of+the+word+liberty%22&oq=%22Since+their+use+of+the+word+liberty%22&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=3&gs_upl=7379l18818l0l18998l7l7l0l0l0l0l257l987l2.3.2l7l0&gs_l=serp.3...7379l18818l0l18998l7l7l0l0l0l0l257l987l2j3j2l7l0&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=ed30b13a85e567b2&biw=1280&bih=610|title=They'd Rather Be Right: Youth and the Conservative Movement|author=Cain, Edward|publisher=Macmillan|year=1963|pages=32–36|asin=B0000CLYF9}}</ref><ref>Bader, Ralf M.; Meadowcroft, John (eds.). ''The Cambridge Companion to Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' (2011). Cambridge University Press. p. 151.</ref> Other tendencies include [[Austro-libertarianism]],<ref>Carl Menger, Principles of Economics, online at {{cite web|url=https://www.mises.org/etexts/menger/principles.asp|title=Principles of Economics by Carl Menger|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914004206/https://www.mises.org/etexts/menger/principles.asp|archive-date=September 14, 2014|url-status=live|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/methodological-individualism/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Heath|first=Joseph|date=May 1, 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|access-date=May 1, 2018|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref><ref name="Mises_Action">Ludwig von Mises. [[Human Action]], p. 11, "Purposeful Action and Animal Reaction". Retrieved November 23, 2011.</ref> [[autarchism]], [[Christian libertarianism]],<ref>Seavey, Todd (2016). ''Libertarianism for Beginners''.</ref> [[consequentialist libertarianism]],<ref>Yeager, Leland B. (2001). ''Ethics As Social Science: The Moral Philosophy of Social Cooperation''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 283.</ref><ref name="Wolff">{{cite journal|last=Wolff|first=Jonathan|title=Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition|url=http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf|url-status=dead|publisher=[[Virginia Law Review]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112210848/http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf|archive-date=January 12, 2013}}</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0PaN9M4WwHw#t=68 "Milton Friedman on Libertarianism (Part 1 of 4)"].</ref><ref>Younkins, Edward W. ''Mises' Utilitarianism as Social Cooperation''.</ref><ref>Liggio, Leonard P. (Winter 1982). "Hayek's Constitution of Liberty: Ethical Basis of the Juridical Framework of Individual Liberty". ''Literature of Liberty''. 5: 4.</ref><ref>Gray, John N. (1982). ''F. A. Hayek and the Rebirth of Classical Liberalism''.</ref><ref>[[Alan O. Ebenstein|Ebenstein, Alan O.]] (2001). ''Friedrich Hayek: A Biography''. p. 383.</ref> [[Constitutionalism in the United States|constitutionalism]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/constitutionalism/|title=Constitutionalism|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=September 29, 2017}}</ref> [[green libertarianism]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gadfly.igc.org/papers/liberty.htm|title=With Liberty for Some|last=Partridge|first=Ernest|access-date=May 28, 2009}}</ref> [[libertarian feminism]],<ref name="About_ALF">{{cite web|url=http://alf.org/aboutalf/founding.shtml|title=About ALF – The Association of Libertarian Feminists|publisher=Association of Libertarian Feminists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828170220/http://alf.org/aboutalf/founding.shtml|archive-date=August 28, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women|last=Hoff Sommers|first=Christina|publisher=Touchstone/Simon & Schuster|year=1995|isbn=9780684801568|location=New York|author-link=Christina Hoff Sommers|title-link=Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women}}</ref> [[libertarian paternalism]],<ref>Thaler, Richard and Sunstein, Cass. 2003. "Libertarian Paternalism". ''The American Economic Review'' 93: 175–79.</ref><ref>Sunstein, Cass; Thaler, Richard. 2003. "Libertarian Paternalism is Not an Oxymoron". ''University of Chicago Law Review''. '''70''' (4): 1159–1202.</ref><ref>Thaler, R. H.; Sunstein, C.R. (2009). ''[[Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth and Happiness]]''. 2d edition. New York: Penguin Books.</ref> [[libertarian transhumanism]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hughes, James|year=2001|title=Politics of Transhumanism|url=http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/TranshumPolitics.htm|access-date=January 26, 2007|author-link=James Hughes (sociologist)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/zoltan-istvan/transhumanism-and-libertarianism_b_5248966.html|title=Transhumanists and Libertarians Have Much in Common|last=Istvan|first=Zoltan|author-link=Zoltan Istvan|date=May 5, 2014|work=The Huffington Post|access-date=January 13, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://laissez-faire.ch/en/articles/transhumanism-the-next-step-of-civilization/|title=Transhumanism: the next step of civilization|last=Krepelka|first=Jan|date=July 29, 2014|publisher=Laissez-faire Institute|access-date=March 5, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Liberation Biology: The Scientific and Moral Case For the Biotech Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/liberationbiolog0000bail|url-access=registration|author=Bailey, Ronald|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=2005|isbn=1-59102-227-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Army of Davids: How Markets and Technology Empower Ordinary People to Beat Big Media, Big Government, and Other Goliaths|author=Reynolds, Glenn|publisher=Thomas Nelson|year=2006|isbn=1-59555-054-2}}</ref> [[minarchism]],<ref>Gregory, Anthory. [http://www.strike-the-root.com/4/gregory/gregory6.html The Minarchist's Dilemma]. ''[[Strike The Root]]''. May 10, 2004.</ref><ref>Peikoff, Leonard. [http://www.peikoff.com/2011/03/07/what-role-should-certain-specific-governments-play-in-objectivist-government "What role should certain specific governments play in Objectivist government?"]. March 7, 2011. Retrieved March 23, 2019./</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peikoff.com/2011/10/03/interview-with-yaron-brook-on-economic-issues-in-todays-world-part-1/|title=Interview with Yaron Brook on economic issues in today's world (Part 1). « Featured Podcast « Peikoff|website=www.peikoff.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford History of Modern War|last=Townshend|first=Charles|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-19-285373-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/15 15]|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/15}}</ref><ref name="nba1975">[http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1975.html "National Book Awards – 1975"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909065656/http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1975.html|date=September 9, 2011}}. [[National Book Foundation]]. Retrieved March 8, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/nozick/|title=Robert Nozick (1938—2002)|last=Feser|first=Edward|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref> [[natural-rights libertarianism]],<ref name="Wolff"/><ref>Miron, Jeffrey A. (2010). ''Libertarianism: From A to Z''. Basic Books. p. 38.</ref><ref name="Bradford">Bradford. R. W. (1998). "The Two Libertarianisms". ''[[Liberty (1987)|Liberty]]''.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/|title=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Zwolinski|first=Matt|access-date=August 23, 2008|contribution-url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/libertar.htm|contribution=Libertarianism}}</ref> [[Panarchy|panarchism]]<ref>de Puydt, P. E. (July 1860). [http://www.panarchy.org/depuydt/1860.eng.html "Panarchy"]. First published in French in the Revue Trimestrielle, Bruxelles.</ref><ref>Nettlau, Max (1909). [http://www.panarchy.org/nettlau/1909.eng.html "Panarchy, A Forgotten Idea of 1860"].</ref><ref>Ehrlich, Howard J. (1996). ''Reinventing Anarchy, Again''. AK Press. p. 131</ref><ref>Zube, John (1986). [http://www.panarchy.org/zube/gospel.1986.html "The Gospel of Panarchy"].</ref> and [[voluntaryism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://voluntaryist.com/toc.html|title=The Voluntaryist|access-date=July 5, 2019}}</ref>
+* Sullivan, Mark A. (July 2003). "Why the Georgist Movement Has Not Succeeded: A Personal Response to the Question Raised by Warren J. Samuels." ''[[American Journal of Economics and Sociology]]''. '''62''' (3): 612.</ref><ref name="WhyNotIncoherent">{{cite journal|last1=Vallentyne|first1=Peter|last2=Steiner|first2=Hillel|last3=Otsuka|first3=Michael|year=2005|title=Why Left-Libertarianism Is Not Incoherent, Indeterminate, or Irrelevant: A Reply to Fried|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctymio/leftlibP&PA.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Philosophy and Public Affairs|publisher=Blackwell Publishing, Inc.|volume=33|issue=2|pages=201–215|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103160534/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctymio/leftlibP%26PA.pdf|archive-date=November 3, 2012|access-date=July 23, 2013|doi=10.1111/j.1088-4963.2005.00030.x}}</ref><ref name="encyclolib">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Narveson|first1=Jan|last2=Trenchard|first2=David|title=Left Libertarianism |author-link1=Jan Narveson|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC|year=2008|publisher=[[SAGE Publications|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]]|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n174|isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4|oclc=750831024|lccn=2008009151|pages=288–289}}</ref> as well as [[Right-libertarianism|right-libertarian]]<ref name="Goodway"/><ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Newman">{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Saul|author-link=Saul Newman|title=The Politics of Postanarchism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43|year=2010|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|pages=53|isbn=978-0-7486-3495-8|quote=It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism). There is a complex debate within this tradition between those like Robert Nozick, who advocate a 'minimal state', and those like Rothbard who want to do away with the state altogether and allow all transactions to be governed by the market alone. From an anarchist perspective, however, both positions—the minimal state (minarchist) and the no-state ('anarchist') positions—neglect the problem of economic domination; in other words, they neglect the hierarchies, oppressions, and forms of exploitation that would inevitably arise in a laissez-faire 'free' market. [...] Anarchism, therefore, has no truck with this right-wing libertarianism, not only because it neglects economic inequality and domination, but also because in practice (and theory) it is highly inconsistent and contradictory. The individual freedom invoked by right-wing libertarians is only a narrow economic freedom within the constraints of a capitalist market, which, as anarchists show, is no freedom at all.}}</ref> tendencies such as [[anarcho-capitalism]],<ref>"The philosophy of "anarcho-capitalism" dreamed up by the "libertarian" New Right, has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper." [[Albert Meltzer|Meltzer, Albert]]. ''[https://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe Anarchism: Arguments For and Against]'' [[AK Press]], (2000) p. 50.</ref><ref>"In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called [[Right-libertarianism|right-wing libertarians]] rather than anarchists." Peter Marshall. ''[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]''. Harper Perennial. London. 2008. p. 565.</ref><ref>"It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)." [[Saul Newman]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20right%20libertarian The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press,]'' 2010, p. 43 {{ISBN|0748634959}}.</ref><ref>[http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secFcon.html Section F – Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?] at [[An Anarchist FAQ]] published in physical book form by An Anarchist FAQ as "Volume I"; by [[AK Press]], Oakland/Edinburgh 2008; 558 pages, {{ISBN|978-1902593906}}</ref><ref>"'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition." ''[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward]]'' by David Goodway. Liverpool University Press. Liverpool. 2006. p. 4.</ref><ref>"Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist venders. [...] [S]o what remains is shrill anti-statism conjoined to a vacuous freedom in hackneyed defense of capitalism. In sum, the "anarchy" of Libertarianism reduces to a liberal fraud." [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy" by Peter Sabatini] in issue #41 (Fall/Winter 1994–95) of ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]''.</ref> [[classical liberalism]],<ref name="google.com2">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/modernpoliticalp00hude|title=Modern Political Philosophy|last=Hudelson|first=Richard|date=1999|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0765600219}}</ref><ref name="Steven M. Dworetz 19942">Steven M. Dworetz (1994). ''The Unvarnished Doctrine: Locke, Liberalism, and the American Revolution''.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83HlqTJjLcgC&pg=PA58|title=Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination|last=Appleby|first=Joyce|date=1992|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674530133|author-link=Joyce Appleby}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXjXKlb79cgC&pg=PA422|title=Handbook of Political Theory|last1=Gaus|first1=Gerald F.|last2=Kukathas|first2=Chandran|date=2004|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-0761967873|author2-link=Chandran Kukathas}}</ref> [[Libertarian conservatism|conservative libertarianism]],<ref>Heywood, Andrew (2015). ''Key Concepts in Politics and International Relations:Palgrave Key Concepts''. Macmillan International Higher Education. {{ISBN|978-1-1374-9477-1}}.</ref><ref name="Piper">Piper, J. Richard (1997). ''Ideologies and Institutions: American Conservative and Liberal Governance Prescriptions Since 1933''. [[Rowman & Littlefield]]. {{ISBN|978-0847684595}}.</ref><ref>[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]. [https://mises.org/library/getting-libertarianism-right "Getting Libertarianism Right"]. [[Mises Institute]]. {{ISBN|978-1-61016-690-4}}.</ref> [[fusionism]],<ref>Dionne Jr., E. J. (1991). ''Why Americans Hate Politics''. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 161.</ref><ref>Meyer, Frank S. (1996). ''In Defense of Freedom and Other Essays''. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.</ref> [[neoliberalism]],<ref>Richardson, James L. (2001). ''Contending Liberalisms in World Politics: Ideology and Power''. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers. {{ISBN|1-55587-939-X}}.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090309151259/http://www.ncpa.org/pub/what-is-classical-liberalism "What Is Classical Liberalism?"].</ref> [[Objectivism]],<ref>Burns, Jennifer (2009). ''Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-532487-7}}. {{OCLC|313665028}}.</ref><ref>Gladstein, Mimi Reisel (2009). ''Ayn Rand (Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers)''. New York: Continuum. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-4513-1}}. {{OCLC|319595162}}.</ref> [[Neo-libertarianism#Modern incarnations|neolibertarianism]],<ref name="reason">{{cite web|url=http://reason.com/blog/2005/04/01/you-know-youre-neolibertarian|title=You Know You're Neolibertarian If...|last=Freund|first=Charles Paul|date=April 2005|work=Reason|access-date=October 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qando.net/2012/11/10/bryan-picks-suggestions-for-the-gop/|title=Bryan Pick's Suggestions for the GOP|last=Franks|first=Dale|author-link=Dale Franks|date=November 2012|work=QandO|access-date=October 12, 2018}}</ref> [[paleolibertarianism]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rockwell|first=Lew|title=The Case for Paleo-libertarianism|url=http://www.pericles.press/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Liberty_Magazine.pdf|journal=Liberty|issue=January 1990|pages=34–38}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://reason.com/archives/2008/01/16/who-wrote-ron-pauls-newsletter|title=Who Wrote Ron Paul's Newsletters?|last1=Sanchez|first1=Julian|last2=Weigel|first2=David|publisher=Reason Foundation|quote=Rothbard pointed to David Duke and Joseph McCarthy as models for an "Outreach to the Rednecks," which would fashion a broad libertarian/paleoconservative coalition by targeting the disaffected working and middle classes}}.</ref> and [[propertarianism]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.google.co.jp/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=word.such.as.propertrian&btnG=#hl=en&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22Since+their+use+of+the+word+liberty%22&oq=%22Since+their+use+of+the+word+liberty%22&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=3&gs_upl=7379l18818l0l18998l7l7l0l0l0l0l257l987l2.3.2l7l0&gs_l=serp.3...7379l18818l0l18998l7l7l0l0l0l0l257l987l2j3j2l7l0&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=ed30b13a85e567b2&biw=1280&bih=610|title=They'd Rather Be Right: Youth and the Conservative Movement|author=Cain, Edward|publisher=Macmillan|year=1963|pages=32–36|asin=B0000CLYF9}}</ref><ref>Bader, Ralf M.; Meadowcroft, John (eds.). ''The Cambridge Companion to Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' (2011). Cambridge University Press. p. 151.</ref> Other tendencies include [[Austro-libertarianism]],<ref>Carl Menger, Principles of Economics, online at {{cite web|url=https://www.mises.org/etexts/menger/principles.asp|title=Principles of Economics by Carl Menger|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914004206/https://www.mises.org/etexts/menger/principles.asp|archive-date=September 14, 2014|url-status=live|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/methodological-individualism/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Heath|first=Joseph|date=May 1, 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|access-date=May 1, 2018|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref><ref name="Mises_Action">Ludwig von Mises. [[Human Action]], p. 11, "Purposeful Action and Animal Reaction". Retrieved November 23, 2011.</ref> [[autarchism]], [[Christian libertarianism]],<ref>Seavey, Todd (2016). ''Libertarianism for Beginners''.</ref> [[consequentialist libertarianism]],<ref>Yeager, Leland B. (2001). ''Ethics As Social Science: The Moral Philosophy of Social Cooperation''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 283.</ref><ref name="Wolff" /><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0PaN9M4WwHw#t=68 "Milton Friedman on Libertarianism (Part 1 of 4)"].</ref><ref>Younkins, Edward W. ''Mises' Utilitarianism as Social Cooperation''.</ref><ref>Liggio, Leonard P. (Winter 1982). "Hayek's Constitution of Liberty: Ethical Basis of the Juridical Framework of Individual Liberty". ''Literature of Liberty''. 5: 4.</ref><ref>Gray, John N. (1982). ''F. A. Hayek and the Rebirth of Classical Liberalism''.</ref><ref>[[Alan O. Ebenstein|Ebenstein, Alan O.]] (2001). ''Friedrich Hayek: A Biography''. p. 383.</ref> [[Constitutionalism in the United States|constitutionalism]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/constitutionalism/|title=Constitutionalism|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=September 29, 2017}}</ref> [[green libertarianism]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gadfly.igc.org/papers/liberty.htm|title=With Liberty for Some|last=Partridge|first=Ernest|access-date=May 28, 2009}}</ref> [[libertarian feminism]],<ref name="About_ALF">{{cite web|url=http://alf.org/aboutalf/founding.shtml|title=About ALF – The Association of Libertarian Feminists|publisher=Association of Libertarian Feminists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828170220/http://alf.org/aboutalf/founding.shtml|archive-date=August 28, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women|last=Hoff Sommers|first=Christina|publisher=Touchstone/Simon & Schuster|year=1995|isbn=978-0684801568|location=New York|author-link=Christina Hoff Sommers|title-link=Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women}}</ref> [[libertarian paternalism]],<ref>Thaler, Richard and Sunstein, Cass. 2003. "Libertarian Paternalism". ''The American Economic Review'' 93: 175–79.</ref><ref>Sunstein, Cass; Thaler, Richard. 2003. "Libertarian Paternalism is Not an Oxymoron". ''University of Chicago Law Review''. '''70''' (4): 1159–1202.</ref><ref>Thaler, R. H.; Sunstein, C.R. (2009). ''[[Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth and Happiness]]''. 2d edition. New York: Penguin Books.</ref> [[libertarian transhumanism]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hughes, James|year=2001|title=Politics of Transhumanism|url=http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/TranshumPolitics.htm|access-date=January 26, 2007|author-link=James Hughes (sociologist)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/zoltan-istvan/transhumanism-and-libertarianism_b_5248966.html|title=Transhumanists and Libertarians Have Much in Common|last=Istvan|first=Zoltan|author-link=Zoltan Istvan|date=May 5, 2014|work=The Huffington Post|access-date=January 13, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://laissez-faire.ch/en/articles/transhumanism-the-next-step-of-civilization/|title=Transhumanism: the next step of civilization|last=Krepelka|first=Jan|date=July 29, 2014|publisher=Laissez-faire Institute|access-date=March 5, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Liberation Biology: The Scientific and Moral Case For the Biotech Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/liberationbiolog0000bail|url-access=registration|author=Bailey, Ronald|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=2005|isbn=1-59102-227-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Army of Davids: How Markets and Technology Empower Ordinary People to Beat Big Media, Big Government, and Other Goliaths|author=Reynolds, Glenn|publisher=Thomas Nelson|year=2006|isbn=1-59555-054-2}}</ref> [[minarchism]],<ref>Gregory, Anthory. [http://www.strike-the-root.com/4/gregory/gregory6.html The Minarchist's Dilemma]. ''[[Strike The Root]]''. May 10, 2004.</ref><ref>Peikoff, Leonard. [http://www.peikoff.com/2011/03/07/what-role-should-certain-specific-governments-play-in-objectivist-government "What role should certain specific governments play in Objectivist government?"]. March 7, 2011. Retrieved March 23, 2019./</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peikoff.com/2011/10/03/interview-with-yaron-brook-on-economic-issues-in-todays-world-part-1/|title=Interview with Yaron Brook on economic issues in today's world (Part 1). « Featured Podcast « Peikoff|website=www.peikoff.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford History of Modern War|last=Townshend|first=Charles|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-19-285373-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/15 15]|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/15}}</ref><ref name="nba1975">[http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1975.html "National Book Awards – 1975"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909065656/http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1975.html|date=September 9, 2011}}. [[National Book Foundation]]. Retrieved March 8, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/nozick/|title=Robert Nozick (1938–2002)|last=Feser|first=Edward|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref> [[natural-rights libertarianism]],<ref name="Wolff" /><ref>Miron, Jeffrey A. (2010). ''Libertarianism: From A to Z''. Basic Books. p. 38.</ref><ref name="Bradford">Bradford. R. W. (1998). "The Two Libertarianisms". ''[[Liberty (1987)|Liberty]]''.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/|title=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Zwolinski|first=Matt|access-date=August 23, 2008|contribution-url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/libertar.htm|contribution=Libertarianism}}</ref> [[Panarchy|panarchism]]<ref>de Puydt, P. E. (July 1860). [http://www.panarchy.org/depuydt/1860.eng.html "Panarchy"]. First published in French in the Revue Trimestrielle, Bruxelles.</ref><ref>Nettlau, Max (1909). [http://www.panarchy.org/nettlau/1909.eng.html "Panarchy, A Forgotten Idea of 1860"].</ref><ref>Ehrlich, Howard J. (1996). ''Reinventing Anarchy, Again''. AK Press. p. 131</ref><ref>Zube, John (1986). [http://www.panarchy.org/zube/gospel.1986.html "The Gospel of Panarchy"].</ref> and [[voluntaryism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://voluntaryist.com/toc.html|title=The Voluntaryist|access-date=July 5, 2019}}</ref>
 Classical libertarian schools of thought are mainly related to [[libertarian socialism]] and [[anarchist schools of thought]] such as [[social anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism]], including American [[Individualist anarchism in the United States|individualist anarchists]] such as [[Benjamin Tucker]],<ref name="StateSocialism"/><ref name="IndividualLiberty"/><ref name="TuckerFAQ"/> [[Lysander Spooner]],<ref name="SpoonerFAQ"/> [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]] and [[William Batchelder Greene]], among others.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/><ref name="Rocker"/><ref name="Woodcock"/> Although the word libertarian was first used in the United States by the French libertarian communist [[Joseph Déjacque]],<ref name="150Libertarian"/> who also coined the word in the political sense as well,<ref name="Graham"/><ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Déjacque"/> the United States is unique in that in the rest of the world<ref name="Nettlau"/><ref name="Fernandez"/><ref name="Chomsky"/><ref name="Ward"/><ref name="Marshall 2008 p. 565"/> it is mainly used to refer to anarchism and libertarian socialism.<ref name="Graham"/><ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="150Libertarian"/> As a result, classical libertarians and critics such as [[Murray Bookchin]]<ref name="Bookchin"/> argue that this should be resisted and that anarchists, libertarian socialists and the left should reclaim libertarianism, suggesting these other self-declared libertarians rename themselves ''propertarians'' instead.<ref name="150Libertarian"/><ref name="160Libertarian"/> -->
 === Consequentialist and deontological libertarianism ===
-There are broadly two ethical viewpoints within libertarianism, namely [[consequentialist libertarianism]] and [[deontological libertarianism]]. The first type is based on [[consequentialism]], only taking into account the consequences of actions and rules when judging them and holds that [[free market]]s and strong [[Property rights (economics)|property rights]] have good consequences.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf|last=Wolff|first=Jonathan|title=Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition|publisher=[[Virginia Law Review]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112210848/http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf|archive-date=January 12, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/libertar.htm|title=Libertarianism|first=Matt|last=Zwolinski|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=August 23, 2008}}</ref> The second type is based on [[deontological ethics]] and is the theory that all individuals possess certain [[Natural rights|natural]] or [[moral rights]], mainly a right of [[individual sovereignty]]. Acts of [[initiation of force]] and [[fraud]] are rights-violations and that is sufficient reason to oppose those acts.<ref name="Bradford">Bradford. R. W. (1998). "The Two Libertarianisms". ''[[Liberty (1987)|Liberty]]''.</ref>
+There are broadly two ethical viewpoints within libertarianism, namely [[consequentialist libertarianism]] and [[deontological libertarianism]]. The first type is based on [[consequentialism]], only taking into account the consequences of actions and rules when judging them and holds that [[free market]]s and strong [[Property rights (economics)|property rights]] have good consequences.<ref name="Wolff">{{cite journal |last=Wolff |first=Jonathan |title=Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition |url=http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Virginia Law Review]] |volume=92 |pages=1605–1623 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112210848/http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf |archive-date=January 12, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/libertar.htm|title=Libertarianism|first=Matt|last=Zwolinski|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=August 23, 2008}}</ref> The second type is based on [[deontological ethics]] and is the theory that all individuals possess certain [[Natural rights|natural]] or [[moral rights]], mainly a right of [[individual sovereignty]]. Acts of [[initiation of force]] and [[fraud]] are rights-violations and that is sufficient reason to oppose those acts.<ref name="Bradford">Bradford. R. W. (1998). "The Two Libertarianisms". ''[[Liberty (1987)|Liberty]]''.</ref>
-Deontological libertarianism is supported by the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]]. In order to become a card-carrying member, one must sign an oath opposing the initiation of force to achieve political or social goals.<ref>Yeager, Leland B. (2001). ''Ethics As Social Science: The Moral Philosophy of Social Cooperation''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 283.</ref> Prominent consequentialist libertarians include [[David D. Friedman]],<ref>Friedman, David D. (1973). ''The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism''. Harper & Row. pp. 127–128.</ref> [[Milton Friedman]], [[Friedrich Hayek]],<ref>Gray, John N. (1982). ''F. A. Hayek and the Rebirth of Classical Liberalism''. [https://www.libertarianism.org/publications/essays/f-hayek-rebirth-classical-liberalism "Introduction: The Revival of Interest in Hayek—A Unified Research Program in Hayek's Writings?"] Institute for Humane Studies. {{ASIN|B00072HO7S}}.</ref><ref>Liggio, Leonard P. (Winter 1982). "Hayek's Constitution of Liberty: Ethical Basis of the Juridical Framework of Individual Liberty". ''Literature of Liberty''. '''5''' (4).</ref><ref>Ebenstein, Alan O. (2001). ''Friedrich Hayek: A Biography''. University of Chicago Press. p. 383. {{ISBN|978-0226181509}}.</ref> [[Peter Leeson]], [[Ludwig von Mises]]<ref>Younkins, Edward W. (July 6, 2002). [http://www.quebecoislibre.org/020706-19.htm "Mises' Utilitarianism as Social Cooperation"]. ''Le Québécois Libre'' (106). Retrieved March 19, 2020.</ref> and [[R. W. Bradford]].<ref name="reason_2005-12-10">{{cite web|url=https://reason.com/2005/12/10/rw-bradford-rip/|title=R.W. Bradford, RIP|last=Walker|first=Jesse|website=Reason|date=December 10, 2005|access-date=December 9, 2019}}</ref> Prominent deontological libertarians include [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]], [[Ayn Rand]] and [[Murray Rothbard]].<ref name="Bradford"/>
+Deontological libertarianism is supported by the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]]. In order to become a card-carrying member, one must sign an oath opposing the initiation of force to achieve political or social goals.<ref>Yeager, Leland B. (2001). ''Ethics As Social Science: The Moral Philosophy of Social Cooperation''. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 283.</ref> Prominent consequentialist libertarians include [[David D. Friedman]],<ref>Friedman, David D. (1973). ''The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism''. Harper & Row. pp. 127–128.</ref> [[Milton Friedman]], [[Friedrich Hayek]],<ref>Gray, John N. (1982). ''F. A. Hayek and the Rebirth of Classical Liberalism''. [https://www.libertarianism.org/publications/essays/f-hayek-rebirth-classical-liberalism "Introduction: The Revival of Interest in Hayek – A Unified Research Program in Hayek's Writings?"] Institute for Humane Studies. {{ASIN|B00072HO7S}}.</ref><ref>Liggio, Leonard P. (Winter 1982). "Hayek's Constitution of Liberty: Ethical Basis of the Juridical Framework of Individual Liberty". ''Literature of Liberty''. '''5''' (4).</ref><ref>Ebenstein, Alan O. (2001). ''Friedrich Hayek: A Biography''. University of Chicago Press. p. 383. {{ISBN|978-0226181509}}.</ref> [[Peter Leeson]], [[Ludwig von Mises]]<ref>Younkins, Edward W. (July 6, 2002). [http://www.quebecoislibre.org/020706-19.htm "Mises' Utilitarianism as Social Cooperation"]. ''Le Québécois Libre'' (106). Retrieved March 19, 2020.</ref> and [[R. W. Bradford]].<ref name="reason_2005-12-10">{{cite web|url=https://reason.com/2005/12/10/rw-bradford-rip/|title=R.W. Bradford, RIP|last=Walker|first=Jesse|website=Reason|date=December 10, 2005|access-date=December 9, 2019}}</ref> Prominent deontological libertarians include [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]], [[Ayn Rand]] and [[Murray Rothbard]].<ref name="Bradford"/>
-In addition to the consequentialist libertarianism as promoted by Hayek, [[Mark Bevir]] holds that there is also left and right libertarianism.<ref>Bevir, Mark, ed. (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Political Theory''. SAGE Publications. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wVIoCtB3m74C&pg=PA811 p. 811]. {{ISBN|978-1-4129-5865-3}}.</ref>
+In addition to the consequentialist libertarianism as promoted by Hayek, [[Mark Bevir]] holds that there is also left and right libertarianism.<ref>Bevir, Mark, ed. (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Political Theory''. Sage Publications. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wVIoCtB3m74C&pg=PA811 p. 811]. {{ISBN|978-1-4129-5865-3}}.</ref>
 === Left and right libertarianism ===
-[[Left-libertarianism]] and [[right-libertarianism]] is a categorization used by some political analysts, academics and media sources in the United States to contrast related yet distinct approaches to libertarian philosophy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|date=February 12, 2007|chapter=Libertarianism and the State|editor-last1=Frankel Paul|editor-first1=Ellen|editor-last2=Miller|editor-first2=Fred Jr.|editor-last3=Paul|editor-first3=Jeffrey|title=Liberalism: Old and New|volume=24|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=187–205|isbn=978-0-521-70305-5|quote=The best known form of libertarianism—right-libertarianism—is a version of classical liberalism, but there is also a form of libertarianism—left-libertarianism—that combines classical liberalism's concern for individual liberty with contemporary liberalism's robust concern for material equality.}}</ref><ref>Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. ''The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America''. London: SAGE Publications. p. 1006. {{ISBN|978-1412988766}}. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertariaism, and left-lbertarianism; the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contrasted by scholars. Regardless, these factions differ most pronouncedly with respect to private property."</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Graham|first1=Paul|last2=Hoffman|first2=John|date=September 13, 2003|title=An Introduction to Political Theory|publisher=Routledge|page=93|isbn=978-1-3178-6342-7|quote=A distinction is made between right libertarianism and left libertarianism. Self-ownership is the starting point for all libertarians, but right and left libertarians divide over the implications for the ownership of external things from the self-ownership premise.}}</ref> [[Peter Vallentyne]] defines right-libertarianism as holding that unowned natural resources "may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them". He contrasts this with left-libertarianism, where such "unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner".<ref>[[Peter Vallentyne|Vallentyne, Peter]] (July 20, 2010). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/libertarianism/ "Libertarianism"]. ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''. [[Stanford University]]. Retrieved December 26, 2012.</ref> Similarly, Charlotte and Lawrence Becker maintain that left-libertarianism most often refers to the political position that holds natural resources are originally [[common property]] while right-libertarianism is the political position that considers them to be originally unowned and therefore may be appropriated at-will by private parties without the consent of, or owing to, others.<ref>Becker, Charlotte B.; Becker, Lawrence C. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of Ethics''. '''3'''. Taylor & Francis US. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gL4Pa1TxP00C&pg=PA1562 p. 1562]. {{ISBN|978-0-4159-3675-0}}.</ref>
+[[Left-libertarianism]] and [[right-libertarianism]] is a categorization used by some political analysts, academics and media sources in the United States to contrast related yet distinct approaches to libertarian philosophy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|date=February 12, 2007|chapter=Libertarianism and the State|editor-last1=Frankel Paul|editor-first1=Ellen|editor-last2=Miller|editor-first2=Fred Jr.|editor-last3=Paul|editor-first3=Jeffrey|title=Liberalism: Old and New|volume=24|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=187–205|isbn=978-0-521-70305-5|quote=The best known form of libertarianism—right-libertarianism—is a version of classical liberalism, but there is also a form of libertarianism—left-libertarianism—that combines classical liberalism's concern for individual liberty with contemporary liberalism's robust concern for material equality.}}</ref><ref>Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. ''The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America''. London: Sage Publications. p. 1006. {{ISBN|978-1412988766}}. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertariaism, and left-lbertarianism; the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contrasted by scholars. Regardless, these factions differ most pronouncedly with respect to private property."</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Graham|first1=Paul|last2=Hoffman|first2=John|date= 2003|title=An Introduction to Political Theory|publisher=Routledge|page=93|isbn=978-1-3178-6342-7|quote=A distinction is made between right libertarianism and left libertarianism. Self-ownership is the starting point for all libertarians, but right and left libertarians divide over the implications for the ownership of external things from the self-ownership premise.}}</ref> [[Peter Vallentyne]] defines right-libertarianism as holding that unowned natural resources "may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them". He contrasts this with left-libertarianism, where such "unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner".<ref>[[Peter Vallentyne|Vallentyne, Peter]] (July 20, 2010). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/libertarianism/ "Libertarianism"]. ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''. [[Stanford University]]. Retrieved December 26, 2012.</ref> Similarly, Charlotte and Lawrence Becker maintain that left-libertarianism most often refers to the political position that holds natural resources are originally [[common property]] while right-libertarianism is the political position that considers them to be originally unowned and therefore may be appropriated at-will by private parties without the consent of, or owing to, others.<ref>Becker, Charlotte B.; Becker, Lawrence C. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of Ethics''. '''3'''. Taylor & Francis US. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gL4Pa1TxP00C&pg=PA1562 p. 1562]. {{ISBN|978-0-4159-3675-0}}.</ref>
 Followers of [[Samuel Edward Konkin III]], who characterized [[agorism]] as a form of left-libertarianism<ref name="konkin-interview"/><ref name="D'Amato 2018"/> and strategic branch of [[left-wing market anarchism]],<ref name="Konkin 1983"/> use the terminology as outlined by Roderick T. Long, who describes left-libertarianism as "an integration, or I'd argue, a reintegration of libertarianism with concerns that are traditionally thought of as being concerns of the left. That includes concerns for worker empowerment, worry about plutocracy, concerns about feminism and various kinds of social equality".<ref>Long, Roderick. T. (January 4, 2008). [http://en.liberalis.pl/2008/01/04/interview-with-roderick-long/ "An Interview With Roderick Long"]. Liberalis in English. Retrieved December 21, 2019.</ref> Konkin defined right-libertarianism as an "activist, organization, publication or tendency which supports [[parliamentarianism]] exclusively as a strategy for reducing or abolishing the [[Sovereign state|state]], typically opposes [[Counter-Economics]], either opposes the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] or works to drag it right and prefers coalitions with supposedly '[[free-market]]' [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]]".<ref name="Konkin 1983"/>
@@ Line 134: / Line 137: @@
 While holding that the important distinction for libertarians is not left or right, but whether they are "government apologists who use libertarian rhetoric to defend state aggression", [[Anthony Gregory]] describes left-libertarianism as maintaining interest in [[personal freedom]], having sympathy for [[egalitarianism]] and opposing [[social hierarchy]], preferring a [[Cultural liberalism|liberal lifestyle]], opposing [[big business]] and having a [[New Left]] opposition to [[imperialism]] and [[war]]. Right-libertarianism is described as having interest in [[economic freedom]], preferring a [[Cultural conservatism|conservative lifestyle]], viewing [[private business]] as a "great victim of the state" and favoring a [[Non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] foreign policy, sharing the [[Old Right (United States)|Old Right]]'s "opposition to empire".<ref name="Gregory 2006">Gregory, Anthony (December 21, 2006). [https://www.lewrockwell.com/2006/12/anthony-gregory/left-right-moderate-or-radical-libertarian/ "Left, Right, Moderate and Radical"]. LewRockwell.com. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225141516/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2006/12/anthony-gregory/left-right-moderate-or-radical-libertarian/|date=December 25, 2014}}. December 25, 2014.</ref>
-Although some libertarians such as [[Walter Block]],<ref name="Block 2010">Block, Walter (2010). [https://mises.org/journals/jls/22_1/22_1_8.pdf "Libertarianism Is Unique and Belongs Neither to the Right Nor the Left: A Critique of the Views of Long, Holcombe, and Baden on the Left, Hoppe, Feser, and Paul on the Right"]. ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]''. '''22'''. pp. 127–170.</ref> [[Harry Browne]],<ref name="Browne 1998">Browne, Harry (December 21, 1998). [http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/Abortion.htm "The Libertarian Stand on Abortion"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006055112/http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/Abortion.htm |date=October 6, 2010 }}. Harry Browne.org. Retrieved January 14, 2020.</ref> [[Leonard Read]]<ref name="Read 1956">Read, Leonard (January 1956). [https://www.fee.org/articles/neither-left-nor-right "Neither Left Nor Right"]. ''[[The Freeman]]''. '''48''' (2): 71–73.</ref> and [[Murray Rothbard]]<ref name="Rothbard 1971">Rothbard, Murray (March 1, 1971). [https://mises.org/library/left-and-right-within-libertarianism "The Left and Right Within Libertarianism"]. ''WIN: Peace and Freedom Through Nonviolent Action''. '''7''' (4): 6–10. Retrieved January 14, 2020.</ref> reject the [[political spectrum]] (especially the [[left–right political spectrum]])<ref name="Rothbard 1971"/><ref>Raimondo, Justin (2000). ''An Enemy of the State''. "Chapter 4: "Beyond Left and Right". [[Prometheus Books]]. p. 159.</ref> whilst denying any association with both the political right and left,<ref name="Machan 2004">Machan, Tibor (2004). [http://www.hoover.org/publications/books/8300 "Neither Left Nor Right: Selected Columns"]. '''522'''. [[Hoover Institution Press]]. {{ISBN|0817939822}}. {{ISBN|9780817939823}}.</ref> other libertarians such as [[Kevin Carson]],<ref name="Carson">Carson, Kevin (June 15, 2014). [https://c4ss.org/content/28216 "What is Left-Libertarianism?"]. Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved November 28, 2019.</ref> [[Karl Hess]],<ref name="Hess 2015">Hess, Karl (February 18, 2015). [https://c4ss.org/content/35952 "Anarchism Without Hyphens & The Left/Right Spectrum"]. Center for a Stateless Society. Tulsa Alliance of the Libertarian Left. Retrieved March 17, 2020. "The far left, as far as you can get away from the right, would logically represent the opposite tendency and, in fact, has done just that throughout history. The left has been the side of politics and economics that opposes the concentration of power and wealth and, instead, advocates and works toward the distribution of power into the maximum number of hands."</ref> Roderick T. Long<ref name="Long 2006">Long, Roderick T. (April 8, 2006). [https://mises.org/library/rothbards-left-and-right-forty-years-later "Rothbard's 'Left and Right': Forty Years Later"]. Mises Institute. Rothbard Memorial Lecture, Austrian Scholars Conference 2006. Retrieved March 17, 2020.</ref> and Sheldon Richman<ref name="Richman 2007">Richman, Sheldon (June 1, 2007). [https://www.fff.org/explore-freedom/article/libertarianism-left/ "Libertarianism: Left or Right?"]. The Future of Freedom Foundation. Retrieved March 15, 2020. "In fact, libertarianism is planted squarely on the Left, as I will try to demonstrate here."</ref> have written about libertarianism's left-wing opposition to authoritarian rule and argued that libertarianism is fundamentally a left-wing position.<ref name="LibertarianLeft"/><ref>Comegna, Anthony; Gomez, Camillo (October 3, 2018). [https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/libertarianism-then-now "Libertarianism, Then and Now"]. ''Libertarianism''. Cato Institute. "I think you're right that the right-wing associations with libertarianism—that is mainly a product of the 20th century and really the second half of the 20th century, and before that it was overtly left-wing, and radically left-wing, for the most part, in almost all iterations." Retrieved March 19, 2020.</ref> Rothbard himself previously made the same point, rejecting the association of [[statism]] with the left.<ref>Rothbard, Murray (Spring 1965). "Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty". ''Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought''. '''1''' (1): 4–22.</ref>
+Although some libertarians such as [[Walter Block]],<ref name="Block 2010">Block, Walter (2010). [https://mises.org/journals/jls/22_1/22_1_8.pdf "Libertarianism Is Unique and Belongs Neither to the Right Nor the Left: A Critique of the Views of Long, Holcombe, and Baden on the Left, Hoppe, Feser, and Paul on the Right"]. ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]''. '''22'''. pp. 127–170.</ref> [[Harry Browne]],<ref name="Browne 1998">Browne, Harry (December 21, 1998). [http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/Abortion.htm "The Libertarian Stand on Abortion"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006055112/http://www.harrybrowne.org/articles/Abortion.htm |date=October 6, 2010 }}. Harry Browne.org. Retrieved January 14, 2020.</ref> [[Leonard Read]]<ref name="Read 1956">Read, Leonard (January 1956). [https://www.fee.org/articles/neither-left-nor-right "Neither Left Nor Right"]. ''[[The Freeman]]''. '''48''' (2): 71–73.</ref> and [[Murray Rothbard]]<ref name="Rothbard 1971">Rothbard, Murray (March 1, 1971). [https://mises.org/library/left-and-right-within-libertarianism "The Left and Right Within Libertarianism"]. ''WIN: Peace and Freedom Through Nonviolent Action''. '''7''' (4): 6–10. Retrieved January 14, 2020.</ref> reject the [[political spectrum]] (especially the [[left–right political spectrum]])<ref name="Rothbard 1971"/><ref>Raimondo, Justin (2000). ''An Enemy of the State''. "Chapter 4: "Beyond Left and Right". [[Prometheus Books]]. p. 159.</ref> whilst denying any association with both the political right and left,<ref name="Machan 2004">Machan, Tibor (2004). [http://www.hoover.org/publications/books/8300 "Neither Left Nor Right: Selected Columns"]. '''522'''. [[Hoover Institution Press]].  {{ISBN|978-0817939823}}.</ref> other libertarians such as [[Kevin Carson]],<ref name="Carson">Carson, Kevin (June 15, 2014). [https://c4ss.org/content/28216 "What is Left-Libertarianism?"]. Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved November 28, 2019.</ref> [[Karl Hess]],<ref name="Hess 2015">Hess, Karl (February 18, 2015). [https://c4ss.org/content/35952 "Anarchism Without Hyphens & The Left/Right Spectrum"]. Center for a Stateless Society. Tulsa Alliance of the Libertarian Left. Retrieved March 17, 2020. "The far left, as far as you can get away from the right, would logically represent the opposite tendency and, in fact, has done just that throughout history. The left has been the side of politics and economics that opposes the concentration of power and wealth and, instead, advocates and works toward the distribution of power into the maximum number of hands."</ref> Roderick T. Long<ref name="Long 2006">Long, Roderick T. (April 8, 2006). [https://mises.org/library/rothbards-left-and-right-forty-years-later "Rothbard's 'Left and Right': Forty Years Later"]. Mises Institute. Rothbard Memorial Lecture, Austrian Scholars Conference 2006. Retrieved March 17, 2020.</ref> and Sheldon Richman<ref name="Richman 2007">Richman, Sheldon (June 1, 2007). [https://www.fff.org/explore-freedom/article/libertarianism-left/ "Libertarianism: Left or Right?"]. The Future of Freedom Foundation. Retrieved March 15, 2020. "In fact, libertarianism is planted squarely on the Left, as I will try to demonstrate here."</ref> have written about libertarianism's left-wing opposition to authoritarian rule and argued that libertarianism is fundamentally a left-wing position.<ref name="LibertarianLeft"/><ref>Comegna, Anthony; Gomez, Camillo (October 3, 2018). [https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/libertarianism-then-now "Libertarianism, Then and Now"]. ''Libertarianism''. Cato Institute. "I think you're right that the right-wing associations with libertarianism—that is mainly a product of the 20th century and really the second half of the 20th century, and before that it was overtly left-wing, and radically left-wing, for the most part, in almost all iterations." Retrieved March 19, 2020.</ref> Rothbard himself previously made the same point, rejecting the association of [[statism]] with the left.<ref>Rothbard, Murray (Spring 1965). "Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty". ''Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought''. '''1''' (1): 4–22.</ref>
 === Thin and thick libertarianism ===
-Thin and thick libertarianism are two kinds of libertarianism. Thin libertarianism deals with legal issues involving the [[non-aggression principle]] only and would permit a person to speak against other groups as long as they did not support the [[initiation of force]] against others.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Libertarian Alternative|last=Berg|first=Chris|publisher=Melbourne University Press|date=March 30, 2016|isbn=978-0522868456}}</ref> [[Walter Block]] is an advocate of thin libertarianism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lewrockwell.com/lrc-blog/insightful-critique-thick-libertarianism-thin-libertarian/|title=An Insightful Critique of Thick Libertarianism by a Thin Libertarian|last=Block|first=Walter|publisher=LewRockwell.com|date=October 2, 2016|access-date=January 8, 2020}}</ref> [[Jeffrey Tucker]] describes thin libertarianism as "brutalism" which he compares unfavorably to "humanitarianism".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://reason.com/archives/2014/04/06/a-libertarian-opposition-to-racism|title=Libertarianism Is More Than Just Rejecting Force|newspaper=Reason|date=April 6, 2014|access-date=January 2, 2020}}</ref>
+Thin and thick libertarianism are two kinds of libertarianism. Thin libertarianism deals with legal issues involving the [[non-aggression principle]] only and would permit a person to speak against other groups as long as they did not support the [[initiation of force]] against others.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Libertarian Alternative|last=Berg|first=Chris|publisher=Melbourne University Press|date= 2016|isbn=978-0522868456}}</ref> [[Walter Block]] is an advocate of thin libertarianism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lewrockwell.com/lrc-blog/insightful-critique-thick-libertarianism-thin-libertarian/|title=An Insightful Critique of Thick Libertarianism by a Thin Libertarian|last=Block|first=Walter|publisher=LewRockwell.com|date=October 2, 2016|access-date=January 8, 2020}}</ref> [[Jeffrey Tucker]] describes thin libertarianism as "brutalism" which he compares unfavorably to "humanitarianism".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://reason.com/archives/2014/04/06/a-libertarian-opposition-to-racism|title=Libertarianism Is More Than Just Rejecting Force|newspaper=Reason|date=April 6, 2014|access-date=January 2, 2020}}</ref>
 Thick libertarianism goes further to also cover moral issues. Charles W. Johnson describes four kinds of thickness, namely thickness for application, thickness from grounds, strategic thickness and thickness from consequences.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fee.org/articles/libertarianism-through-thick-and-thin/|title=Libertarianism Through Thick and Thin|first=Charles|last=Johnson|publisher=Foundation of Economic Education|date=July 1, 2008|access-date=January 2, 2020}}</ref> Thick libertarianism is sometimes viewed as more humanitarian than thin libertarianism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fff.org/explore-freedom/article/tgif-in-praise-of-thick-libertarianism/|title=TGIF: In Praise of "Thick" Libertarianism|last=Richman|first=Sheldon|publisher=The Future of Freedom Foundation|date=April 4, 2014|access-date=January 2, 2020}}</ref> [[Wendy McElroy]] has stated that she would leave the movement if thick libertarianism prevails.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailybell.com/all-articles/editorials/wendy-mcelroy-a-letter-to-my-father/|title=A Letter to My Father|first=McElroy|last=Wendy|work=The Daily Bell|date=August 7, 2014|access-date=January 2, 2020}}</ref>
@@ Line 151: / Line 154: @@
 The [[Cato Institute]] is a libertarian think tank headquartered in Washington, D.C. It was founded as the Charles Koch Foundation in 1974 by [[Ed Crane (political activist)|Ed Crane]], [[Murray Rothbard]] and [[Charles Koch]],<ref name="cato">{{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/papers/25th_annual_report.pdf|title=25 years at the Cato Institute: The 2001 Annual Report|access-date=August 19, 2013|oclc=52255585}}</ref> chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the conglomerate [[Koch Industries]], the second largest privately held company by revenue in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/2010/11/01/top-10-private-cargill-business-private-companies-10-largest_slide_3.html|title=Forbes List|work=Forbes|access-date=November 13, 2011}}</ref> In July 1976, the name was changed to the Cato Institute.<ref name="cato"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dbapress.com/source-materials-archive/koch-money-the-corporate-cash-that-oils-the-right-wing-%E2%80%9Cthink-tank%E2%80%9D-machine-koch-industries-americans-for-prosperity-americans-for-prosperity-foundation-reason-foundation-cato/cato-institutecharles-koch-foundation-incorporation-papers-and-bylaws|title=Articles of Incorporation Charles Koch Foundation and Restated Articles of Incorporation|date=December 19, 1974|access-date=March 20, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315155650/http://dbapress.com/source-materials-archive/koch-money-the-corporate-cash-that-oils-the-right-wing-%E2%80%9Cthink-tank%E2%80%9D-machine-koch-industries-americans-for-prosperity-americans-for-prosperity-foundation-reason-foundation-cato/cato-institutecharles-koch-foundation-incorporation-papers-and-bylaws|archive-date=March 15, 2012}}</ref>
-The Cato Institute was established to have a focus on public advocacy, media exposure and societal influence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cobane|first=Craig T.|title=Americans at War|year=2005|publisher=Gale|chapter-url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3427300430.html|access-date=August 18, 2013|chapter=Think Tanks|archive-date=March 29, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329164400/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3427300430.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the ''2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report'' by the [[Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], the Cato Institute is number 16 in the "Top Think Tanks Worldwide" and number 8 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".<ref name="Global Go To">{{cite web|author=James G. McGann|author-link=James McGann|url=http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=think_tanks|title=2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report|date=February 4, 2015|access-date=February 14, 2015}} Other "Top Think Tank" rankings include number 13 (out of 85) in Defense and National Security, number 5 (out of 80) in Domestic Economic Policy, number 4 (out of 55) in Education Policy, number 17 (out of 85) in Foreign Policy and International Affairs, number 8 (out of 30) in Domestic Health Policy, number 14 (out of 25) in Global Health Policy, number 18 (out of 80) in International Development, number 14 (out of 50) in International Economic Policy, number 8 (out of 50) in Social Policy, number 8 (out of 75) for Best Advocacy Campaign, number 17 (out of 60) for Best Think Tank Network, number 3 (out of 60) for best Use of Social Networks, number 9 (out of 50) for Best External Relations/Public Engagement Program, number 2 (out of 40) for Best Use of the Internet, number 12 (out of 40) for Best Use of Media, number 5 (out of 30) for Most Innovative Policy Ideas/Proposals, number 11 (out of 70) for the Most Significant Impact on Public Policy and number 9 (out of 60) for Outstanding Policy-Oriented Public Programs.</ref> The Cato Institute also topped the 2014 list of the budget-adjusted ranking of international development think tanks.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Center for Global Development]]|title=CGD's Think Tank Public Profile Rankings Are Back|date=March 17, 2015|author1=Alan Gelb|author2=Anna Diofasi|author3=Nabil Hashmi|author4=Lauren Post|url=http://www.cgdev.org/blog/cgds-think-tank-public-profile-rankings-are-back|access-date=July 17, 2015}}</ref>
+The Cato Institute was established to have a focus on public advocacy, media exposure and societal influence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cobane|first=Craig T.|title=Americans at War|year=2005|publisher=Gale|chapter-url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3427300430.html|access-date=August 18, 2013|chapter=Think Tanks|archive-date=March 29, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329164400/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3427300430.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the ''2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report'' by the [[Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], the Cato Institute is number 16 in the "Top Think Tanks Worldwide" and number 8 in the "Top Think Tanks in the United States".<ref name="Global Go To">{{cite web|author=James G. McGann|author-link=James McGann|url=http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=think_tanks|title=2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report|date=February 4, 2015|access-date=February 14, 2015}} Other "Top Think Tank" rankings include number 13 (out of 85) in Defense and National Security, number 5 (out of 80) in Domestic Economic Policy, number 4 (out of 55) in Education Policy, number 17 (out of 85) in Foreign Policy and International Affairs, number 8 (out of 30) in Domestic Health Policy, number 14 (out of 25) in Global Health Policy, number 18 (out of 80) in International Development, number 14 (out of 50) in International Economic Policy, number 8 (out of 50) in Social Policy, number 8 (out of 75) for Best Advocacy Campaign, number 17 (out of 60) for Best Think Tank Network, number 3 (out of 60) for best Use of Social Networks, number 9 (out of 50) for Best External Relations/Public Engagement Program, number 2 (out of 40) for Best Use of the Internet, number 12 (out of 40) for Best Use of Media, number 5 (out of 30) for Most Innovative Policy Ideas/Proposals, number 11 (out of 70) for the Most Significant Impact on Public Policy and number 9 (out of 60) for Outstanding Policy-Oriented Public Programs.</ref> The Cato Institute also topped the 2014 list of the budget-adjusted ranking of international development think tanks.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=[[Center for Global Development]]|title=CGD's Think Tank Public Profile Rankings Are Back|date=March 17, 2015|author1=Alan Gelb|author2=Anna Diofasi|author3=Nabil Hashmi|author4=Lauren Post|newspaper=Center for Global Development &#124; Ideas to Action |url=http://www.cgdev.org/blog/cgds-think-tank-public-profile-rankings-are-back|access-date=July 17, 2015}}</ref>
 === Center for Libertarian Studies ===
-The [[Center for Libertarian Studies]] was a libertarian educational organization founded in 1976 by [[Murray Rothbard]] and [[Burton Blumert]] which grew out of the Libertarian Scholars Conferences. It published the ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]'' from 1977 to 2000 (now published by the Mises Institute), a newsletter (''In Pursuit of Liberty''), several monographs and sponsors conferences, seminars and symposia. Originally headquartered in New York, it later moved to Burlingame, California. Until 2007, it supported LewRockwell.com, web publication of vice president [[Lew Rockwell]]. It also had previously supported [[Antiwar.com]], a project of the [[Randolph Bourne Institute]].<ref>[http://antiwar.com/who.php "Who We Are"]. Antiwar.com.  Retrieved November 17, 2019.</ref>
+The [[Center for Libertarian Studies]] was a libertarian educational organization founded in 1976 by [[Murray Rothbard]] and [[Burton Blumert]] which grew out of the Libertarian Scholars Conferences. It published the ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]'' from 1977 to 2000 (now published by the Mises Institute), a newsletter (''In Pursuit of Liberty''), several monographs and sponsors conferences, seminars and symposia. Originally headquartered in New York, it later moved to Burlingame, California. Until 2007, it supported LewRockwell.com, web publication of vice president [[Lew Rockwell]]. It also had previously supported [[Antiwar.com]], a project of the [[Randolph Bourne Institute]].<ref>[http://antiwar.com/who.php "Who We Are"]. Antiwar.com. Retrieved November 17, 2019.</ref>
 === Center for a Stateless Society ===
@@ Line 163: / Line 166: @@
 === Free State Project ===
 The [[Free State Project]] is an activist libertarian movement formed in 2001. It is working to bring libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to protect and advance liberty. {{As of|2022|July}}, the project website showed that 19,988 people have pledged to move and 6,232 people identified as Free Staters in New Hampshire.<ref>[https://www.fsp.org/ "Liberty Lives in New Hampshire"]. Free State Project. Retrieved July 12, 2022.</ref>
-Free State Project participants interact with the political landscape in New Hampshire in various ways. In 2017, there were 17 Free Staters in the New Hampshire House of Representatives,<ref>{{cite web |title=Media Memo: Free State Project Members Make Up Disproportionate Percentage of NH Freedom Caucus |url=https://granitestateprogress.org/2017/04/24/media-memo-free-state-project-members-make-up-disproportionate-percentage-of-nh-freedom-caucus/ |date=April 24, 2017}}</ref> and in 2021, the [[New Hampshire Liberty Alliance]], which ranks bills and elected representatives based on their adherence to what they see as libertarian principles, scored 150 representatives as "A-" or above rated representatives.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Hampshire 2021 Liberty Ranking |url=https://nhliberty.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/2021_Liberty_Rating.pdf |access-date=February 2, 2022}}</ref> Participants also engage with other like-minded activist groups such as Rebuild New Hampshire, <ref>{{cite web |title=My Turn: Sununu must stop enabling white nationalism, anti-government extremism|url=https://www.concordmonitor.com/Sununu-and-the-far-right-38171252 |date=January 10, 2021}}</ref> [[Young Americans for Liberty]],<ref>{{cite press release |title=Young Americans for Liberty Celebrates Victory for Right to Work in New Hampshire!|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/young-americans-for-liberty-celebrates-victory-for-right-to-work-in-new-hampshire-301235070.html |date=February 24, 2021}}</ref> and [[Americans for Prosperity]]. <ref>{{cite web |title=NH Primary Source: Americans for Prosperity-NH endorses Sununu, Wheeler, 6 House candidates|url=https://www.wmur.com/article/nh-primary-source-americans-for-prosperity-endorses-sununu-wheeler-6-house-candidates/33470334# |date=July 30, 2020}}</ref>
+Free State Project participants interact with the political landscape in New Hampshire in various ways. In 2017, there were 17 Free Staters in the New Hampshire House of Representatives,<ref>{{cite web |title=Media Memo: Free State Project Members Make Up Disproportionate Percentage of NH Freedom Caucus |url=https://granitestateprogress.org/2017/04/24/media-memo-free-state-project-members-make-up-disproportionate-percentage-of-nh-freedom-caucus/ |date=April 24, 2017}}</ref> and in 2021, the [[New Hampshire Liberty Alliance]], which ranks bills and elected representatives based on their adherence to what they see as libertarian principles, scored 150 representatives as "A−" or above rated representatives.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Hampshire 2021 Liberty Ranking |url=https://nhliberty.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/2021_Liberty_Rating.pdf |access-date=February 2, 2022}}</ref> Participants also engage with other like-minded activist groups such as Rebuild New Hampshire,<ref>{{cite web|title=My Turn: Sununu must stop enabling white nationalism, anti-government extremism|url=https://www.concordmonitor.com/Sununu-and-the-far-right-38171252|date=January 10, 2021|access-date=July 12, 2022|archive-date=February 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202135302/https://www.concordmonitor.com/Sununu-and-the-far-right-38171252|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Young Americans for Liberty]],<ref>{{cite press release |title=Young Americans for Liberty Celebrates Victory for Right to Work in New Hampshire!|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/young-americans-for-liberty-celebrates-victory-for-right-to-work-in-new-hampshire-301235070.html |date=February 24, 2021}}</ref> and [[Americans for Prosperity]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NH Primary Source: Americans for Prosperity-NH endorses Sununu, Wheeler, 6 House candidates|url=https://www.wmur.com/article/nh-primary-source-americans-for-prosperity-endorses-sununu-wheeler-6-house-candidates/33470334# |date=July 30, 2020}}</ref>
 === Libertarian Party ===
-The [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] is a political party that promotes [[civil liberties]], [[non-interventionism]], ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] and [[Small government|limiting the size]] and [[Limited government|scope of government]]. The first-world such [[List of libertarian political parties|libertarian party]], it was conceived in August 1971 at meetings in the home of [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]] in Westminster, Colorado,<ref name="Martin">Martin, Douglas (November 22, 2010). [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/23/us/23nolan.html "David Nolan, 66, Is Dead; Started Libertarian Party"]. ''[[New York Times]]''. Retrieved November 17, 2019.</ref> in part prompted due to concerns about the [[Presidency of Richard Nixon|Nixon administration]], the [[Vietnam War]], [[Conscription in the United States#Vietnam War|conscription]] and the introduction of [[fiat money]]. It was officially formed on December 11, 1971 in Colorado Springs, Colorado.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freecolorado.com/colib/0111nolan.html|title=David Nolan Reflects on the Libertarian Party on its 30th Anniversary|publisher=Colorado Freedom Report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023331/http://www.freecolorado.com/colib/0111nolan.html|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref>
+The [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] is a political party that promotes [[civil liberties]], [[non-interventionism]], ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] and [[Small government|limiting the size]] and [[Limited government|scope of government]]. The first-world such [[List of libertarian political parties|libertarian party]], it was conceived in August 1971 at meetings in the home of [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]] in Westminster, Colorado,<ref name="Martin">Martin, Douglas (November 22, 2010). [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/23/us/23nolan.html "David Nolan, 66, Is Dead; Started Libertarian Party"]. ''[[New York Times]]''. Retrieved November 17, 2019.</ref> in part prompted due to concerns about the [[Presidency of Richard Nixon|Nixon administration]], the [[Vietnam War]], [[Conscription in the United States#Vietnam War|conscription]] and the introduction of [[fiat money]]. It was officially formed on December 11, 1971, in Colorado Springs, Colorado.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freecolorado.com/colib/0111nolan.html|title=David Nolan Reflects on the Libertarian Party on its 30th Anniversary|publisher=Colorado Freedom Report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023331/http://www.freecolorado.com/colib/0111nolan.html|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref>
 === Liberty International ===
@@ Line 255: / Line 258: @@
 * [[Mary O'Grady]] – editor of ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''
 * [[John Stossel]] – host of ''[[Stossel (TV series)|Stossel]]''
 * [[Katherine Timpf]] – [[Fox News]] contributor
 * [[Matt Welch]] – editor-in-chief of ''Reason''
 * [[Thomas Woods]] – host of ''The Tom Woods Show''
@@ Line 264: / Line 267: @@
 [[Corey Robin]] describes libertarianism as fundamentally a [[conservative]] ideology united with more [[Traditionalist conservatism|traditionalist conservative]] thought and goals by a desire to retain hierarchies and traditional social relations.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Reactionary Mind: Conservatism from Edmund Burke to Sarah Palin|last=Robin|first=Corey|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0199793747|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199793747/page/15 15–16]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199793747/page/15}}</ref> Others also describe libertarianism as a [[reactionary]] ideology for its support of ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] and a major reversal of the modern [[Social programs in the United States|welfare state]].<ref name="Baradat">Baradat, Leon P. (2015). ''Political Ideologies''. Routledge. p. 31. {{ISBN|978-1317345558}}.</ref>
-In the 1960s, Rothbard started the publication ''[[Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought]]'', believing that the [[left–right political spectrum]] had gone "entirely askew". Since [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]] were sometimes more [[statist]] than [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberals]], Rothbard tried to reach out to leftists.<ref>[[Justin Raimondo|Raimondo, Justin]] (2000). ''An Enemy of the State''. Chapter 4: "Beyond left and right". [[Prometheus Books]]. p. 159.</ref> In 1971, Rothbard wrote about his view of libertarianism which he described as supporting [[free trade]], [[Property rights (economics)|property rights]] and [[self-ownership]].<ref name="Rothbard 1971"/> He would later describe his brand of libertarianism as [[anarcho-capitalism]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mises.org/daily/2634|title=Floyd Arthur 'Baldy' Harper, RIP|last=Rothbard|first=Murray|work=Mises Daily|publisher=Mises Institute|date=August 17, 2007|access-date=March 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7MzEHaJgKAC&pg=PA225|title=The Routledge Companion To Social And Political Philosophy|last1=Gaus|first1=Gerald Gaus|last2=D'Agostino|first2=Fred|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-415-87456-4|page=225|access-date=June 1, 2013}}</ref><ref>Casey, Gerard; Meadowcroft, John, ed. (2010). ''Murray Rothbard: Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers''. '''15'''. London: The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Iw5ZIOhlZj8C&pg=PR9 p. ix].</ref> and [[paleolibertarianism]].<ref>[[Walter Block|Block, Walter]]; [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]; [[Lew Rockwell|Rockwell, Lew]], ed. (November 1994). [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ir/Ch16.html "Big Government Libertarianism"]. ''The Irrepressible Rothbard''. [[Lew Rockwell.com]]. Retrieved March 15, 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Sanchez|first1=Julian|last2=Weigel|first2=David|date=January 16, 2008|title=Who Wrote Ron Paul's Newsletters?|url=http://reason.com/archives/2008/01/16/who-wrote-ron-pauls-newsletter/singlepage|newspaper=Reason|publisher=Reason Foundation|access-date=March 15, 2020}}</ref>
+In the 1960s, Rothbard started the publication ''[[Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought]]'', believing that the [[left–right political spectrum]] had gone "entirely askew". Since [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]] were sometimes more [[statist]] than [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberals]], Rothbard tried to reach out to leftists.<ref>[[Justin Raimondo|Raimondo, Justin]] (2000). ''An Enemy of the State''. Chapter 4: "Beyond left and right". [[Prometheus Books]]. p. 159.</ref> In 1971, Rothbard wrote about his view of libertarianism which he described as supporting [[free trade]], [[Property rights (economics)|property rights]] and [[self-ownership]].<ref name="Rothbard 1971"/> He would later describe his brand of libertarianism as [[anarcho-capitalism]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://mises.org/daily/2634|title=Floyd Arthur 'Baldy' Harper, RIP|last=Rothbard|first=Murray|work=Mises Daily|publisher=Mises Institute|date=August 17, 2007|access-date=March 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7MzEHaJgKAC&pg=PA225|title=The Routledge Companion To Social And Political Philosophy|last1=Gaus|first1=Gerald Gaus|last2=D'Agostino|first2=Fred|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-415-87456-4|page=225|access-date=June 1, 2013}}</ref><ref>Casey, Gerard; Meadowcroft, John, ed. (2010). ''Murray Rothbard: Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers''. '''15'''. London: The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Iw5ZIOhlZj8C&pg=PR9 p. ix].</ref> and [[paleolibertarianism]].<ref>[[Walter Block|Block, Walter]]; [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]; [[Lew Rockwell|Rockwell, Lew]], ed. (November 1994). [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ir/Ch16.html "Big Government Libertarianism"]. ''The Irrepressible Rothbard''. [[Lew Rockwell.com]]. Retrieved March 15, 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Sanchez|first1=Julian|last2=Weigel|first2=David|date=January 16, 2008|title=Who Wrote Ron Paul's Newsletters?|url=http://reason.com/archives/2008/01/16/who-wrote-ron-pauls-newsletter/singlepage|newspaper=Reason|publisher=Reason Foundation|access-date=March 15, 2020}}</ref>
 [[Anthony Gregory]] points out that within the libertarian movement, "just as the general concepts "[[Left-wing politics|left]]" and "[[Right-wing politics|right]]" are riddled with obfuscation and imprecision, [[Left-libertarianism|left-]] and [[right-libertarianism]] can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations".<ref name="Gregory 2006"/> Some libertarians reject association with either the right or the left. [[Leonard Read]] wrote an article titled "Neither Left Nor Right: Libertarians Are Above Authoritarian Degradation".<ref name="Read 1956"/> [[Harry Browne]] wrote: "We should never define Libertarian positions in terms coined by liberals or conservatives—nor as some variant of their positions. We are not fiscally conservative and socially liberal. We are Libertarians, who believe in individual liberty and personal responsibility on all issues at all times".<ref name="Browne 1998"/>
@@ Line 279: / Line 282: @@
 Objectivism has been and continues to be a major influence on the libertarian movement. Many libertarians justify their political views using aspects of Objectivism.<ref>Rand, Ayn (1961). ''For the New Intellectual''. Random House.</ref><ref>Peikoff, Leonard (1991). ''Objectivisim: the Philosophy of Ayn Rand''. Dutton.</ref> However, the views of Rand and her philosophy among prominent libertarians are mixed and many Objectivists are hostile to libertarians in general.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_sanctions|title=On Moral Sanctions|last=Schwartz|first=Peter|journal=The Intellectual Activist|volume=5|issue=1|publisher=Ayn Rand Institute|date=May 18, 1989|access-date=July 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806002155/http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_sanctions|archive-date=August 6, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nonetheless, Objectivists such as [[David Kelley]] and his [[Atlas Society]] have argued that Objectivism is an "open system" and are more open to libertarians.<ref>Kelley, David (1989). "Truth and Toleration".</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Contested Legacy of Ayn Rand: Truth and Toleration in Objectivism|last=Kelley|first=David|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2000|isbn=0-7658-0060-8}}</ref> Although academic philosophers have mostly ignored or rejected Rand's philosophy, Objectivism has been a significant influence among conservatives and libertarians in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|title=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right|last=Burns|first=Jennifer|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-532487-7|oclc=313665028|title-link=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Ayn Rand|last=Gladstein|first=Mimi Reisel|location=New York|publisher=Continuum|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8264-4513-1|oclc=319595162|series=Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series|pages=107–108, 124}}</ref>
-== Analysis, reception and criticism==
+==Analysis, reception and criticism==
 {{main|Criticism of libertarianism}}
-Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, pragmatic and philosophical concerns,<ref>Friedman, Jeffrey (1993). "What's Wrong with Libertarianism". ''Critical Review''. 11 (3). p. 427.</ref><ref>Sterba, James P. (October 1994). "From Liberty to Welfare". ''Ethics''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell. '''105''' (1): 237–241.</ref><ref>Partridge, Ernest (2004). [http://gadfly.igc.org/papers/liberty.htm "With Liberty and Justice for Some"]. In Zimmerman, Michael; Callicott, Baird; Warren, Karen; Klaver, Irene; Clark, John. ''Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology'' (4th ed.). Pearson. {{ISBN|978-0-1311-2695-4}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf|title=Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition|last=Wolff|first=Jonathan|date=October 22, 2006|publisher=Virginia Law Review|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112210848/http://www.virginialawreview.org/content/pdfs/92/1605.pdf|archive-date=January 12, 2013|access-date=February 10, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demos.org/blog/10/28/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-economic-coercion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218082051/https://www.demos.org/blog/10/28/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-economic-coercion|title=Libertarians Are Huge Fans of Economic Coercion|last=Bruenig|first=Matt|publisher=[[Demos (U.S. think tank)|Demos]]|date=October 28, 2013|archive-date=February 18, 2019|access-date=August 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.demos.org/blog/11/17/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-initiating-force|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215065938/https://www.demos.org/blog/11/17/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-initiating-force|title=Libertarians are Huge Fans of Initiating Force|last=Bruenig|first=Matt|publisher=[[Demos (U.S. think tank)|Demos]]|date=November 17, 2013|archive-date=December 15, 2018|access-date=August 19, 2016}}</ref> including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty.<ref name="Lester"/> It has been argued that ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome<ref>[http://evonomics.com/complexity-economics-shows-us-that-laissez-faire-fail-nickhanauer/ "Complexity Economics Shows Us Why Laissez-Faire Economics Always Fails"].</ref> and that its philosophy of [[individualism]] as well as policies of [[deregulation]] do not prevent the [[exploitation of natural resources]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Peak Oil: Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture|last=Matthew|first=Schneider-Mayerson|isbn=9780226285573|location=Chicago|oclc=922640625|date=October 14, 2015}}</ref>
+Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, pragmatic and philosophical concerns,<ref>Friedman, Jeffrey (1993). "What's Wrong with Libertarianism". ''Critical Review''. 11 (3). p. 427.</ref><ref>Sterba, James P. (October 1994). "From Liberty to Welfare". ''Ethics''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell. '''105''' (1): 237–241.</ref><ref>Partridge, Ernest (2004). [http://gadfly.igc.org/papers/liberty.htm "With Liberty and Justice for Some"]. In Zimmerman, Michael; Callicott, Baird; Warren, Karen; Klaver, Irene; Clark, John. ''Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology'' (4th ed.). Pearson. {{ISBN|978-0-1311-2695-4}}.</ref><ref name="Wolff" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demos.org/blog/10/28/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-economic-coercion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218082051/https://www.demos.org/blog/10/28/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-economic-coercion|title=Libertarians Are Huge Fans of Economic Coercion|last=Bruenig|first=Matt|publisher=[[Demos (U.S. think tank)|Demos]]|date=October 28, 2013|archive-date=February 18, 2019|access-date=August 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.demos.org/blog/11/17/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-initiating-force|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215065938/https://www.demos.org/blog/11/17/13/libertarians-are-huge-fans-initiating-force|title=Libertarians are Huge Fans of Initiating Force|last=Bruenig|first=Matt|publisher=[[Demos (U.S. think tank)|Demos]]|date=November 17, 2013|archive-date=December 15, 2018|access-date=August 19, 2016}}</ref> including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty.<ref name="Lester"/> It has been argued that ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome<ref>[http://evonomics.com/complexity-economics-shows-us-that-laissez-faire-fail-nickhanauer/ "Complexity Economics Shows Us Why Laissez-Faire Economics Always Fails"].</ref> and that its philosophy of [[individualism]] as well as policies of [[deregulation]] do not prevent the [[exploitation of natural resources]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Peak Oil: Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture|last=Matthew|first=Schneider-Mayerson|isbn=978-0226285573|location=Chicago |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |oclc=922640625|date= 2015}}</ref>
 [[Michael Lind]] has observed that of the 195 countries in the world today, none have fully actualized a society as advocated by libertarians, arguing: "If libertarianism was a good idea, wouldn't at least one country have tried it? Wouldn't there be at least one country, out of nearly two hundred, with minimal government, free trade, open borders, decriminalized drugs, no welfare state and no public education system?"<ref>[[Michael Lind|Lind, Michael]]. (June 4, 2013). [http://www.salon.com/2013/06/04/the_question_libertarians_just_cant_answer "The Question Libertarians Just Can't Answer"]. ''[[Salon (magazine)|Salon]].''</ref> Lind has criticized libertarianism for being incompatible with [[democracy]] and apologetic towards [[autocracy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/2011/08/30/lind_libertariansim/|title=Why libertarians apologize for autocracy|first=Michael|last=Lind|website=Salon|date=August 30, 2011|access-date=November 27, 2019}}</ref> In response, libertarian [[Warren Redlich]] argues that the United States "was extremely libertarian from the founding until 1860, and still very libertarian until roughly 1930".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://independentpoliticalreport.com/2017/04/was-america-ever-libertarian/|title=Was America Ever Libertarian|date=April 25, 2017|work=Independent Political Report|access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref>
-[[Nancy MacLean]] has criticized libertarianism, arguing that it is a [[Radical right (United States)|radical right]] ideology that has stood against democracy. According to MacLean, libertarian-leaning [[Charles Koch|Charles]] and [[David Koch]] have used anonymous, [[dark money]] campaign contributions, a network of libertarian institutes and lobbying for the appointment of libertarian, pro-business judges to United States federal and state courts to oppose taxes, public education, employee protection laws, environmental protection laws and the [[New Deal]] [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] program.<ref name="MacLean">{{cite book|last=MacLean|first=Nancy|title=Democracy in Chains, The Deep History of the Radical Right's Stealth Plan for America|year=2017|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=9781101980965}}</ref>
+[[Nancy MacLean]] has criticized libertarianism, arguing that it is a [[Radical right (United States)|radical right]] ideology that has stood against democracy. According to MacLean, libertarian-leaning [[Charles Koch|Charles]] and [[David Koch]] have used anonymous, [[dark money]] campaign contributions, a network of libertarian institutes and lobbying for the appointment of libertarian, pro-business judges to United States federal and state courts to oppose taxes, public education, employee protection laws, environmental protection laws and the [[New Deal]] [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] program.<ref name="MacLean">{{cite book|last=MacLean|first=Nancy|title=Democracy in Chains, The Deep History of the Radical Right's Stealth Plan for America|year=2017|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-1101980965}}</ref>
 === Left-wing ===
-Libertarianism has been criticized by the [[political left]] for being [[Big business|pro-business]] and [[Labor movement|anti-labor]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Ames|first=Mark|date=November 16, 2012|title=When Congress Busted Milton Friedman (and Libertarianism Was Created By Big Business Lobbyists)|url=https://www.nsfwcorp.com/dispatch/milton-friedman/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124114335/https://www.nsfwcorp.com/dispatch/milton-friedman/|archive-date=November 24, 2020|access-date=June 26, 2019|website=|publisher=NSFWCORP}}</ref> for desiring to repeal government [[Subsidy|subsidies]] to [[Disability|disabled]] people and the [[Poverty|poor]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailykos.com/story/2012/01/17/1055627/-Four-Reasons-to-Reject-Libertarianism|title=Four Reasons to Reject Libertarianism|last=Greco|first=Tony|work=Daily Kos|publisher=Kos Media, LLC|date=January 17, 2012|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref> and being incapable of addressing environmental issues, therefore contributing to the failure to slow global [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Peak Oil: Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture|last=Schneider-Mayerson|first=Matthew|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2015|isbn=9780226285436|location=Chicago}}</ref> Left-libertarians such as [[Noam Chomsky]] have characterized libertarian ideologies as being akin to [[Fascist corporatism|corporate fascism]] because they aim to remove all public controls from the economy, leaving it solely in the hands of [[Private property|private]] [[corporation]]s. Chomsky has also argued that the more radical forms of libertarianism such as [[anarcho-capitalism]] are entirely theoretical and could never function in reality due to business' reliance on the [[State (polity)|state]] as well as [[Public infrastructure|infrastructure]] and publicly-funded [[Subsidy|subsidies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/19961223.htm|title=On Anarchism: Noam Chomsky interviewed by Tom Lane|publisher=Chomsky.info|date=December 23, 2006|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-date=September 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054052/http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/19961223.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another criticism is based on the libertarian theory that a distinction can be made between [[positive and negative rights]], according to which [[negative liberty]] (negative rights) should be recognized as legitimate, but [[positive liberty]] (positive rights) should be rejected.<ref>Sterba, James P. (October 1994). "From Liberty to Welfare". ''Ethics''. Cambridge: Blackwell). 105 (1): 237–241.</ref> [[Socialists]] also have a different view and definition of [[liberty]], with some arguing that the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] necessarily relies on and reproduces violations of the liberty of members of the working class by the capitalist class such as through [[exploitation of labor]] and through [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]] from the product of one's labor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wood|first=John Cunningham|title=Karl Marx's Economics: Critical Assessments I|publisher=Routledge|date=1996|pages=248–249|quote=Affluence and increased provision of free goods would reduce alienation in the work process and, in combination with (1), the alienation of man's 'species-life'. Greater leisure would create opportunities for creative and artistic activity outside of work.|isbn=978-0-415-08714-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goodwin|first=Barbara|title=Using Political Ideas|publisher=Wiley|date=2007|pages=107–109|quote=Socialists consider the pleasures of creation equal, if not superior, to those of acquisition and consumption, hence the importance of work in socialist society.  Whereas the capitalist/Calvinist work ethic applauds the moral virtue of hard work, idealistic socialists emphasize the joy. This vision of 'creative man', Homo Faber, has consequences for their view of freedom. [...] Socialist freedom is the freedom to unfold and develop one's potential, especially through unalienated work.|isbn=978-0-470-02552-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Acharya|first1=Ashok|last2=Bhargava|first2=Rajeev|title=Political Theory: An Introduction|publisher=Pearson Education India|date=2008|page=255|quote=Genuine freedom as Marx described it, would become possible only when life activity was no longer constrained by the requirements of production or by the limitations of material scarcity [...]. Thus, in the socialist view, freedom is not an abstract ideal but a concrete situation that ensues only when certain conditions of interaction between man and nature (material conditions), and man and other men (social relations) are fulfilled.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Peffer|first=Rodney G.|title=Marxism, Morality, and Social Justice|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2014|page=73|quote=Marx believed the reduction of necessary labor time to be, evaluatively speaking, an absolute necessity. He claims that real wealth is the developed productive force of all individuals. It is no longer the labor time but the disposable time that is the measure of wealth.|isbn=978-0-691-60888-4}}</ref><ref>Woods, Allen (2014). ''The Free Development of Each: Studies on Freedom, Right, and Ethics in Classical German Philosophy''. [https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199685530.001.0001/acprof-9780199685530-chapter-11 "Marx on Equality"]. pp. 253–266.</ref>
+Libertarianism has been criticized by the [[political left]] for being [[Big business|pro-business]] and [[Labor movement|anti-labor]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Ames|first=Mark|date=November 16, 2012|title=When Congress Busted Milton Friedman (and Libertarianism Was Created By Big Business Lobbyists)|url=https://www.nsfwcorp.com/dispatch/milton-friedman/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124114335/https://www.nsfwcorp.com/dispatch/milton-friedman/|archive-date=November 24, 2020|access-date=June 26, 2019|website=|publisher=NSFWCORP}}</ref> for desiring to repeal government [[Subsidy|subsidies]] to [[Disability|disabled]] people and the [[Poverty|poor]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailykos.com/story/2012/01/17/1055627/-Four-Reasons-to-Reject-Libertarianism|title=Four Reasons to Reject Libertarianism|last=Greco|first=Tony|work=Daily Kos|publisher=Kos Media, LLC|date=January 17, 2012|access-date=June 26, 2019}}</ref> and being incapable of addressing environmental issues, therefore contributing to the failure to slow global [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Peak Oil: Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture|last=Schneider-Mayerson|first=Matthew|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0226285436|location=Chicago}}</ref> Left-libertarians such as [[Noam Chomsky]] have characterized libertarian ideologies as being akin to [[Fascist corporatism|corporate fascism]] because they aim to remove all public controls from the economy, leaving it solely in the hands of [[Private property|private]] [[corporation]]s. Chomsky has also argued that the more radical forms of libertarianism such as [[anarcho-capitalism]] are entirely theoretical and could never function in reality due to business' reliance on the [[State (polity)|state]] as well as [[Public infrastructure|infrastructure]] and publicly funded [[Subsidy|subsidies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/19961223.htm|title=On Anarchism: Noam Chomsky interviewed by Tom Lane|publisher=Chomsky.info|date=December 23, 2006|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-date=September 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054052/http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/19961223.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another criticism is based on the libertarian theory that a distinction can be made between [[positive and negative rights]], according to which [[negative liberty]] (negative rights) should be recognized as legitimate, but [[positive liberty]] (positive rights) should be rejected.<ref>Sterba, James P. (October 1994). "From Liberty to Welfare". ''Ethics''. Cambridge: Blackwell). 105 (1): 237–241.</ref> [[Socialists]] also have a different view and definition of [[liberty]], with some arguing that the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] necessarily relies on and reproduces violations of the liberty of members of the working class by the capitalist class such as through [[exploitation of labor]] and through [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]] from the product of one's labor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wood|first=John Cunningham|title=Karl Marx's Economics: Critical Assessments I|publisher=Routledge|date=1996|pages=248–249|quote=Affluence and increased provision of free goods would reduce alienation in the work process and, in combination with (1), the alienation of man's 'species-life'. Greater leisure would create opportunities for creative and artistic activity outside of work.|isbn=978-0-415-08714-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goodwin|first=Barbara|title=Using Political Ideas|publisher=Wiley|date=2007|pages=107–109|quote=Socialists consider the pleasures of creation equal, if not superior, to those of acquisition and consumption, hence the importance of work in socialist society. Whereas the capitalist/Calvinist work ethic applauds the moral virtue of hard work, idealistic socialists emphasize the joy. This vision of 'creative man', Homo Faber, has consequences for their view of freedom. [...] Socialist freedom is the freedom to unfold and develop one's potential, especially through unalienated work.|isbn=978-0-470-02552-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Acharya|first1=Ashok|last2=Bhargava|first2=Rajeev|title=Political Theory: An Introduction|publisher=Pearson Education India|date=2008|page=255|quote=Genuine freedom as Marx described it, would become possible only when life activity was no longer constrained by the requirements of production or by the limitations of material scarcity [...]. Thus, in the socialist view, freedom is not an abstract ideal but a concrete situation that ensues only when certain conditions of interaction between man and nature (material conditions), and man and other men (social relations) are fulfilled.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Peffer|first=Rodney G.|title=Marxism, Morality, and Social Justice|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2014|page=73|quote=Marx believed the reduction of necessary labor time to be, evaluatively speaking, an absolute necessity. He claims that real wealth is the developed productive force of all individuals. It is no longer the labor time but the disposable time that is the measure of wealth.|isbn=978-0-691-60888-4}}</ref><ref>Woods, Allen (2014). ''The Free Development of Each: Studies on Freedom, Right, and Ethics in Classical German Philosophy''. [https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199685530.001.0001/acprof-9780199685530-chapter-11 "Marx on Equality"]. pp. 253–266.</ref>
 [[Anarchist]] critics such as [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morris]] have expressed skepticism regarding libertarians' sincerity in supporting a limited or minimal state, or even no state at all, arguing that anarcho-capitalism does not abolish the state and that anarcho-capitalists "simply replaced the state with private security firms, and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood".<ref>Morris, Brian. "Global Anti-Capitalism". ''Anarchist Studies''. '''14''' (2): pp. 170–176.</ref> Peter Sabatini has noted: "Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist vendors. [...] Rothbard sees nothing at all wrong with the amassing of wealth, therefore those with more capital will inevitably have greater coercive force at their disposal, just as they do now".<ref>Sabatini, Peter (Fall/Winter 1994–1995). [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"]. ''Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed'' (41).</ref> For [[The Abolition of Work|Bob Black]], libertarians are [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatives]] and anarcho-capitalists want to "abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else". Black argues that anarcho-capitalists do not denounce what the state does and only "object to who's doing it".<ref>Black, Bob (1984). [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/bob-black-the-libertarian-as-conservative "The Libertarian As Conservative"]. [https://archive.org/stream/BlackTheAbolitionOfWorkAndOtherEssays/Black+-+The+Abolition+of+Work+and+Other+Essays_djvu.txt ''The Abolition of Work and Other Essays'']. p. 144.</ref> Similarly, Paul Birch has argued that anarcho-capitalism would dissolve into a society of [[city state]]s.<ref>Birch, Paul (1998). [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/legan/legan028.pdf "Anarcho-capitalism Dissolves Into City States"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105101941/http://libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/legan/legan028.pdf |date=November 5, 2010 }} (PDF). ''Libertarian Alliance''. Legal Notes. '''28''' (4). ISSN 0267-7083. Retrieved July 5, 2019.</ref>
@@ Line 304: / Line 307: @@
 * [[American Left]]
 * [[Anarchism in the United States]]
+* [[Factions in the Libertarian Party (United States)|Factions in the Libertarian Party]]
+* [[Factions in the Republican Party (United States)|Factions in the Republican Party]]
 * [[Libertarianism in South Africa]]
 * [[Libertarianism in the United Kingdom]]
@@ Line 316: / Line 321: @@
 == Bibliography ==
-* {{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Doherty (journalist)|year=2009|title=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement|title-link=Radicals for Capitalism|location=London|publisher=Hachette UK|isbn=9780786731886}}
+* {{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Doherty (journalist)|year=2009|title=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement|title-link=Radicals for Capitalism|location=London|publisher=Hachette UK|isbn=978-0786731886}}
 == External links ==
-{{Commons|Libertarianism in the United States}}
+{{Commons}}
 * [http://www.fee.org/ Foundation for Economic Education]. American libertarian organization founded in 1946.
 * [http://www.libertarianism.org/ Libertarianism.org]. Sponsored by the [[Cato Institute]], it discusses the history, theory and practice of American libertarianism.