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{{short description|Genus of bacteria}}
{{Short description|Genus of bacteria}}
{{Automatic taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Bacteroides biacutis 01.jpg
| image = Bacteroides biacutis 01.jpg
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| taxon = Bacteroides
| taxon = Bacteroides
| authority = [[Aldo Castellani|Castellani]] & [[Albert John Chalmers|Chalmers]] 1919<ref>Castellani, A., and Chalmers, A.J. Manual of Tropical Medicine, 3rd ed. (1919). Williams Wood and Co., New York.</ref>
| authority = [[Aldo Castellani|Castellani]] & [[Albert John Chalmers|Chalmers]] 1919<ref>Castellani, A., and Chalmers, A.J. Manual of Tropical Medicine, 3rd ed. (1919). Williams Wood and Co., New York.</ref>
| synonyms =
| synonyms =
| synonyms_ref =
| synonyms_ref =
| type_species =
| type_species =
| type_species_authority =
| type_species_authority =
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
| subdivision =
* ''[[Bacteroides acidifaciens|B. acidifaciens]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides acidifaciens|B. acidifaciens]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides barnesiaes|B. barnesiaes]]''<ref name=Bacteroides>{{cite journal|last1=Parte|first1=A.C.|title=Bacteroides|website=[[LPSN]]|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/bacteroides}}</ref>
* ''[[Bacteroides barnesiaes|B. barnesiaes]]''<ref name=Bacteroides>{{cite journal| vauthors = Parte AC |title=Bacteroides|website=[[LPSN]]|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/bacteroides|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2020-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124210720/https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/bacteroides|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Bacteroides caccae|B. caccae]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides caccae|B. caccae]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides caecicola|B. caecicola]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides caecicola|B. caecicola]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides caecigallinarum|B. caecigallinarum]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides caecigallinarum|B. caecigallinarum]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides cellulosilyticus|B. cellulosilyticus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides cellulosilyticus|B. cellulosilyticus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
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* ''[[Bacteroides coprophilus|B. coprophilus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides coprophilus|B. coprophilus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides coprosuis|B. coprosuis]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides coprosuis|B. coprosuis]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides distasonis|B. distasonis]]'' (reclassified as ''[[Parabacteroides distasonis]]'')
<!-- Bacteroides distasonis was reclassified as Parabacteroides distasonis. -->
* ''[[Bacteroides dorei|B. dorei]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides dorei|B. dorei]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides eggerthii|B. eggerthii]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides eggerthii|B. eggerthii]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides gracilis|B. gracilis]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides gracilis|B. gracilis]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides faecichinchillae|B. faecichinchillae]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides faecichinchillae|B. faecichinchillae]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
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* ''[[Bacteroides luti|B. luti]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides luti|B. luti]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides massiliensis|B. massiliensis]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides massiliensis|B. massiliensis]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides melaninogenicus|B. melaninogenicus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
<!-- Bacteroides melaninogenicus was reclassified as Prevotella melaninogenica. -->
* ''[[Bacteroides nordii|B. nordii]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides nordii|B. nordii]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides oleiciplenus|B. oleiciplenus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides oleiciplenus|B. oleiciplenus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides oris|B. oris]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides oris|B. oris]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides ovatus|B. ovatus]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides ovatus|B. ovatus]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides paurosaccharolyticus|B. paurosaccharolyticus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides paurosaccharolyticus|B. paurosaccharolyticus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides plebeius|B. plebeius]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides plebeius|B. plebeius]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides polypragmatus|B. polypragmatus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides polypragmatus|B. polypragmatus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides propionicifaciens|B. propionicifaciens]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides propionicifaciens|B. propionicifaciens]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides putredinis|B. putredinis]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides putredinis|B. putredinis]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides pyogenes|B. pyogenes]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides pyogenes|B. pyogenes]]''
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* ''[[Bacteroides vulgatus|B. vulgatus]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides vulgatus|B. vulgatus]]''
* ''[[Bacteroides xylanisolvens|B. xylanisolvens]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides xylanisolvens|B. xylanisolvens]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
* ''[[Bacteroides xylanolyticus|B. xylanolyticus]]''<ref name=Bacteroides/>
<!-- Bacteroides xylanolyticus was reclassified as Hungatella xylanolytica. -->
}}
}}


'''''Bacteroides''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Gram-negative]], [[Obligate anaerobe|obligate anaerobic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]]. ''Bacteroides'' species are non [[endospore]]-forming [[bacillus (shape)|bacilli]], and may be either [[motile]] or nonmotile, depending on the species.<ref name="Madigan M, Martinko J editors. 2005">{{cite book | veditors = Madigan M, Martinko J | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-13-144329-7 }}</ref> The DNA base composition is 40–48% [[GC-content|GC]]. Unusual in bacterial organisms, ''Bacteroides'' membranes contain [[sphingolipid]]s. They also contain [[meso-diaminopimelic acid]] in their [[Peptidoglycan|peptidoglycan layer]].
'''''Bacteroides''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Gram-negative]], [[Obligate anaerobe|obligate anaerobic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]]. ''Bacteroides'' species are non [[endospore]]-forming [[bacillus (shape)|bacilli]], and may be either [[motile]] or nonmotile, depending on the species.<ref name="Madigan_2005">{{cite book | veditors = Madigan M, Martinko J | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-13-144329-7 }}</ref> The DNA base composition is 40–48% [[GC-content|GC]]. Unusual in bacterial organisms, ''Bacteroides'' membranes contain [[sphingolipid]]s. They also contain [[meso-diaminopimelic acid]] in their [[Peptidoglycan|peptidoglycan layer]].


''Bacteroides'' species are normally [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]], making up the most substantial portion of the mammalian [[gut flora|gastrointestinal microbiota]],<ref name=Dorland>{{cite book | author = Dorland WAN (editor) | title = Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary| edition = 30th| publisher = W.B. Saunders| year = 2003| isbn = 978-0-7216-0146-5| title-link = Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary}}</ref> where they play a fundamental role in processing of complex molecules to simpler ones in the host intestine.<ref name=Wexler>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wexler HM | title = Bacteroides: the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 593–621 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17934076 | pmc = 2176045 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00008-07 }}</ref><ref name=jianxu>{{cite journal | vauthors = Xu J, Gordon JI | title = Honor thy symbionts | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 100 | issue = 18 | pages = 10452–9 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12923294 | pmc = 193582 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1734063100 | bibcode = 2003PNAS..10010452X }}</ref><ref name=jianxu2>{{cite journal | vauthors = Xu J, Mahowald MA, Ley RE, Lozupone CA, Hamady M, Martens EC, Henrissat B, Coutinho PM, Minx P, Latreille P, Cordum H, Van Brunt A, Kim K, Fulton RS, Fulton LA, Clifton SW, Wilson RK, Knight RD, Gordon JI | title = Evolution of symbiotic bacteria in the distal human intestine | journal = PLoS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 7 | pages = e156 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17579514 | pmc = 1892571 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050156 }}</ref> As many as 10<sup>10</sup>–10<sup>11</sup> cells per gram of human feces have been reported.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Finegold SM, Sutter VL, Mathisen GE | title = Normal indigenous intestinal flora (pp. 3-31) in Human intestinal microflora in health and disease | publisher = Academic Press| year = 1983| isbn = 978-0-12-341280-5}}</ref> They can use [[Monosaccharide|simple sugars]] when available; however, the main sources of energy for ''Bacteroides'' species in the gut are complex host-derived and plant [[glycan]]s.<ref name=Martens_2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martens EC, Chiang HC, Gordon JI | title = Mucosal glycan foraging enhances fitness and transmission of a saccharolytic human gut bacterial symbiont | journal = Cell Host & Microbe | volume = 4 | issue = 5 | pages = 447–57 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18996345 | pmc = 2605320 | doi = 10.1016/j.chom.2008.09.007 }}</ref> Studies indicate that long-term diet is strongly associated with the gut microbiome composition&mdash;those who eat plenty of protein and animal fats have predominantly ''Bacteroides'' bacteria, while for those who consume more carbohydrates the ''[[Prevotella]]'' species dominate.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, Bittinger K, Chen YY, Keilbaugh SA, Bewtra M, Knights D, Walters WA, Knight R, Sinha R, Gilroy E, Gupta K, Baldassano R, Nessel L, Li H, Bushman FD, Lewis JD | title = Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes | journal = Science | volume = 334 | issue = 6052 | pages = 105–8 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21885731 | pmc = 3368382 | doi = 10.1126/science.1208344 | bibcode = 2011Sci...334..105W }}</ref>
''Bacteroides'' species are normally [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]], making up the most substantial portion of the mammalian [[gut flora|gastrointestinal microbiota]],<ref name=Dorland>{{cite book | veditors = Dorland WA | title = Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary| edition = 30th| publisher = W.B. Saunders| year = 2003| isbn = 978-0-7216-0146-5| title-link = Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary}}</ref> where they play a fundamental role in processing of complex molecules to simpler ones in the host intestine.<ref name="pmid17934076">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wexler HM | title = Bacteroides: the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 593–621 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17934076 | pmc = 2176045 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00008-07 }}</ref><ref name=jianxu>{{cite journal | vauthors = Xu J, Gordon JI | title = Honor thy symbionts | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 100 | issue = 18 | pages = 10452–10459 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12923294 | pmc = 193582 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1734063100 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2003PNAS..10010452X }}</ref><ref name=jianxu2>{{cite journal | vauthors = Xu J, Mahowald MA, Ley RE, Lozupone CA, Hamady M, Martens EC, Henrissat B, Coutinho PM, Minx P, Latreille P, Cordum H, Van Brunt A, Kim K, Fulton RS, Fulton LA, Clifton SW, Wilson RK, Knight RD, Gordon JI | display-authors = 6 | title = Evolution of symbiotic bacteria in the distal human intestine | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 7 | pages = e156 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17579514 | pmc = 1892571 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050156 | doi-access = free }}</ref> As many as 10<sup>10</sup>–10<sup>11</sup> cells per gram of human feces have been reported.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Finegold SM, Sutter VL, Mathisen GE | title = Normal indigenous intestinal flora (pp. 3-31) in Human intestinal microflora in health and disease | publisher = Academic Press| year = 1983| isbn = 978-0-12-341280-5}}</ref> They can use [[Monosaccharide|simple sugars]] when available; however, the main sources of energy for ''Bacteroides'' species in the gut are complex host-derived and plant [[glycan]]s.<ref name=Martens_2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martens EC, Chiang HC, Gordon JI | title = Mucosal glycan foraging enhances fitness and transmission of a saccharolytic human gut bacterial symbiont | journal = Cell Host & Microbe | volume = 4 | issue = 5 | pages = 447–457 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18996345 | pmc = 2605320 | doi = 10.1016/j.chom.2008.09.007 }}</ref> Studies indicate that long-term diet is strongly associated with the [[gut microbiome]] composition—those who eat plenty of protein and animal fats have predominantly ''Bacteroides'' bacteria, while for those who consume more carbohydrates the ''[[Prevotella]]'' species dominate.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, Bittinger K, Chen YY, Keilbaugh SA, Bewtra M, Knights D, Walters WA, Knight R, Sinha R, Gilroy E, Gupta K, Baldassano R, Nessel L, Li H, Bushman FD, Lewis JD | display-authors = 6 | title = Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes | journal = Science | volume = 334 | issue = 6052 | pages = 105–108 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21885731 | pmc = 3368382 | doi = 10.1126/science.1208344 | bibcode = 2011Sci...334..105W }}</ref>


One of the most important clinically is ''[[Bacteroides fragilis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Appleman MD, Heseltine PN, Cherubin CE | title = Epidemiology, antimicrobial susceptibility, pathogenicity, and significance of Bacteroides fragilis group organisms isolated at Los Angeles County-University of Southern California Medical Center | journal = Reviews of Infectious Diseases | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 12–18 | date = Jan 1990 | pmid = 2017610 | doi = 10.1093/clinids/13.1.12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sears CL | title = Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis: a rogue among symbiotes | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 349–69, Table of Contents | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19366918 | pmc = 2668231 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00053-08 }}</ref>
One of the most important clinically is ''[[Bacteroides fragilis]]''.


''[[Bacteroides melaninogenicus]]'' has recently been reclassified and split into ''[[Prevotella melaninogenica]]'' and ''[[Prevotella intermedia]]''.<ref name="urlBacteroides Infection: Overview - eMedicine">{{cite web |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233339-overview |title=Bacteroides Infection: Overview - eMedicine |access-date=2008-12-11| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081222193852/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233339-overview| archive-date= 22 December 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>
''[[Bacteroides melaninogenicus]]'' has recently been reclassified and split into ''[[Prevotella melaninogenica]]'' and ''[[Prevotella intermedia]]''.<ref name="urlBacteroides Infection: Overview - eMedicine">{{cite web |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233339-overview |title=Bacteroides Infection: Overview - eMedicine |access-date=2008-12-11| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081222193852/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233339-overview| archive-date= 22 December 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>


==Pathogenesis==
==Pathogenesis==
''Bacteroides'' species also benefit their host by excluding potential pathogens from colonizing the gut. Some species (''B. fragilis'', for example) are [[Opportunistic infections|opportunistic human pathogens]], causing infections of the peritoneal cavity, gastrointestinal surgery, and [[appendicitis]] via abscess formation, inhibiting [[phagocytosis]], and inactivating [[β-lactam antibiotics|beta-lactam antibiotics]].<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book |veditors=Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}</ref> Although ''Bacteroides'' species are anaerobic, they are transiently [[aerotolerant]]<ref name=Baughn>{{cite book | last1 = Baughn | first1 = Anthony| last2 = Malamy | first2 = Michael| editor1-last = Nakano |editor1-first = Michiko| editor2-last = Zuber |editor2-first = Peter | title = Strict and Facultative Anaerobes: Medical and Environmental Aspects | publisher = CRC Press | year = 2004 |page = 161|chapter = Molecular Basis for Aerotolerance of the Obligately Anaerobic Bacteroides Spp.| isbn = 978-1-904933-03-8 }}</ref> and thus can survive in the abdominal cavity.
''Bacteroides'' species also benefit their host by excluding potential pathogens from colonizing the gut. Some species (''B. fragilis'', for example) are [[Opportunistic infections|opportunistic human pathogens]], causing infections of the peritoneal cavity, gastrointestinal surgery, and [[appendicitis]] via abscess formation, inhibiting [[phagocytosis]], and inactivating [[β-lactam antibiotics|beta-lactam antibiotics]].<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book |veditors=Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}</ref> Although ''Bacteroides'' species are anaerobic, they are transiently [[aerotolerant]]<ref name=Baughn>{{cite book | vauthors = Baughn A, Malamy M | veditors = Nakano M, Zuber P | title = Strict and Facultative Anaerobes: Medical and Environmental Aspects | publisher = CRC Press | year = 2004 |page = 161|chapter = Molecular Basis for Aerotolerance of the Obligately Anaerobic Bacteroides Spp.| isbn = 978-1-904933-03-8 }}</ref> and thus can survive in the abdominal cavity.


In general, ''Bacteroides'' are resistant to a wide variety of [[antibiotic]]s&mdash;β-lactams, [[aminoglycosides]], and recently many species have acquired resistance to [[erythromycin]] and [[tetracycline]]. This high level of [[antimicrobial resistance|antibiotic resistance]] has prompted concerns that ''Bacteroides'' species may become a reservoir for resistance in other, more highly pathogenic bacterial strains.<ref name=Salyers_2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Salyers AA, Gupta A, Wang Y | title = Human intestinal bacteria as reservoirs for antibiotic resistance genes | journal = Trends in Microbiology | volume = 12 | issue = 9 | pages = 412–6 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15337162 | doi = 10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.004 }}</ref><ref name=Lofmark>{{cite journal | vauthors = Löfmark S, Jernberg C, Jansson JK, Edlund C | title = Clindamycin-induced enrichment and long-term persistence of resistant Bacteroides spp. and resistance genes | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 58 | issue = 6 | pages = 1160–7 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17046967 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkl420 | doi-access = free }}</ref> It is susceptible to [[clindamycin]].<ref name=Davisclind>{{cite web| url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/Chindamycin.pdf| access-date = March 24, 2017| publisher = Davis| title = Clindamycin| date = 2017}}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
In general, ''Bacteroides'' are resistant to a wide variety of [[antibiotic]]s—β-lactams, [[aminoglycosides]], and recently many species have acquired resistance to [[erythromycin]] and [[tetracycline]]. This high level of [[antimicrobial resistance|antibiotic resistance]] has prompted concerns that ''Bacteroides'' species may become a reservoir for resistance in other, more highly pathogenic bacterial strains.<ref name=Salyers_2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Salyers AA, Gupta A, Wang Y | title = Human intestinal bacteria as reservoirs for antibiotic resistance genes | journal = Trends in Microbiology | volume = 12 | issue = 9 | pages = 412–416 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15337162 | doi = 10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.004 }}</ref><ref name=Lofmark>{{cite journal | vauthors = Löfmark S, Jernberg C, Jansson JK, Edlund C | title = Clindamycin-induced enrichment and long-term persistence of resistant Bacteroides spp. and resistance genes | journal = The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy | volume = 58 | issue = 6 | pages = 1160–1167 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17046967 | doi = 10.1093/jac/dkl420 | doi-access = }}</ref> It has been often considered susceptible to [[clindamycin]],<ref name=Davisclind>{{cite web| url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/Chindamycin.pdf| access-date = March 24, 2017| publisher = Davis| title = Clindamycin| date = 2017}}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but recent evidence demonstrated an increasing trend in clindamycin resistance rates (up to 33%).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Di Bella S, Antonello RM, Sanson G, Maraolo AE, Giacobbe DR, Sepulcri C, Ambretti S, Aschbacher R, Bartolini L, Bernardo M, Bielli A, Busetti M, Carcione D, Camarlinghi G, Carretto E, Cassetti T, Chilleri C, De Rosa FG, Dodaro S, Gargiulo R, Greco F, Knezevich A, Intra J, Lupia T, Concialdi E, Bianco G, Luzzaro F, Mauri C, Morroni G, Mosca A, Pagani E, Parisio EM, Ucciferri C, Vismara C, Luzzati R, Principe L | display-authors = 6 | title = Anaerobic bloodstream infections in Italy (ITANAEROBY): A 5-year retrospective nationwide survey | journal = Anaerobe | volume = 75 | pages = 102583 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 35568274 | doi = 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102583 | s2cid = 248736289 | hdl = 11368/3020691 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

In cases where ''Bacteroides'' can move outside the gut due to gastrointestinal tract rupture or intestinal surgery, ''Bacteroides'' can infect several parts of the human body. ''Bacteroides'' can enter the [[central nervous system]] by penetrating the [[Blood–brain barrier|blood brain barrier]] through the [[Olfactory nerve|olfactory]] and [[Trigeminal nerve|trigeminal]] cranial nerves and can cause [[meningitis]] and brain abscesses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zafar H, Saier MH | title = Gut ''Bacteroides'' species in health and disease | journal = Gut Microbes | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–20 | date = 2021-01-01 | pmid = 33535896 | pmc = 7872030 | doi = 10.1080/19490976.2020.1848158 }}</ref> ''Bacteroides'' has also been isolated from abscesses in the neck and lungs. Some ''Bacteroides'' species are associated with [[Crohn's disease]], [[appendicitis]] and [[inflammatory bowel disease]]. ''Bacteroides'' species play multiple roles within the human gut microbiome.<ref name="pmid17934076"/>


==Microbiological applications==
==Microbiological applications==
An alternative fecal indicator organism, ''Bacteroides'', has been suggested because they make up a significant portion of the fecal bacterial population,<ref name="Madigan M, Martinko J editors. 2005"/> have a high degree of host specificity that reflects differences in the digestive system of the host animal<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bernhard AE, Field KG | title = A PCR assay To discriminate human and ruminant feces on the basis of host differences in Bacteroides-Prevotella genes encoding 16S rRNA | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 66 | issue = 10 | pages = 4571–4 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11010920 | pmc = 92346 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.66.10.4571-4574.2000 | url = http://water.rutgers.edu/Source_Tracking/Bacteroidetes/APCRAssayToDiscriminateHumanandRuminantFecesontheBasisofHostDifferencesinBacteroides.pdf | access-date = 2011-02-17 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100705213726/http://water.rutgers.edu/Source_Tracking/Bacteroidetes/APCRAssayToDiscriminateHumanandRuminantFecesontheBasisofHostDifferencesinBacteroides.pdf | archive-date = 2010-07-05 }}</ref> Over the past decade, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods have been used to detect the presence of various microbial pathogens through the amplification of specific DNA sequences without culturing bacteria. One study has measured the amount of ''Bacteroides'' by using qPCR to quantify the host-specific 16S rRNA [[genetic marker]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Layton A, McKay L, Williams D, Garrett V, Gentry R, Sayler G | title = Development of Bacteroides 16S rRNA gene TaqMan-based real-time PCR assays for estimation of total, human, and bovine fecal pollution in water | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 72 | issue = 6 | pages = 4214–24 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16751534 | pmc = 1489674 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.01036-05 }}</ref> This technique allows quantification of genetic markers that are specific to the host of the bacteria Bacteroides and allow detection of recent contamination. A recent report found temperature plays a major role in the amount of time the bacteria will persist in the environment, the life span increases with colder temperatures (0–4&nbsp;°C).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bell A, Layton AC, McKay L, Williams D, Gentry R, Sayler GS | title = Factors influencing the persistence of fecal Bacteroides in stream water | journal = Journal of Environmental Quality | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 1224–32 | date = 27 Apr 2009 | pmid = 19398520 | doi = 10.2134/jeq2008.0258 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
An alternative fecal indicator organism, ''Bacteroides'', has been suggested because they make up a significant portion of the fecal bacterial population,<ref name="Madigan_2005"/> have a high degree of host specificity that reflects differences in the digestive system of the host animal<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bernhard AE, Field KG | title = A PCR assay To discriminate human and ruminant feces on the basis of host differences in Bacteroides-Prevotella genes encoding 16S rRNA | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 66 | issue = 10 | pages = 4571–4574 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11010920 | pmc = 92346 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.66.10.4571-4574.2000 | url = http://water.rutgers.edu/Source_Tracking/Bacteroidetes/APCRAssayToDiscriminateHumanandRuminantFecesontheBasisofHostDifferencesinBacteroides.pdf | access-date = 2011-02-17 | url-status = dead | bibcode = 2000ApEnM..66.4571B | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100705213726/http://water.rutgers.edu/Source_Tracking/Bacteroidetes/APCRAssayToDiscriminateHumanandRuminantFecesontheBasisofHostDifferencesinBacteroides.pdf | archive-date = 2010-07-05 }}</ref> Over the past decade, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods have been used to detect the presence of various microbial pathogens through the amplification of specific DNA sequences without culturing bacteria. One study has measured the amount of ''Bacteroides'' by using qPCR to quantify the host-specific 16S rRNA [[genetic marker]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Layton A, McKay L, Williams D, Garrett V, Gentry R, Sayler G | title = Development of Bacteroides 16S rRNA gene TaqMan-based real-time PCR assays for estimation of total, human, and bovine fecal pollution in water | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 72 | issue = 6 | pages = 4214–4224 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16751534 | pmc = 1489674 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.01036-05 | bibcode = 2006ApEnM..72.4214L }}</ref> This technique allows quantification of genetic markers that are specific to the host of the bacteria Bacteroides and allow detection of recent contamination. A recent report found temperature plays a major role in the amount of time the bacteria will persist in the environment, the life span increases with colder temperatures (0–4&nbsp;°C).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bell A, Layton AC, McKay L, Williams D, Gentry R, Sayler GS | title = Factors influencing the persistence of fecal Bacteroides in stream water | journal = Journal of Environmental Quality | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 1224–1232 | date = 27 Apr 2009 | pmid = 19398520 | doi = 10.2134/jeq2008.0258 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2009JEnvQ..38.1224B }}</ref>


⚫
"A new study has found that there is a three-way relationship between a type of gut bacteria, cortisol, and brain metabolites. This relationship, the researchers hypothesize, may potentially lead to further insight into autism, but more in-depth studies are needed."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319094.php|title=Gut bacteria influence the brain indirectly, study shows|work=Medical News Today|access-date=2018-01-07|language=en|archive-date=2018-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108062424/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319094.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
Early research suggests that [https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319094.php affects brain development].


Another study showed a 5.6-times higher risk of osteoporosis fractures in the low Bacteroides group of Japanese postmenopausal women.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ozaki D, Kubota R, Maeno T, Abdelhakim M, Hitosugi N | title = Association between gut microbiota, bone metabolism, and fracture risk in postmenopausal Japanese women | journal = Osteoporosis International | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 145–156 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 33241467 | pmc = 7755620 | doi = 10.1007/s00198-020-05728-y }}</ref>
⚫
"A new study has found that there is a three-way relationship between a type of gut bacteria, cortisol, and brain metabolites. This relationship, the researchers hypothesize, may potentially lead to further insight into autism, but more in-depth studies are needed."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319094.php|title=Gut bacteria influence the brain indirectly, study shows|work=Medical News Today|access-date=2018-01-07|language=en}}</ref>


==Human==
==Human==
Members of the [[Bacillota]] and [[Bacteroidota]] phyla make up a majority of the bacterial species in the human intestinal microbiota (the "gut microbiome"). The healthy human gut microbiome consists of 109 abundant species of which 31 (19.7%) are members of the Bacteroidetes while 63 (40%) and 32 (20%) belong to [[Bacillota]] and [[Actinomycetota]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = King CH, Desai H, Sylvetsky AC, LoTempio J, Ayanyan S, Carrie J, Crandall KA, Fochtman BC, Gasparyan L, Gulzar N, Howell P, Issa N, Krampis K, Mishra L, Morizono H, Pisegna JR, Rao S, Ren Y, Simonyan V, Smith K, VedBrat S, Yao MD, Mazumder R | display-authors = 6 | title = Baseline human gut microbiota profile in healthy people and standard reporting template | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 14 | issue = 9 | pages = e0206484 | date = 2019-09-11 | pmid = 31509535 | pmc = 6738582 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0206484 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2019PLoSO..1406484K }}</ref>
⚫
''Bacteroides'' species' main source of energy is fermentation of a wide range of sugar derivatives from plant material. These compounds are common in the human colon and are potentially toxic. ''Bacteroides'' such as ''[[Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron]]''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wexler HM | title = Bacteroides: the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 593–621 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17934076 | pmc = 2176045 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00008-07 }}</ref> converts these sugars to fermentation products which are beneficial to humans. ''Bacteroides'' also have the ability to remove side chains from bile acids, thus returning bile acids to the hepatic circulation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Microbiology: An Evolving Science|last=Slonczewski|first=Joan L.|last2=Foster|first2=John W.|date=2013-10-23|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393123685|edition=3|location=S.l.|pages=749|language=en}}</ref>

⚫
''Bacteroides'' species' main source of energy is fermentation of a wide range of sugar derivatives from plant material. These compounds are common in the human colon and are potentially toxic. ''Bacteroides'' such as ''[[Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron]]''<ref name="pmid17934076"/> converts these sugars to fermentation products which are beneficial to humans. ''Bacteroides'' also have the ability to remove side chains from bile acids, thus returning bile acids to the hepatic circulation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Microbiology: An Evolving Science| vauthors = Slonczewski JL, Foster JW |date=2013-10-23|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393123685|edition=3rd|location=S.l.|pages=749|language=en}}</ref>

⚫
There is data suggesting that members of ''Bacteroides'' affect the lean or obese phenotype in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, Cheng J, Duncan AE, Kau AL, Griffin NW, Lombard V, Henrissat B, Bain JR, Muehlbauer MJ, Ilkayeva O, Semenkovich CF, Funai K, Hayashi DK, Lyle BJ, Martini MC, Ursell LK, Clemente JC, Van Treuren W, Walters WA, Knight R, Newgard CB, Heath AC, Gordon JI | display-authors = 6 | title = Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice | journal = Science | volume = 341 | issue = 6150 | pages = 1241214 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24009397 | pmc = 3829625 | doi = 10.1126/science.1241214 }}</ref> In this article, one human twin is obese while the other is lean. When their fecal microbiota is transplanted into germ-free mice, the phenotype in the mouse model corresponds to that in humans.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

''Bacteroides'' are symbiont colonizers of their host intestinal niche and serve several physiological functions, some of which can be beneficial while others are detrimental. ''Bacteroides'' participate in the regulation of the intestinal micro-environment and [[carbohydrate metabolism]] with the capacity to adapt to the host environment by hydrolyzing [[Bile acid|bile salts]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wexler AG, Goodman AL | title = An insider's perspective: Bacteroides as a window into the microbiome | journal = Nature Microbiology | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 17026 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28440278 | pmc = 5679392 | doi = 10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.26 }}</ref> Some ''Bacteroides'' produce [[acetate]] and [[propionate]] during sugar fermentation. Acetate can prevent the transport of toxins from the gut to the blood while propionate can prevent the formation of tumors in the human colon.<ref name="Roles of intestinal bacteroides">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang C, Zhao J, Zhang H, Lee YK, Zhai Q, Chen W | title = Roles of intestinal ''bacteroides'' in human health and diseases | journal = Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition | volume = 61 | issue = 21 | pages = 3518–3536 | date = 2021-11-30 | pmid = 32757948 | doi = 10.1080/10408398.2020.1802695 | s2cid = 221036664 }}</ref>


''Bacteroides'' such as ''Bacteroides uniformis'' may play a role in alleviating [[obesity]]. Low abundance of ''B. uniformis'' found in the intestine of formula-fed infants were associated with a high risk of obesity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Owen CG, Martin RM, Whincup PH, Smith GD, Cook DG | title = Effect of infant feeding on the risk of obesity across the life course: a quantitative review of published evidence | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 115 | issue = 5 | pages = 1367–1377 | date = May 2005 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2004-1176 | pmid = 15867049 | s2cid = 46257383 | url = https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/115/5/1367/67552/Effect-of-Infant-Feeding-on-the-Risk-of-Obesity?autologincheck=redirected }}</ref> Administering ''B. uniformis'' orally may alleviate metabolic and immune dysfunction which may contribute to obesity in mice. Similarly, ''Bacteroides acidifaciens'' may assist the activating fat oxidation in [[Adipose tissue|adipose]] tissue and thus could protect against obesity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gauffin Cano P, Santacruz A, Moya Á, Sanz Y | title = Bacteroides uniformis CECT 7771 ameliorates metabolic and immunological dysfunction in mice with high-fat-diet induced obesity | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 7 | pages = e41079 | date = 2012-07-26 | pmid = 22844426 | pmc = 3406031 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0041079 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...741079G | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Roles of intestinal bacteroides"/>
⚫
There is data suggesting that members of ''Bacteroides'' affect the lean or obese phenotype in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, Cheng J, Duncan AE, Kau AL, Griffin NW, Lombard V, Henrissat B, Bain JR, Muehlbauer MJ, Ilkayeva O, Semenkovich CF, Funai K, Hayashi DK, Lyle BJ, Martini MC, Ursell LK, Clemente JC, Van Treuren W, Walters WA, Knight R, Newgard CB, Heath AC, Gordon JI | title = Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice | journal = Science | volume = 341 | issue = 6150 | pages = 1241214 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24009397 | pmc = 3829625 | doi = 10.1126/science.1241214 }}</ref> In this article, one human twin is obese while the other is lean. When their fecal microbiota is transplanted into germ-free mice, the phenotype in the mouse model corresponds to that in humans.


== See also ==
* ''[[CrAssphage]]''
* ''[[CrAssphage]]''
* ''[[Cytophaga]]''
* ''[[Cytophaga]]''
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[[Category:Bacteroidetes]]
[[Category:Bacteroidia]]
[[Category:Gram-negative bacteria]]
[[Category:Gram-negative bacteria]]
[[Category:Medically important anaerobes]]
[[Category:Gut flora bacteria]]
[[Category:Gut flora bacteria]]
[[Category:Bacteria genera]]
[[Category:Bacteria genera]]
[[Category:Anaerobes]]

Latest revision as of 16:14, 23 March 2024

Bacteroides
"Bacteroides biacutis" anaerobically cultured in blood agar medium
Bacteroides biacutis anaerobically cultured in blood agar medium
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Bacteroidota
Class: Bacteroidia
Order: Bacteroidales
Family: Bacteroidaceae
Genus: Bacteroides
Castellani & Chalmers 1919[1]
Species

Bacteroides is a genus of Gram-negative, obligate anaerobic bacteria. Bacteroides species are non endospore-forming bacilli, and may be either motile or nonmotile, depending on the species.[3] The DNA base composition is 40–48% GC. Unusual in bacterial organisms, Bacteroides membranes contain sphingolipids. They also contain meso-diaminopimelic acid in their peptidoglycan layer.

Bacteroides species are normally mutualistic, making up the most substantial portion of the mammalian gastrointestinal microbiota,[4] where they play a fundamental role in processing of complex molecules to simpler ones in the host intestine.[5][6][7] As many as 1010–1011 cells per gram of human feces have been reported.[8] They can use simple sugars when available; however, the main sources of energy for Bacteroides species in the gut are complex host-derived and plant glycans.[9] Studies indicate that long-term diet is strongly associated with the gut microbiome composition—those who eat plenty of protein and animal fats have predominantly Bacteroides bacteria, while for those who consume more carbohydrates the Prevotella species dominate.[10]

One of the most important clinically is Bacteroides fragilis.[11][12]

Bacteroides melaninogenicus has recently been reclassified and split into Prevotella melaninogenica and Prevotella intermedia.[13]

Pathogenesis

[edit]

Bacteroides species also benefit their host by excluding potential pathogens from colonizing the gut. Some species (B. fragilis, for example) are opportunistic human pathogens, causing infections of the peritoneal cavity, gastrointestinal surgery, and appendicitis via abscess formation, inhibiting phagocytosis, and inactivating beta-lactam antibiotics.[14] Although Bacteroides species are anaerobic, they are transiently aerotolerant[15] and thus can survive in the abdominal cavity.

In general, Bacteroides are resistant to a wide variety of antibiotics—β-lactams, aminoglycosides, and recently many species have acquired resistance to erythromycin and tetracycline. This high level of antibiotic resistance has prompted concerns that Bacteroides species may become a reservoir for resistance in other, more highly pathogenic bacterial strains.[16][17] It has been often considered susceptible to clindamycin,[18] but recent evidence demonstrated an increasing trend in clindamycin resistance rates (up to 33%).[19]

In cases where Bacteroides can move outside the gut due to gastrointestinal tract rupture or intestinal surgery, Bacteroides can infect several parts of the human body. Bacteroides can enter the central nervous system by penetrating the blood brain barrier through the olfactory and trigeminal cranial nerves and can cause meningitis and brain abscesses.[20] Bacteroides has also been isolated from abscesses in the neck and lungs. Some Bacteroides species are associated with Crohn's disease, appendicitis and inflammatory bowel disease. Bacteroides species play multiple roles within the human gut microbiome.[5]

Microbiological applications

[edit]

An alternative fecal indicator organism, Bacteroides, has been suggested because they make up a significant portion of the fecal bacterial population,[3] have a high degree of host specificity that reflects differences in the digestive system of the host animal[21] Over the past decade, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods have been used to detect the presence of various microbial pathogens through the amplification of specific DNA sequences without culturing bacteria. One study has measured the amount of Bacteroides by using qPCR to quantify the host-specific 16S rRNA genetic marker.[22] This technique allows quantification of genetic markers that are specific to the host of the bacteria Bacteroides and allow detection of recent contamination. A recent report found temperature plays a major role in the amount of time the bacteria will persist in the environment, the life span increases with colder temperatures (0–4 °C).[23]

"A new study has found that there is a three-way relationship between a type of gut bacteria, cortisol, and brain metabolites. This relationship, the researchers hypothesize, may potentially lead to further insight into autism, but more in-depth studies are needed."[24]

Another study showed a 5.6-times higher risk of osteoporosis fractures in the low Bacteroides group of Japanese postmenopausal women.[25]

Human

[edit]

Members of the Bacillota and Bacteroidota phyla make up a majority of the bacterial species in the human intestinal microbiota (the "gut microbiome"). The healthy human gut microbiome consists of 109 abundant species of which 31 (19.7%) are members of the Bacteroidetes while 63 (40%) and 32 (20%) belong to Bacillota and Actinomycetota.[26]

Bacteroides species' main source of energy is fermentation of a wide range of sugar derivatives from plant material. These compounds are common in the human colon and are potentially toxic. Bacteroides such as Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron[5] converts these sugars to fermentation products which are beneficial to humans. Bacteroides also have the ability to remove side chains from bile acids, thus returning bile acids to the hepatic circulation.[27]

There is data suggesting that members of Bacteroides affect the lean or obese phenotype in humans.[28] In this article, one human twin is obese while the other is lean. When their fecal microbiota is transplanted into germ-free mice, the phenotype in the mouse model corresponds to that in humans.[citation needed]

Bacteroides are symbiont colonizers of their host intestinal niche and serve several physiological functions, some of which can be beneficial while others are detrimental. Bacteroides participate in the regulation of the intestinal micro-environment and carbohydrate metabolism with the capacity to adapt to the host environment by hydrolyzing bile salts.[29] Some Bacteroides produce acetate and propionate during sugar fermentation. Acetate can prevent the transport of toxins from the gut to the blood while propionate can prevent the formation of tumors in the human colon.[30]

Bacteroides such as Bacteroides uniformis may play a role in alleviating obesity. Low abundance of B. uniformis found in the intestine of formula-fed infants were associated with a high risk of obesity.[31] Administering B. uniformis orally may alleviate metabolic and immune dysfunction which may contribute to obesity in mice. Similarly, Bacteroides acidifaciens may assist the activating fat oxidation in adipose tissue and thus could protect against obesity.[32][30]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Castellani, A., and Chalmers, A.J. Manual of Tropical Medicine, 3rd ed. (1919). Williams Wood and Co., New York.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao Parte AC. "Bacteroides". LPSN. Archived from the original on 2020-11-24. Retrieved 2020-02-19.
  3. ^ a b Madigan M, Martinko J, eds. (2005). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (11th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-144329-7.
  4. ^ Dorland WA, ed. (2003). Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (30th ed.). W.B. Saunders. ISBN 978-0-7216-0146-5.
  5. ^ a b c Wexler HM (October 2007). "Bacteroides: the good, the bad, and the nitty-gritty". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 20 (4): 593–621. doi:10.1128/CMR.00008-07. PMC 2176045. PMID 17934076.
  6. ^ Xu J, Gordon JI (September 2003). "Honor thy symbionts". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (18): 10452–10459. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10010452X. doi:10.1073/pnas.1734063100. PMC 193582. PMID 12923294.
  7. ^ Xu J, Mahowald MA, Ley RE, Lozupone CA, Hamady M, Martens EC, et al. (July 2007). "Evolution of symbiotic bacteria in the distal human intestine". PLOS Biology. 5 (7): e156. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050156. PMC 1892571. PMID 17579514.
  8. ^ Finegold SM, Sutter VL, Mathisen GE (1983). Normal indigenous intestinal flora (pp. 3-31) in Human intestinal microflora in health and disease. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-341280-5.
  9. ^ Martens EC, Chiang HC, Gordon JI (November 2008). "Mucosal glycan foraging enhances fitness and transmission of a saccharolytic human gut bacterial symbiont". Cell Host & Microbe. 4 (5): 447–457. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2008.09.007. PMC 2605320. PMID 18996345.
  10. ^ Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, Bittinger K, Chen YY, Keilbaugh SA, et al. (October 2011). "Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes". Science. 334 (6052): 105–108. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..105W. doi:10.1126/science.1208344. PMC 3368382. PMID 21885731.
  11. ^ Appleman MD, Heseltine PN, Cherubin CE (Jan 1990). "Epidemiology, antimicrobial susceptibility, pathogenicity, and significance of Bacteroides fragilis group organisms isolated at Los Angeles County-University of Southern California Medical Center". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 13 (1): 12–18. doi:10.1093/clinids/13.1.12. PMID 2017610.
  12. ^ Sears CL (April 2009). "Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis: a rogue among symbiotes". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 22 (2): 349–69, Table of Contents. doi:10.1128/CMR.00053-08. PMC 2668231. PMID 19366918.
  13. ^ "Bacteroides Infection: Overview - eMedicine". Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-11.
  14. ^ Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-8385-8529-0.
  15. ^ Baughn A, Malamy M (2004). "Molecular Basis for Aerotolerance of the Obligately Anaerobic Bacteroides Spp.". In Nakano M, Zuber P (eds.). Strict and Facultative Anaerobes: Medical and Environmental Aspects. CRC Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-904933-03-8.
  16. ^ Salyers AA, Gupta A, Wang Y (September 2004). "Human intestinal bacteria as reservoirs for antibiotic resistance genes". Trends in Microbiology. 12 (9): 412–416. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.004. PMID 15337162.
  17. ^ Löfmark S, Jernberg C, Jansson JK, Edlund C (December 2006). "Clindamycin-induced enrichment and long-term persistence of resistant Bacteroides spp. and resistance genes". The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 58 (6): 1160–1167. doi:10.1093/jac/dkl420. PMID 17046967.
  18. ^ "Clindamycin" (PDF). Davis. 2017. Retrieved March 24, 2017.[permanent dead link]
  19. ^ Di Bella S, Antonello RM, Sanson G, Maraolo AE, Giacobbe DR, Sepulcri C, et al. (June 2022). "Anaerobic bloodstream infections in Italy (ITANAEROBY): A 5-year retrospective nationwide survey". Anaerobe. 75: 102583. doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102583. hdl:11368/3020691. PMID 35568274. S2CID 248736289.
  20. ^ Zafar H, Saier MH (2021-01-01). "Gut Bacteroides species in health and disease". Gut Microbes. 13 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1080/19490976.2020.1848158. PMC 7872030. PMID 33535896.
  21. ^ Bernhard AE, Field KG (October 2000). "A PCR assay To discriminate human and ruminant feces on the basis of host differences in Bacteroides-Prevotella genes encoding 16S rRNA" (PDF). Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 66 (10): 4571–4574. Bibcode:2000ApEnM..66.4571B. doi:10.1128/AEM.66.10.4571-4574.2000. PMC 92346. PMID 11010920. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-05. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
  22. ^ Layton A, McKay L, Williams D, Garrett V, Gentry R, Sayler G (June 2006). "Development of Bacteroides 16S rRNA gene TaqMan-based real-time PCR assays for estimation of total, human, and bovine fecal pollution in water". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 72 (6): 4214–4224. Bibcode:2006ApEnM..72.4214L. doi:10.1128/AEM.01036-05. PMC 1489674. PMID 16751534.
  23. ^ Bell A, Layton AC, McKay L, Williams D, Gentry R, Sayler GS (27 Apr 2009). "Factors influencing the persistence of fecal Bacteroides in stream water". Journal of Environmental Quality. 38 (3): 1224–1232. Bibcode:2009JEnvQ..38.1224B. doi:10.2134/jeq2008.0258. PMID 19398520.
  24. ^ "Gut bacteria influence the brain indirectly, study shows". Medical News Today. Archived from the original on 2018-01-08. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
  25. ^ Ozaki D, Kubota R, Maeno T, Abdelhakim M, Hitosugi N (January 2021). "Association between gut microbiota, bone metabolism, and fracture risk in postmenopausal Japanese women". Osteoporosis International. 32 (1): 145–156. doi:10.1007/s00198-020-05728-y. PMC 7755620. PMID 33241467.
  26. ^ King CH, Desai H, Sylvetsky AC, LoTempio J, Ayanyan S, Carrie J, et al. (2019-09-11). "Baseline human gut microbiota profile in healthy people and standard reporting template". PLOS ONE. 14 (9): e0206484. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1406484K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0206484. PMC 6738582. PMID 31509535.
  27. ^ Slonczewski JL, Foster JW (2013-10-23). Microbiology: An Evolving Science (3rd ed.). S.l.: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 749. ISBN 9780393123685.
  28. ^ Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, Cheng J, Duncan AE, Kau AL, et al. (September 2013). "Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice". Science. 341 (6150): 1241214. doi:10.1126/science.1241214. PMC 3829625. PMID 24009397.
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