Rubus cissoides: Difference between revisions

Rubus cissoides
	Leaves and habit of Rubus cissoides
Conservation status
	; Not Threatened (NZ TCS)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Rosids
Order:	Rosales
Family:	Rosaceae
Genus:	Rubus
Subgenus:	Rubus subg. Micranthobatus
Species:	R. cissoides
Binomial name
	Rubus cissoides; A.Cunn.

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Rubus cissoides, commonly called bush lawyer or tātarāmoa in te reo Māori, is a species of flowering plant in the family Rosaceae, endemic to New Zealand. Alan Cunningham described R. cissoides in 1839. Plants of this species of are perennial scrambling vines with compound leaves with 3-5 leaflets each up to 15 cm long, reddish prickles on the branches, white flowers from September to November and red berries from December to April. The conservation status of R. cissoides is Not Threatened, it is widespread on all three main islands of mainland New Zealand, and it has been used by Māori as food, medicines and construction materials.

Taxonomy and etymology

Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. is in the family Rosaceae. The species was described in 1839 by Alan Cunningham, based on the type specimen collected in 1826 by Cunningham from "dense forests of Whangaroa".^[2] The type specimen is lodged at Kew Herbarium (K000762091).^[3]^[4] The epithet cissoides means "ivy like" and is derived from the Greek words kissos (ivy, Cissus) and -oides (likeness). Rubus cissoides is the same genus, Rubus, as the blackberry and raspberry.^[5]

In addition to R. cissoides, there are four other endemic species of Rubus in New Zealand, including R. australis, R. parvus, R. schmideloides, and R. squarrosus.^[6]^[7] These can be distinguished from one another using prickle, leaf, inflorescence and fruit characteristics.^[8]^[5] Rubus cissoides is the most common native species in New Zealand, and has sharply toothed leaflets that are long and narrow. Plants of this species can grow very high - over 15 metres above the ground - and stems may be 17 cm in diameter.^[5]

Many of the native New Zealand Rubus species, including R. cissoides, are commonly called bush lawyer or tātarāmoa in te reo Māori,^[9]^[10] and other vernacular names for this and other similar Rubus species in New Zealand include taramoa, akatātarāmoa, taraheke, and tātaraheke.^[10] They are considered to be "hook climbers", and are woody, low to high climbing vines or lianes that have backwardly curving hooked prickles, which allow the plant to grip, climb up and find support on shrubs or other vegetation.^[5]

Description

Rubus cissoides plants are dioecious vines up to 10 m long that scramble or climb on other vegetation. Young stems are covered in hooked reddish prickles, especially on the underside, whereas mature stems are without prickles and are hairless. Leaves are palmately or ternately compound, smooth and hairless, with up to 5 long and narrow leaflets (young plants) or 3–5 leaflets (mature plants). Petioles and petiolules have hooked prickles. Leaflets are variable in size and shape, 6–15 cm long and up to 6 cm wide, lanceolate or oblong, sharply toothed on the edges, with a pointed tip. Inflorescences are large and much-branched panicles of white flowers up to 20 cm long.^[8] Flowers have 5 sepals and 5 petals, and are either male (with numerous stamens, but with no style or only a rudimentary one) or female (with functional style, but with no stamens or only a few rudimentary stamens). The berries are around a centimetre in diameter, yellow to red, and made up of about 10–15 drupelets.^[9]^[11]

Distribution and habitat

Rubus cissoides is endemic to and widespread in New Zealand, and occurs on all three of the main islands: North Island, South Island and Stewart Island.^[9] It is found in lowland and montane habitats, often in forests, but also in scrub and wetland margins,^[9] often in moist, sunny environments.^[12]

Conservation status

Rubus cissoides is considered to be Not Threatened in the most recent assessment (2017–2018) under the New Zealand Threat Classification system for plants.^[1]

Life cycle and phenology

In a seed germination experiment, 82% of Rubus cissoides seeds germinated, with some germinating in spring, remaining seeds germinating at a slow, steady rate over two years.^[13]

Young plants spread over the forest floor until finding an appropriate shrub or vegetation for support. They can support themselves up to a height of about 60 cm before requiring support in the form of other vegetation.^[5]

R. cissoides is insect-pollinated, and it flowers from September to November and fruits from December to April.^[9]

Herbivory and diseases

The non-native herbivores, deer and possums, eat small amounts of the foliage or leaf litter of R. cissoides, and possums have been known to eat the berries and flowers of R. cissoides.^[14]

The blackberry rust fungus Phragmidium violaceum, appears as black patches on the leaves and can cause mild infections in R. cissoides.^[15]

Uses

Rubus cissoides and other native New Zealand Rubus species were used by Māori and continue to have multiple uses, including as food, construction materials, or medicines.^[10] The fruits are eaten by birds and people, the branches can be used for making traps, and the crushed berries form a dye which is blue or purple in colour.^[12]^[10] Some of the ways Māori used Rubus plants medicinally include using the bark of the stem to treat abdominal pains, using root bark to treat diarrhea, and preparing crushed leaves to relieve chest congestions and colds.^[10]

Gallery

References

^ ^a ^b Lange, Peter J. de; Rolfe, Jeremy R.; Barkla, John W.; Courtney, Shannel P.; Champion, Paul D.; Perrie, Leon R.; Beadel, Sarah M.; Ford, Kerry A.; Breitwieser, Ilse; Schönberger, Ines; Hindmarsh-Walls, Rowan (May 2018). "Conservation status of New Zealand indigenous vascular plants, 2017" (PDF). New Zealand Threat Classification Series. 22: 1–86. OCLC 1041649797.
^ ^a ^b Cunningham, Alan (1839). "XXXI. Florae Insularum Novae Zelandiae Precursor; or a specimen of the botany of the islands of New Zealand". Annals of Natural History. ser. 1 vol. 3: 244–250 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
^ Cockayne, Leonard (1 October 1933). "A case of epharmony in a New Zealand Rubus". American Journal of Botany. 20 (8): 545–551. doi:10.1002/J.1537-2197.1933.TB08911.X.
^ "Type of Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. on JSTOR". plants.jstor.org. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Dawson, John Wyndham (1 January 1986). "The vines, epiphytes and parasites of New Zealand forests". Tuatara. 28 (2): 44–70.
^ "Flora of New Zealand | Taxon Profile | Rubus". www.nzflora.info. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
^ "Rubus". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
^ ^a ^b Lehnebach, Carlos; Meudt, Heidi (2022). Native Plants of Aotearoa. Wellington: Te Papa Press. ISBN 978-1-9911509-3-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Rubus cissoides". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Rubus spp. Tātarāmoa. Bush lawyer". rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz. Retrieved 5 November 2022 – via Ngā Rauropi Whakaoranga, Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research.
^ "Rubus cissoides A.Cunn". Flora of New Zealand. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
^ ^a ^b "Rubus cissoides - Cunn". Plants For A Future. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
^ Burrows, Colin James (7 December 2011). "Germination behaviour of the seeds of seven New Zealand vine species". New Zealand Journal of Botany. 34 (1): 93–102. doi:10.1080/0028825X.1996.10412696.
^ "Comparison of deer and possum diets and the impacts in podocarp-hardwood forest, Waihaha catchment, Pureora conservation park" (PDF). Department of Conservation. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
^ "Fungi commonly mistaken for biological control agents" (PDF). Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research. ISBN 0-478-09306-3. Retrieved 5 November 2022.

External links

"Rubus cissoides". Plants for a Future.
Rubus cissoides occurrence data from Australasian Virtual Herbarium
Media related to Rubus cissoides at Wikimedia Commons

[NZTCS-1] Lange, Peter J. de; Rolfe, Jeremy R.; Barkla, John W.; Courtney, Shannel P.; Champion, Paul D.; Perrie, Leon R.; Beadel, Sarah M.; Ford, Kerry A.; Breitwieser, Ilse; Schönberger, Ines; Hindmarsh-Walls, Rowan (May 2018). "Conservation status of New Zealand indigenous vascular plants, 2017" (PDF). New Zealand Threat Classification Series. 22: 1–86. OCLC 1041649797.

[Cunn-2] Cunningham, Alan (1839). "XXXI. Florae Insularum Novae Zelandiae Precursor; or a specimen of the botany of the islands of New Zealand". Annals of Natural History. ser. 1 vol. 3: 244–250 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.

[3] Cockayne, Leonard (1 October 1933). "A case of epharmony in a New Zealand Rubus". American Journal of Botany. 20 (8): 545–551. doi:10.1002/J.1537-2197.1933.TB08911.X.

[4] "Type of Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. on JSTOR". plants.jstor.org. Retrieved 5 November 2022.

[:2-5] Dawson, John Wyndham (1 January 1986). "The vines, epiphytes and parasites of New Zealand forests". Tuatara. 28 (2): 44–70.

[6] "Flora of New Zealand | Taxon Profile | Rubus". www.nzflora.info. Retrieved 5 November 2022.

[7] "Rubus". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Retrieved 5 November 2022.

[:3-8] Lehnebach, Carlos; Meudt, Heidi (2022). Native Plants of Aotearoa. Wellington: Te Papa Press. ISBN 978-1-9911509-3-6.

[:1-9] "Rubus cissoides". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Retrieved 5 November 2022.

[:0-10] "Rubus spp. Tātarāmoa. Bush lawyer". rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz. Retrieved 5 November 2022 – via Ngā Rauropi Whakaoranga, Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research.

[flora-of-new-zealand-11] "Rubus cissoides A.Cunn". Flora of New Zealand. Retrieved 6 November 2022.

[pfaf-12] "Rubus cissoides - Cunn". Plants For A Future. Retrieved 31 March 2015.

[13] Burrows, Colin James (7 December 2011). "Germination behaviour of the seeds of seven New Zealand vine species". New Zealand Journal of Botany. 34 (1): 93–102. doi:10.1080/0028825X.1996.10412696.

[nugent-fraser-sweetapple-14] "Comparison of deer and possum diets and the impacts in podocarp-hardwood forest, Waihaha catchment, Pureora conservation park" (PDF). Department of Conservation. Retrieved 31 March 2015.

[15] "Fungi commonly mistaken for biological control agents" (PDF). Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research. ISBN 0-478-09306-3. Retrieved 5 November 2022.

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@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
 {{Speciesbox
-| image = Rubus cissoides 11.JPG
+| image = Rubus cissoides 258334284.jpg
 | image_caption = Leaves and habit of Rubus cissoides
 | status = NT
@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 | genus = Rubus
 | species = cissoides
-| authority = [[A.Cunn.]]<ref name="Cunn"></ref>
+| authority = [[A.Cunn.]]<ref name="Cunn" />
 }}
-'''''Rubus cissoides''''', commonly called '''bush lawyer''' or '''tātarāmoa''' in [[Māori language|te reo Māori]], is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the [[Family (biology)|family]] Rosaceae, [[Endemic species|endemic]] to [[New Zealand]]. [[Allan Cunningham (botanist)|Alan Cunningham]] described ''R. cissoides'' in 1839. Plants of this species of are [[Perennial plant|perennial]] scrambling vines with compound leaves with 3-5 leaflets each up to 15 cm long, reddish prickles on the branches, white flowers from September to November and red berries from December to April. The conservation status of ''R. cissoides'' is Not Threatened, it is widespread on all three main islands of mainland New Zealand, and it has been used by Māori as food, medicines and construction materials.
+'''''Rubus cissoides''''', commonly called '''bush lawyer''' or '''tātarāmoa''' in [[Māori language|te reo Māori]], is a species of [[flowering plant]] in the [[Family (biology)|family]] Rosaceae, [[Endemic species|endemic]] to [[New Zealand]]. [[Allan Cunningham (botanist)|Alan Cunningham]] described ''R. cissoides'' in 1839. Plants of this species of are [[Perennial plant|perennial]] scrambling vines with compound leaves with 3-5 leaflets each up to 15&nbsp;cm long, reddish prickles on the branches, white flowers from September to November and red berries from December to April. The conservation status of ''R. cissoides'' is Not Threatened, it is widespread on all three main islands of mainland New Zealand, and it has been used by Māori as food, medicines and construction materials.
-==Taxonomy and Etymology==
+==Taxonomy and etymology==
-''Rubus cissoides'' [[Allan Cunningham (botanist)|A.Cunn.]] is in the family [[Rosaceae]]. The species was described in 1839 by [[Allan Cunningham (botanist)|Alan Cunningham]], based on the type specimen collected in 1826 by Cunningham from "dense forests of [[Whangaroa Harbour|Whangaroa]]".<ref name="Cunn">{{Cite journal |last=Cunningham |first=Alan |date=1839 |title=XXXI. Florae Insularum Novae Zelandiae Precursor; or a specimen of the botany of the islands of New Zealand |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2353175 |journal=Annals of Natural History |volume=ser. 1 vol. 3 |pages=244-250 |via=Biodiversity Heritage LIbrary}}</ref> The type specimen is lodged at Kew Herbarium (K000762091).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cockayne |first=Leonard |date=1933-10-01 |title=A case of epharmony in a New Zealand Rubus |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115080111 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=545–551 |doi=10.1002/J.1537-2197.1933.TB08911.X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Type of Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. on JSTOR |url=https://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.specimen.k000762091?searchUri=filter=name&so=ps_group_by_genus_species+asc&Query=rubus+cissoides |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=plants.jstor.org |doi=}}</ref> The epithet ''cissoides'' means "ivy like" and is derived from the Greek words ''kissos'' (ivy, ''[[Cissus]]'') and ''[[List of commonly used taxonomic affixes|-oides]]'' (likeness). ''Rubus cissoides'' is the same genus, ''[[Rubus]],'' as the [[blackberry]] and [[raspberry]].<ref name=":2" />
+''Rubus cissoides'' [[Allan Cunningham (botanist)|A.Cunn.]] is in the family [[Rosaceae]]. The species was described in 1839 by [[Allan Cunningham (botanist)|Alan Cunningham]], based on the type specimen collected in 1826 by Cunningham from "dense forests of [[Whangaroa Harbour|Whangaroa]]".<ref name="Cunn">{{Cite journal |last=Cunningham |first=Alan |date=1839 |title=XXXI. Florae Insularum Novae Zelandiae Precursor; or a specimen of the botany of the islands of New Zealand |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2353175 |journal=Annals of Natural History |volume=ser. 1 vol. 3 |pages=244–250 |via=Biodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref> The type specimen is lodged at Kew Herbarium (K000762091).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cockayne |first=Leonard |date=1933-10-01 |title=A case of epharmony in a New Zealand Rubus |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115080111 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=545–551 |doi=10.1002/J.1537-2197.1933.TB08911.X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Type of Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. on JSTOR |url=https://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.specimen.k000762091?searchUri=filter=name&so=ps_group_by_genus_species+asc&Query=rubus+cissoides |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=plants.jstor.org |doi=}}</ref> The epithet ''cissoides'' means "ivy like" and is derived from the Greek words ''kissos'' (ivy, ''[[Cissus]]'') and ''[[List of commonly used taxonomic affixes|-oides]]'' (likeness). ''Rubus cissoides'' is the same genus, ''[[Rubus]],'' as the [[blackberry]] and [[raspberry]].<ref name=":2" />
-In addition to ''R. cissoides,'' there are four other endemic species of ''Rubus'' in New Zealand, including ''[[Rubus australis|R. australis]], [[Rubus parvus|R. parvus]], [[Rubus schmidelioides|R. schmideloides]],'' and ''[[Rubus squarrosus|R. squarrosus]].''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flora of New Zealand {{!}} Taxon Profile {{!}} Rubus |url=https://www.nzflora.info/factsheet/taxon/Rubus.html |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=www.nzflora.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rubus |url=https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/ |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=New Zealand Plant Conservation Network |language=en}}</ref> These can be distinguished from one another using prickle, leaf, inflorescence and fruit characteristics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lehnebach |first=Carlos |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115065494 |title=Native Plants of Aotearoa |last2=Meudt |first2=Heidi |date=2022 |publisher=Te Papa Press |isbn=978-1-9911509-3-6 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Dawson |first=John Wyndham |date=1986-01-01 |title=The vines, epiphytes and parasites of New Zealand forests |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115083737 |journal=Tuatara |language=English |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=44–70}}</ref> ''Rubus cissoides'' is the most common native species in New Zealand, and has sharply toothed leaflets that are long and narrow. Plants of this species can grow very high - over 15 meters above the ground - and stems may be 17 cm in diameter.<ref name=":2" />
+In addition to ''R. cissoides,'' there are four other endemic species of ''Rubus'' in New Zealand, including ''[[Rubus australis|R. australis]], [[Rubus parvus|R. parvus]], [[Rubus schmidelioides|R. schmideloides]],'' and ''[[Rubus squarrosus|R. squarrosus]].''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flora of New Zealand {{!}} Taxon Profile {{!}} Rubus |url=https://www.nzflora.info/factsheet/taxon/Rubus.html |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=www.nzflora.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rubus |url=https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/ |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=New Zealand Plant Conservation Network |language=en}}</ref> These can be distinguished from one another using prickle, leaf, inflorescence and fruit characteristics.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Lehnebach |first=Carlos |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115065494 |title=Native Plants of Aotearoa |last2=Meudt |first2=Heidi |date= |publisher=Te Papa Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-9911509-3-6 |location=Wellington |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Dawson |first=John Wyndham |date=1986-01-01 |title=The vines, epiphytes and parasites of New Zealand forests |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q115083737 |journal=Tuatara |language=English |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=44–70}}</ref> ''Rubus cissoides'' is the most common native species in New Zealand, and has sharply toothed leaflets that are long and narrow. Plants of this species can grow very high - over 15 metres above the ground - and stems may be 17&nbsp;cm in diameter.<ref name=":2" />
 Many of the native New Zealand ''Rubus'' species, including ''R. cissoides,'' are commonly called bush lawyer or tātarāmoa in [[Te Reo Māori|te reo Māori]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Rubus cissoides |url=https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/rubus-cissoides/ |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=New Zealand Plant Conservation Network |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rubus spp. Tātarāmoa. Bush lawyer |url=https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/names/5f4641d1-ae41-4d27-8e42-7a0db8d2cf46 |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz |via=Ngā Rauropi Whakaoranga, Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research}}</ref> and other vernacular names for this and other similar ''Rubus'' species in New Zealand include taramoa, akatātarāmoa, taraheke, and tātaraheke.<ref name=":0" /> They are considered to be "hook climbers", and are woody, low to high climbing vines or lianes that have backwardly curving hooked prickles, which allow the plant to grip, climb up and find support on shrubs or other vegetation.<ref name=":2" />
+[[File:Rubus_cissoides_235044840.jpg|thumb|right|Close up of white flowers of ''Rubus cissoides'']]
 ==Description==
 [[File:Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. (AM AK345246-1) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|''Rubus cissoides'' has thin branches, serrated leaves and white flowers]]
+''Rubus cissoides'' plants are [[Dioecious|d<abbr>ioecious</abbr>]] vines up to 10 m long that scramble or climb on other vegetation. Young stems are covered in hooked reddish [[Thorns, spines, and prickles|prickles]], especially on the underside, whereas mature stems are without prickles and are hairless. Leaves are [[Palmately compound|palmately]] or ternately [[Compound leaf|compound]], smooth and hairless, with up to 5 long and narrow [[Leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] (young plants) or 3–5 leaflets (mature plants). [[Petiole (botany)|Petioles]] and [[petiolules]] have hooked prickles. Leaflets are variable in size and shape, 6–15&nbsp;cm long and up to 6&nbsp;cm wide, [[lanceolate]] or oblong, sharply toothed on the edges, with a pointed tip. <abbr>[[Inflorescence]]s</abbr> are large and much-branched <abbr>[[panicle]]s of white flowers up to 20&nbsp;cm long.</abbr><ref name=":3" /> <abbr>Flowers have 5 sepals and 5 petals, and are either male (with numerous stamens, but with no style or only a [[Rudimentary organ|rudimentary]] one) or female (with functional style, but with no stamens or only a few rudimentary stamens).</abbr> The [[Berry (botany)|berries]] are around a centimetre in diameter, yellow to red, and made up of about 10–15 [[drupe]]lets.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="flora-of-new-zealand">{{cite web |title=Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. |url=https://www.nzflora.info/factsheet/Taxon/Rubus-cissoides.html |access-date=2022-11-06 |publisher=Flora of New Zealand}}</ref>
-The leaf surface is smooth and hairless, whilst having serrated edges. The leaves are long and narrow in shape, forming in groups of five leaflets. The more established plants have pinnately compound leaves, whereas the young leaves simple.
-A key identifying feature for the bush lawyer is the reddish coloured prickles located on the underside of the branch.
-The bush lawyer has white flowers and also produces a yellow to red coloured berry.<ref name="flora-of-new-zealand">{{cite web |title=Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. |url=http://www.nzflora.info/factsheet/Taxon/Rubus_cissoides.html |access-date=2015-03-31 |publisher=Flora of New Zealand}}</ref><ref name="akluni">{{cite web |title=Bush lawyer, tātarāmoa; leafless lawyer |url=http://web.auckland.ac.nz/uoa/science/about/departments/sbs/newzealandplants/seed-plants-flowering/find-by-north-&-south-islands/rosaceae-rose-family.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009072135/http://web.auckland.ac.nz/uoa/science/about/departments/sbs/newzealandplants/seed-plants-flowering/find-by-north-%26-south-islands/rosaceae-rose-family.cfm |archive-date=2012-10-09 |access-date=2012-04-25 |publisher=The University of Auckland}}</ref>
-The individual flowers are either male or female flowers. Both male and female flowers cannot be found on the same plant.
 == Distribution and habitat ==
@@ Line 39: / Line 35: @@
 == Conservation status ==
-''Rubus cissoides'' is considered to be Not Threatened in the most recent assessment (2017-2018) under the [[New Zealand Threat Classification System|New Zealand Threatened Classification]] system for plants.<ref name="NZTCS">{{Cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Peter J. de |last2=Rolfe |first2=Jeremy R. |last3=Barkla |first3=John W. |last4=Courtney |first4=Shannel P. |last5=Champion |first5=Paul D. |last6=Perrie |first6=Leon R. |last7=Beadel |first7=Sarah M. |last8=Ford |first8=Kerry A. |last9=Breitwieser |first9=Ilse |last10=Schönberger |first10=Ines |last11=Hindmarsh-Walls |first11=Rowan |date=May 2018 |title=Conservation status of New Zealand indigenous vascular plants, 2017 |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/science-and-technical/nztcs22entire.pdf |journal=New Zealand Threat Classification Series |volume=22 |pages=1–86 |oclc=1041649797}}</ref>
+''Rubus cissoides'' is considered to be Not Threatened in the most recent assessment (2017–2018) under the [[New Zealand Threat Classification System|New Zealand Threat Classification]] system for plants.<ref name="NZTCS">{{Cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Peter J. de |last2=Rolfe |first2=Jeremy R. |last3=Barkla |first3=John W. |last4=Courtney |first4=Shannel P. |last5=Champion |first5=Paul D. |last6=Perrie |first6=Leon R. |last7=Beadel |first7=Sarah M. |last8=Ford |first8=Kerry A. |last9=Breitwieser |first9=Ilse |last10=Schönberger |first10=Ines |last11=Hindmarsh-Walls |first11=Rowan |date=May 2018 |title=Conservation status of New Zealand indigenous vascular plants, 2017 |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/science-and-technical/nztcs22entire.pdf |journal=New Zealand Threat Classification Series |volume=22 |pages=1–86 |oclc=1041649797}}</ref>
 ==Life cycle and phenology==
-In a seed germination experiment, 82% of ''Rubus cissoides'' seeds germinated, with some germinating in spring, remaining seeds germinating at at a slow, steady rate over two years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burrows |first=Colin James |date=2011-12-07 |title=Germination behaviour of the seeds of seven New Zealand vine species |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q112808385 |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.1080/0028825X.1996.10412696}}</ref>
+In a seed germination experiment, 82% of ''Rubus cissoides'' seeds germinated, with some germinating in spring, remaining seeds germinating at a slow, steady rate over two years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burrows |first=Colin James |date=2011-12-07 |title=Germination behaviour of the seeds of seven New Zealand vine species |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q112808385 |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.1080/0028825X.1996.10412696|doi-access=free }}</ref>
-Young plants spread over the forest floor until finding an appropriate shrub or vegetation for support. They can support themselves up to a height of about 60&nbsp;cm before requiring support in the form of other vegetation.<ref name="dawson">{{cite web |title=The vines, epiphytes and parasites of New Zealand forests |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio28Tuat02-t1-body-d1.html |access-date=2015-03-31 |publisher=Tuatara : Journal of the Biological Society}}</ref>
+Young plants spread over the forest floor until finding an appropriate shrub or vegetation for support. They can support themselves up to a height of about 60&nbsp;cm before requiring support in the form of other vegetation.<ref name=":2" />
 ''R. cissoides'' is insect-pollinated, and it flowers from September to November and fruits from December to April.<ref name=":1" />
 ==Herbivory and diseases==
-The non-native [[Herbivore|herbivores]], deer and possums, eat small amounts of the foliage or leaf litter of ''R. cissoides,'' and possums have been known to eat the berries and flowers of ''R. cissoides''.<ref name="nugent-fraser-sweetapple">{{cite web|title=Comparison of deer and possum diets and the impacts in podocarp-hardwood forest, Waihaha catchment, Pureora conservation park|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/science-and-technical/Sfc050.pdf|publisher=Department of Conservation|access-date=2015-03-31}}</ref>
+The non-native [[herbivore]]s, deer and possums, eat small amounts of the foliage or leaf litter of ''R. cissoides,'' and possums have been known to eat the berries and flowers of ''R. cissoides''.<ref name="nugent-fraser-sweetapple">{{cite web|title=Comparison of deer and possum diets and the impacts in podocarp-hardwood forest, Waihaha catchment, Pureora conservation park|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/science-and-technical/Sfc050.pdf|publisher=Department of Conservation|access-date=2015-03-31}}</ref>
 The blackberry rust fungus ''[[Phragmidium violaceum]]'', appears as black patches on the leaves and can cause mild infections in ''R. cissoides.''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fungi commonly mistaken for biological control agents |url=https://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/assets/Discover-Our-Research/Biosecurity/Biocontrol-ecology-of-weeds/2022/fungi_commonly_mistaken_for-biocontrol-agents.pdf |access-date=2022-11-05 |publisher=Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research |isbn=0-478-09306-3}}</ref>
@@ Line 55: / Line 51: @@
 ==Uses==
 ''Rubus cissoides'' and other native New Zealand ''Rubus'' species were used by Māori and continue to have multiple uses, including as food, construction materials, or medicines.<ref name=":0" /> The fruits are eaten by birds and people, the branches can be used for making traps, and the crushed berries form a dye which is blue or purple in colour.<ref name="pfaf" /><ref name=":0" />  Some of the ways Māori used ''Rubus'' plants medicinally include using the bark of the stem to treat abdominal pains, using root bark to treat diarrhea, and preparing crushed leaves to relieve chest congestions and colds.<ref name=":0" />
+== Gallery ==
+<gallery mode="packed-hover" heights="170px">
+File:Rubus cissoides A.Cunn. (AM AK376537).jpg
+File:Rubus cissoides - BushLawyer.jpg
+File:Rubus cissoides Lake Matheson Walk MRD 09.jpg
+File:Rubus cissoides 239955101.jpg
+File:Rubus cissoides 199185439.jpg
+</gallery>
 == References ==