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{{Short description|Children of Japanese immigrants}}
{{Short description|Children of Japanese immigrants}}
{{For|the episode of ''The X-Files''|Nisei (The X-Files){{!}}Nisei (''The X-Files'')}}
{{confusing|reason=the article text speaks in several parts about generation in the immigrant sense as if it corresponds to generation in the age sense, making it unclear if it concerns this concept during a specific historical time period or whether it concerns the concept in general|date=December 2021}}
{{For|the episode of ''The X-Files''|Nisei (The X-Files)}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Italic title|reason=[[:Category:Japanese words and phrases]]}}
{{Italic title|reason=[[:Category:Japanese words and phrases]]}}
{{nihongo3|"second generation"|二世|'''Nisei'''}} is a [[Japanese language|Japanese-language]] term used in countries in [[North America]] and [[South America]] to specify the [[nikkeijin|ethnically Japanese]] children born in the new country to Japanese-born immigrants (who are called {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Issei]]}}). The {{lang|ja-Latn|Nisei}} are considered the [[Second generation immigrant|second generation]] and the grandchildren of the Japanese-born immigrants are called {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Sansei]]}}, or third generation. ({{lang|ja-Latn|Ichi, ni, san}} are Japanese for "one, two, three", and are the ordinals used with ''sei''; ''see'' [[Japanese numerals]].) Though ''nisei'' means "second-generation immigrant", it often refers to the children of the [[japanese diaspora|initial diaspora]], occurring in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and overlapping with the [[G.I. generation|G.I.]] and [[silent generation]]s.
{{multiple image
| total_width = 380
| image1 = Little girl in kindergarten uniform of Japan.jpg
| width1 = 909 | height1 = 1024
| alt1 = European Nisei girl.
| image2 = Visita 2 - Ski Resort.jpg
| width2 = 1461 | height2 = 1407
| alt2 = North American Nisei girl.
| footer = European and Latin American Nisei girls
}}

{{nihongo3|"second generation"|二世|'''Nisei'''}} is a [[Japanese language|Japanese-language]] term used in countries in [[North America]] and [[South America]] to specify the [[Japanese people|ethnically Japanese]] children born in the new country to [[Japan]]ese-born immigrants (who are called {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Issei]]}}). The {{lang|ja-Latn|Nisei}} are considered the [[Second generation immigrant|second generation]], and the grandchildren of the Japanese-born immigrants are called {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Sansei]]}}, or third generation. ({{lang|ja-Latn|Ichi, ni, san}} are Japanese for "one, two, three"; ''see'' [[Japanese numerals]].)


==History==
==History==
[[File:Japanese Immigrants in Immigrant´s public lodge.jpg|thumb|right|The children of these Japanese-Brazilian (''Nipo-brasileiros'') immigrants would be called ''Nisei''.]]
[[File:Japanese Immigrants in Immigrant´s public lodge.jpg|thumb|right|The children of these Japanese Brazilian (''Nipo-brasileiros'') immigrants would be called ''Nisei''.]]


Although the earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants left Japan centuries ago, and a later group settled in [[Mexico]] in 1897,<ref name="mofa-Mexico">Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/mexico/index.html "Japan-Mexico Relations"]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref> the four largest populations of Japanese immigrants and their descendants live in [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Peru]], and the [[United States]].
Although the earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants left Japan centuries ago, and a later group settled in [[Mexico]] in 1897,<ref name="mofa-Mexico">Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/mexico/index.html "Japan-Mexico Relations"]; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref> the four largest populations of Japanese immigrants and their descendants live in [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Peru]], and the [[United States]].


===American ''Nisei''===
===American ''Nisei''===
{{Main|Japanese Americans}}
{{Main|Japanese Americans}}


Some US ''Nisei'' were born after the end of [[World War II]] during the [[baby boom]]. Most ''Nisei'', however, who were living in the western United States during World War II, were forcibly [[Internment of Japanese Americans|interned]] with their parents (''Issei'') after [[Executive Order 9066]] was promulgated to exclude everyone of Japanese descent from the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] areas of [[California]], [[Oregon]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and [[Alaska]]. It has been argued that soo
Some US ''Nisei'' were born after the end of [[World War II]] during the [[baby boom]]. Most ''Nisei'', however, who were living in the western United States during World War II, were forcibly [[Internment of Japanese Americans|interned]] with their parents (''Issei'') after [[Executive Order 9066]] was promulgated to exclude everyone of Japanese descent from the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] areas of [[California]], [[Oregon]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and [[Alaska]]. It has been argued that some ''Nisei'' feel caught in a dilemma between their Nisei parents and other Americans.<ref>Miyoshi, Nobu. (1978). [http://www.momomedia.com/CLPEF/sansei/identity.htm "Identity Crisis of the Sansei and the Concentration Camp"], NIMH Grant No. 1 R13 MH25655-01.</ref> The Nisei of [[Hawaii]] had a somewhat different experience.





















me ''Nisei'' feel caught in a dilemma between their Nisei parents and other Americans.<ref>Miyoshi, Nobu. (1978). [http://www.momomedia.com/CLPEF/sansei/identity.htm "Identity Crisis of the Sansei and the Concentration Camp"], NIMH Grant No. 1 R13 MH25655-01.</ref> The Nisei of [[Hawaii]] had a somewhat different experience.


In the United States, two representative ''Nisei'' were [[Daniel Inouye]] and [[Fred Korematsu]]. Hawaiian-born {{nihongo|Daniel Ken Inouye|井上 建|''Inoue Ken''|extra=|1924–2012}} was one of many young Nisei men who volunteered to fight in the nation's military when restrictions against Japanese-American enlistment were removed in 1943. Inouye later went on to become a U.S. Senator from Hawaii after it achieved statehood.
In the United States, two representative ''Nisei'' were [[Daniel Inouye]] and [[Fred Korematsu]]. Hawaiian-born {{nihongo|Daniel Ken Inouye|井上 建|''Inoue Ken''|extra=|1924–2012}} was one of many young Nisei men who volunteered to fight in the nation's military when restrictions against Japanese-American enlistment were removed in 1943. Inouye later went on to become a U.S. Senator from Hawaii after it achieved statehood.
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{{Main|Japanese Brazilians}}
{{Main|Japanese Brazilians}}


Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside [[Japan]], estimated to number more than 1.5 million (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity),<ref>MOFA, [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/brazil/index.html "Japan-Brazil Relations"]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref> more than that of the 1.2 million in the [[United States]].<ref>US Census, [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en "Selected Population Profile in the United States; Japanese alone or in any combination," 2005] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20200210230113/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en |date=February 10, 2020 }}; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref> The ''Nisei'' Japanese Brazilians are an important part of the ethnic minority in that [[South America]]n nation.
Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside of [[Japan]], estimated to number more than 1.5 million (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity),<ref>MOFA, [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/brazil/index.html "Japan-Brazil Relations"]; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref> more than that of the 1.2 million in the [[United States]].<ref>US Census, [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en "Selected Population Profile in the United States; Japanese alone or in any combination," 2005] {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20200210230113/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en |date=February 10, 2020}}; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref> The ''Nisei'' Japanese Brazilians are an important part of the ethnic minority in that [[South America]]n nation.


===Canadian ''Nisei''===
===Canadian ''Nisei''===
{{Main|Japanese Canadians}}
{{Main|Japanese Canadians}}


Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences.<ref name="mclellan36">McLellan, Janet. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA36&dq=issei+japanese+canadians&lr=&sig=ACfU3U1EQmqCE1EZFEjUEgEZgsajRaUlTQ ''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto,'' p. 36.]</ref><ref>Ikawa, Fumiko. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/667278 "Reviews: ''Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura'' by Masao Gamo and "''Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin''" by Kazuko Tsurumi], ''American Anthropologist'' (US). New Series, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb., 1963), pp. 152–156.</ref>
Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences.<ref name="mclellan36">McLellan, Janet. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=issei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA36 ''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto,'' p. 36.]</ref><ref>Ikawa, Fumiko. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/667278 "Reviews: ''Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura'' by Masao Gamo and "''Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin''" by Kazuko Tsurumi], ''American Anthropologist'' (US). New Series, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb., 1963), pp. 152–156.</ref>


===Peruvian ''Nisei''===
===Peruvian ''Nisei''===
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== Cultural profile ==
== Cultural profile ==
=== Generations ===
=== Generations ===
Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the [[Japanese numbers]] corresponding to the [[generation]] with the Japanese word for generation (''sei'' 世). The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like ''Issei'', ''Nisei,'' and ''Sansei'' which describe the first, [[Second generation immigrant|second]] and third generation of immigrants. The fourth generation is called ''Yonsei'' (四世) and the fifth is called ''Gosei'' (五世). The ''Issei,'' ''Nisei'' and ''Sansei'' generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, and religious belief and practice, and other matters.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA66&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&lr=&sig=ACfU3U19eRSR_W-IdoJTjJaAuhIOi6ihOA#PPA59,M1 p. 59.]</ref> The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes and behaviour patterns.<ref name="mclellan36"/>
Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the [[Japanese numbers]] corresponding to the [[generation]] with the Japanese word for generation (''sei'' 世). The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like ''Issei'', ''Nisei,'' and ''Sansei'' which describe the first, [[Second generation immigrant|second]] and third generation of immigrants. The fourth generation is called ''Yonsei'' (四世) and the fifth is called ''Gosei'' (五世). The ''Issei,'' ''Nisei'' and ''Sansei'' generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, and religious belief and practice, and other matters.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA66 p. 59.]</ref> The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes and behaviour patterns.<ref name="mclellan36" />


The term ''[[Japanese diaspora|Nikkei]]'' (日系) was coined by a multinational group of sociologists and encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.<ref>[http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/what/ "What is Nikkei?"] Japanese American National Museum.</ref> The collective memory of the ''Issei'' and older ''Nisei'' was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.<ref name="mclellan37">McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA66&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&lr=&sig=ACfU3U19eRSR_W-IdoJTjJaAuhIOi6ihOA#PPA37,M1 p. 37.]</ref> In this context, the significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives.
The term ''[[Japanese diaspora|Nikkei]]'' (日系) encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.<ref>[http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/what/ "What is Nikkei?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503113652/http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/what/ |date=May 3, 2009}} Japanese American National Museum.</ref> The [[collective memory]] of the ''Issei'' and older ''Nisei'' was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.<ref name="mclellan37">McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA66 p. 37.]</ref> In this context, the significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives.


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The second generation of immigrants, born in Canada or the United States to parents <u>not</u> born in Canada or the United States, is called ''Nisei'' (二世). The ''Nisei'' have become part of the general immigrant experience in the United States and Canada to become part of the greater "melting pot" of the United States and the "mosaic" of Canada. Some ''Nisei'' have resisted being absorbed into the majority society, largely because of their tendency to maintain Japanese interpersonal styles of relationships.<ref>Miyamoto, S. Frank. [http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ363032&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ363032 "Problems of Interpersonal Style among the Nisei,"] ''Amerasia Journal.'' v13 n2 p29-45 (1986–87).</ref>
In North America since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred. The Nisei, their parents and their children are changing the way they look at themselves as individuals of Japanese descent in their respective nations of Canada, the United States and Mexico.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA66&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&lr=&sig=ACfU3U19eRSR_W-IdoJTjJaAuhIOi6ihOA#PPA68,M1 p. 68.]</ref>


Most ''Nisei'' were educated in Canadian or American school systems where they were taught Canadian or American national values as national citizens of those countries of individualism and citizenship. When these were taken away in the early 1940s, the ''Nisei'' confronted great difficulty in accepting or coming to terms with internment and forced resettlement. Older ''Nisei'' tended to identify more closely with the ''Issei,'' sharing similar economic and social characteristics.<ref name="mclellan36" /> Older ''Nisei'' who had been employed in small businesses, in farming, in fishing or in semi-skilled occupations, tended to remain in blue-collar work.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA66 pp. 36–37.]</ref> In contrast, the younger ''Nisei'' attended university and college and entered various professions and white-collar employment after the war.<ref name="mclellan37" /> This sharp division in post-war experiences and opportunities exacerbated the gaps between these ''Nisei.''
There are currently just over one hundred thousand [[Japanese community in the United Kingdom|British Japanese]], mostly in [[London]]; but unlike other ''[[Japanese diaspora|Nikkei]]'' terms used centered from Japan to distinguish the distance from Japanese nationality elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as ''Issei,'' ''Nisei,'' or ''Sansei.''<ref>Itoh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=VBijCPLvWyUC&pg=PA187&dq=keiko+itoh++united+kingdom&lr=&client=firefox-a#PPA7,M1 p. 7.]</ref>


In North America, since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred. The Nisei, their parents and their children are changing the way they look at themselves as individuals of Japanese descent in their respective nations of Canada, the United States and Mexico.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA66 p. 68.]</ref>
The second generation of immigrants, born in Canada or the United States to parents <u>not</u> born in Canada or the United States, is called ''Nisei'' (二世). The ''Nisei'' have become part of the general immigrant experience in the United States and Canada to become part of the greater "melting pot" of the United States and the "mosaic" of Canada. Some ''Nisei'' have resisted being absorbed into the majority society, largely because of their tendency to maintain Japanese interpersonal styles of relationships.<ref>Miyamoto, S. Frank. [http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ363032&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ363032 "Problems of Interpersonal Style among the Nisei,"] ''Amerasia Journal.'' v13 n2 p29-45 (1986–87).</ref>


There are currently just over one hundred thousand [[Japanese community in the United Kingdom|British Japanese]], mostly in [[London]]; but unlike other ''[[Japanese diaspora|Nikkei]]'' terms used centered from Japan to distinguish the distance from Japanese nationality elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as ''Issei,'' ''Nisei,'' or ''Sansei.''<ref>Itoh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=VBijCPLvWyUC&dq=keiko+itoh++united+kingdom&pg=PA187 p. 7.]</ref>
Most ''Nisei'' were educated in Canadian or American school systems where they were taught Canadian or American national values as national citizens of those countries of individualism and citizenship. When these were taken away in the early 1940s, the ''Nisei'' confronted great difficulty in accepting or coming to terms with internment and forced resettlement. Older ''Nisei'' tended to identify more closely with the ''Issei,'' sharing similar economic and social characteristics.<ref name="mclellan36"/> Older ''Nisei'' who had been employed in small businesses, in farming, in fishing or in semi-skilled occupations, tended to remain in blue-collar work.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&pg=PA66&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&lr=&sig=ACfU3U19eRSR_W-IdoJTjJaAuhIOi6ihOA#PPA36,M1 pp. 36–37.]</ref> In contrast, the younger ''Nisei'' attended university and college and entered various professions and white-collar employment after the war.<ref name="mclellan37"/> This sharp division in post-war experiences and opportunities exacerbated the gaps between these ''Nisei.''


====Aging====
====Aging====
The ''[[kanreki]]'' (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the ''Issei'' and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of ''Nisei.'' Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values; and this Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older.<ref>Doi, Mary L. [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00056753 "A Transformation of Ritual: The Nisei 60th Birthday."] ''Journal Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology.'' Vol. 6, No. 2 (April, 1991).</ref>
The ''[[kanreki]]'' (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the ''Issei'' and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of ''Nisei.'' Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values; and this Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older.<ref>Doi, Mary L. [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00056753 "A Transformation of Ritual: The Nisei 60th Birthday."] ''Journal Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology.'' Vol. 6, No. 2 (April, 1991).</ref>
Aging is affecting the demographics of the Nisei. According to a 2011 columnist in ''The Rafu Shimpo'' of Los Angeles, the obituaries showing the number of Japanese Americans in their 80s and 90s — Nisei, in a word — who are passing is staggering"<ref>Johnson, George Toshio. [http://rafu.com/news/2011/02/itns-ja-newspapers/ "Into the Next Stage: Japanese American Newspapers: Over and Out?"] ''Rafu Shimpo'' (US). February 17, 2011.</ref>
Aging is affecting the demographics of the Nisei. According to a 2011 columnist in ''The Rafu Shimpo'' of Los Angeles, the obituaries showing the number of Japanese Americans in their 80s and 90s — Nisei, in a word — who are passing is staggering"<ref>Johnson, George Toshio. [http://rafu.com/news/2011/02/itns-ja-newspapers/ "Into the Next Stage: Japanese American Newspapers: Over and Out?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106123942/http://rafu.com/news/2011/02/itns-ja-newspapers/ |date=November 6, 2012}} ''Rafu Shimpo'' (US). February 17, 2011.</ref>


===Languages===
===Languages===
The Japanese-born ''Issei'' learned Japanese as their mother tongue, and their success in learning English as a second language was varied. Most ''Nisei'' speak Japanese to some extent, learned from ''Issei'' parents, Japanese school, and living in a Japanese community or in the internment camps. A majority of English-speaking ''Nisei'' have retained knowledge of the Japanese language, at least in its spoken form. Most ''Sansei'' speak English as their first language and most marry people of non-Japanese ancestry.<ref name="mclellan37"/>
The Japanese-born ''Issei'' learned Japanese as their mother tongue, and their success in learning English as a second language was varied. Most ''Nisei'' speak Japanese to some extent, learned from ''Issei'' parents, Japanese school, and living in a Japanese community or in the internment camps. A majority of English-speaking ''Nisei'' have retained knowledge of the Japanese language, at least in its spoken form. Most ''Sansei'' speak English as their first language and most marry people of non-Japanese ancestry.<ref name="mclellan37" />


===Education===
===Education===
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Canadian citizens
Canadian citizens
Of whom they could be proud.
Of whom they could be proud.
|Kinori Oka, Kisaragi Poem Study Group, 1975.<ref>Kobayashi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NzwjB4j0iZQC&pg=PA70&dq=issei+japanese+canadians&lr=&sig=ACfU3U12E1f-Weid_02p0XlAWdutI6eGEg#PPA64,M1 p. 64.]</ref>}}
|Kinori Oka, Kisaragi Poem Study Group, 1975.<ref>Kobayashi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NzwjB4j0iZQC&dq=issei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA70 p. 64.]</ref>}}


===Intermarriage===
===Intermarriage===
There was relatively little [[interracial marriage|intermarriage]] during the Nisei generation, partly because the war and the [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]]<ref>Sklansky, David (2016-11-18). [https://law.stanford.edu/2016/11/18/korematsu-is-not-good-law/ Japanese Internment Case Not "Good Law"]. Stanford Law School. Retrieved on 2020-09-06.</ref> incarceration <ref>Densho.org. [https://densho.org/terminology/ Terminology.]. Retrieved on 2020-09-06.</ref> of these [[Citizenship of the United States|American citizens]] intervened
There was relatively little [[interracial marriage|intermarriage]] during the Nisei generation, partly because the war and the [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]]<ref>Sklansky, David (2016-11-18). [https://law.stanford.edu/2016/11/18/korematsu-is-not-good-law/ Japanese Internment Case Not "Good Law"]. Stanford Law School. Retrieved 2020-09-06.</ref> incarceration<ref>Densho.org. [https://densho.org/terminology/ Terminology.]. Retrieved 2020-09-06.</ref> of these [[Citizenship of the United States|American citizens]] intervened exactly at a time when the group was of marrying age. Identification of them with the enemy by the American public, made them unpopular and unlikely candidates for interracial marriage. Besides this, they were thrown, en masse, into concentration camps<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica. [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concentration-camp/ Concentration camp]. Retrieved 2020-09-06.</ref><ref>Lachman, Joseph Shoji (2017-02-20). [https://www.huffpost.com/entry/fdr-called-them-concentration-camps-why-terminology_b_58a7f3b6e4b026a89a7a2b73/ FDR Called Them Concentration Camps: Why Terminology Matters]. Retrieved 2020-09-06.</ref> with others of the same ethnicity, causing the majority of Nisei to marry other Nisei.
exactly at a time when the group was of marrying age. Identification of them with the enemy by the American public, made them
unpopular and unlikely candidates for interracial marriage. Besides this, they were thrown, en masse, into concentration camps <ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica. [https://www.britannica.com/topic/concentration-camp/ Concentration camp]. Retrieved on 2020-09-06.</ref><ref>Lachman, Joseph Shoji (2017-02-20). [https://www.huffpost.com/entry/fdr-called-them-concentration-camps-why-terminology_b_58a7f3b6e4b026a89a7a2b73/ FDR Called Them Concentration Camps: Why Terminology Matters]. Retrieved on 2020-09-06.</ref> with others of
the same ethnicity, causing the majority of Nisei to marry other Nisei.


Another factor is that [[anti-miscegenation laws]] criminalizing interracial marriage, cohabitation, and sex were in effect in many U.S. states until 1967.
Another factor is that [[anti-miscegenation laws]] criminalizing interracial marriage, cohabitation, and sex were in effect in many U.S. states until 1967.


This is why third generation Sansei are mostly still of
This is why third generation Sansei are mostly still of the same racial appearance as the Issei, who first immigrated to the U.S. The Sansei generation has widely intermarried in the post WWII years, with estimates of such unions at over 60 percent.
the same racial appearance as the Issei, who first immigrated to the U.S.
The Sansei generation has widely intermarried in the post WWII years, with estimates of such unions at over 60 percent.


==History==
==History==
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===Internment===
===Internment===
{{main|Japanese-Canadian internment|Internment of Japanese Americans}}
{{main|Japanese-Canadian internment|Internment of Japanese Americans}}
When the Canadian and American governments interned West Coast Japanese citizens, Japanese American citizens, and Japanese Canadian citizens in 1942, neither distinguished between American/Canadian-born citizens of Japanese ancestry (''Nisei'') and their parents, born in Japan but now living in the U.S. or Canada (''Issei'').<ref>Dinnerstein, Leonard ''et al.'' (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOFDhehJ68gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ethnic+Americans&sig=ACfU3U1Pi3leXPmhmGdRB8CMOZjaZWxCGQ#PPA181,M1 ''Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration,'' p. 181.]</ref>
When the Canadian and American governments interned West Coast Japanese citizens, Japanese American citizens, and Japanese Canadian citizens in 1942, neither distinguished between American/Canadian-born citizens of Japanese ancestry (''Nisei'') and their parents, born in Japan but now living in the U.S. or Canada (''Issei'').<ref>Dinnerstein, Leonard ''et al.'' (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOFDhehJ68gC&q=Ethnic+Americans ''Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration,'' p. 181.]</ref>


=== World War II service ===
=== World War II service ===
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In 1978, the [[Japanese American Citizens League]] actively began demanding be taken as redress for harms endured by Japanese Americans during World War II.
In 1978, the [[Japanese American Citizens League]] actively began demanding be taken as redress for harms endured by Japanese Americans during World War II.


In 1980, Congress established the [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] ([[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians|CWRIC]]) The commission report, ''Personal Justice Denied,'' condemned the internment as "unjust and motivated by racism rather than real military necessity".<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/personal_justice_denied/intro.htm Personal Justice Denied], </ref>
In 1980, Congress established the [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] ([[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians|CWRIC]]) The commission report, ''Personal Justice Denied,'' condemned the internment as "unjust and motivated by racism rather than real military necessity".<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/personal_justice_denied/intro.htm Personal Justice Denied].</ref>


In 1988, U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] signed the [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988]], which provided for a formal apology and payments of $20,000 for each survivor. The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership".<ref>100th Congress, S. 1009, [http://www.internmentarchives.com/showdoc.php?docid=00055&search_id=19269&pagenum=4 reproduced at] internmentarchives.com].</ref> The [[Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992]], appropriating an additional $400 million in order to ensure that all remaining internees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law by President [[George H. W. Bush]], who also issued another formal apology from the U.S. government.
In 1988, U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] signed the [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988]], which provided for a formal apology and payments of $20,000 for each survivor. The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership".<ref>100th Congress, S. 1009, [http://www.internmentarchives.com/showdoc.php?docid=00055&search_id=19269&pagenum=4 reproduced at] internmentarchives.com].</ref> The [[Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992]], appropriating an additional $400 million in order to ensure that all remaining internees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law by President [[George H. W. Bush]], who also issued another formal apology from the U.S. government.


Japanese and Japanese Americans who were relocated during WWII were compensated for direct property losses in 1948. These payments were awarded to 82,210 Japanese Americans or their heirs at a cost of $1.6 billion; the program's final disbursement occurred in 1999.<ref name = "democracynow">DemocracyNow: [http://www.democracynow.org/1999/2/18/wwii_reparations_japanese_american_internees WWII Reparations: Japanese-American Internees]</ref>
Japanese and Japanese Americans who were relocated during WWII were compensated for direct property losses in 1948. These payments were awarded to 82,210 Japanese Americans or their heirs at a cost of $1.6 billion; the program's final disbursement occurred in 1999.<ref name="democracynow">DemocracyNow: [http://www.democracynow.org/1999/2/18/wwii_reparations_japanese_american_internees WWII Reparations: Japanese-American Internees].</ref>


====Japanese Canadian redress====
====Japanese Canadian redress====
In 1983, the [[National Association of Japanese Canadians]] ([[National Association of Japanese Canadians|NAJC]]) mounted a campaign demanding redress for injustices during the war years.<ref name="r-m">[http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12837/14056 Establishing Recognition of Past Injustices: Uses of Archival Records in Documenting the Experience of Japanese Canadians During the Second World War]. Roberts-Moore, Judith. Archivaria: The Journal of the Association of Canadian Archivists, 53 (2002).</ref> NAJC hired [[Price Waterhouse]] to estimate the economic losses to Japanese Canadians resulting from property confiscations and loss of wages due to internment. On the basis of detailed records maintained by the [[Custodian of Alien Property]],<ref>Order-in-Council, P.C. 1665: Yesaki, Mitsuo. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=M_cxp_BgPmwC&pg=PA111&lpg=PA111&dq=Canada+custody+of+alien+property+1942&source=web&ots=90WJfFiW02&sig=y6K_MnSrdWodL7RHgYytrtKPvxc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result ''Sutebusuton: A Japanese Village on the British Columbia Coast,'' p. 111.]</ref> it was determined that the total loss totalled $443 million (in 1986 dollars).<ref name="r-m"/>
In 1983, the [[National Association of Japanese Canadians]] ([[National Association of Japanese Canadians|NAJC]]) mounted a campaign demanding redress for injustices during the war years.<ref name="r-m">[http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12837/14056 Establishing Recognition of Past Injustices: Uses of Archival Records in Documenting the Experience of Japanese Canadians During the Second World War]. Roberts-Moore, Judith. Archivaria: The Journal of the Association of Canadian Archivists, 53 (2002).</ref> NAJC hired [[Price Waterhouse]] to estimate the economic losses to Japanese Canadians resulting from property confiscations and loss of wages due to internment. On the basis of detailed records maintained by the [[Custodian of Alien Property]],<ref>Order-in-Council, P.C. 1665: Yesaki, Mitsuo. (2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=M_cxp_BgPmwC&dq=Canada+custody+of+alien+property+1942&pg=PA111 ''Sutebusuton: A Japanese Village on the British Columbia Coast,'' p. 111.]</ref> it was determined that the total loss totalled $443 million (in 1986 dollars).<ref name="r-m" />


In 1988, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] gave that long-awaited formal apology and the Canadian government began to make good on a compensation package—including $21,000 to all surviving internees, and the re-instatement of Canadian citizenship to those who were deported to Japan.<ref name="CBC-9">[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-71-568-2924/conflict_war/internment/clip9 Apology and compensation], CBC Archives</ref>
In 1988, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] gave that long-awaited formal apology and the Canadian government began to make good on a compensation package—including $21,000 to all surviving internees, and the re-instatement of Canadian citizenship to those who were deported to Japan.<ref name="CBC-9">[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-71-568-2924/conflict_war/internment/clip9 Apology and compensation], CBC Archives.</ref>


===Life===
===Life===
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== Notable individuals ==
== Notable individuals ==
{{see also|List of Japanese Americans}}
{{see also|List of Japanese Americans}}
The number of ''nisei'' who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the ''nikkei.'' Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by ''nisei'' from North America, the Latin American member countries of the [[Pan American Nikkei Association]] (PANA) include [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Mexico]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]] and [[Uruguay]], in addition to the English-speaking [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref>National Association of Japanese Canadians: [http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php PANA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218195725/http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php |date=February 18, 2009 }}</ref>
The number of ''nisei'' who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the ''nikkei.'' Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by ''nisei'' from North America, the Latin American member countries of the [[Pan American Nikkei Association]] (PANA) include [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Mexico]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], and [[Uruguay]], in addition to the English-speaking [[United States]] and [[Canada]].<ref>National Association of Japanese Canadians: [http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php PANA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218195725/http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php |date=February 18, 2009}}</ref>


{{dynamic list}}
{{dynamic list}}
* [[John F. Aiso|John Fujio Aiso]] (1909–1987), American military leader, lawyer, and judge<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20120729124045/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/John_Aiso Aiso bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[John F. Aiso|John Fujio Aiso]] (1909–1987), American military leader, lawyer, and judge<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20120729124045/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/John_Aiso Aiso bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref>
* [[Sally Amaki]], American singer and voice actress based in Tokyo
* [[Sally Amaki]], American singer and voice actress based in Tokyo
* [[Steve Aoki]] (born 1977), Japanese American electro house musician
* [[Steve Aoki]] (born 1977), Japanese American electro house musician
* [[Alberto Fujimori]] (born 1938), President of Peru, 1990–2000<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20120802005309/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori Fujimori bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Alberto Fujimori]] (born 1938), President of Peru, 1990–2000<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20120802005309/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori Fujimori bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref>
* [[Francis Fukuyama]] (born 1952), philosopher and political economist
* [[Francis Fukuyama]] (born 1952), philosopher and political economist
* [[Luiz Gushiken]] (1950–2013), Brazilian [[Politics|politician]] and [[activist]]<ref>Ferreira, Lenilson. [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20021224a9.html "Son of conservative Japanese a star in Brazil's new leftist administration"], ''The Japan Times''. December 24, 2002; retrieved 2012-12-3.</ref>
* [[Luiz Gushiken]] (1950–2013), Brazilian [[Politics|politician]] and [[activist]]<ref>Ferreira, Lenilson. [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20021224a9.html "Son of conservative Japanese a star in Brazil's new leftist administration"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017062834/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20021224a9.html |date=October 17, 2012}}, ''The Japan Times''. December 24, 2002; retrieved 2012-12-3.</ref>
* [[Barney F. Hajiro]] (1916–2011), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref>Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 8.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Barney F. Hajiro]] (1916–2011), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref>Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 8.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Mikio Hasemoto]] (1916–1943), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-9">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 9.] June 4, 2008.</ref> recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-13">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 13.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Mikio Hasemoto]] (1916–1943), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-9">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 9.] June 4, 2008.</ref> recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-13">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 13.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Joe Hayashi]] (1920–1945), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-9"/>
* [[Joe Hayashi]] (1920–1945), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-9" />
* [[Shizuya Hayashi]] (1917–2008), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-10">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 10.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Shizuya Hayashi]] (1917–2008), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-10">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 10.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[William Hohri]] (1927–2010),<ref>Japanese American National Museum (JANM): [http://www.janm.org/events/2008/dinner/bios/ William Honri bio]; Martin, Douglas. [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/24/us/24hohri.html "William Hohri Dies at 83; Sought Money for Internees,"] ''The New York Times'' (US). November 24, 2010;retrieved 2011-05-17</ref> political activist
* [[William Hohri]] (1927–2010),<ref>Japanese American National Museum (JANM): [http://www.janm.org/events/2008/dinner/bios/ William Honri bio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329054246/http://www.janm.org/events/2008/dinner/bios/ |date=March 29, 2012}}; Martin, Douglas. [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/24/us/24hohri.html "William Hohri Dies at 83; Sought Money for Internees,"] ''The New York Times'' (US). November 24, 2010; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref> political activist
* [[James Iha]] (born 1968), [[guitarist]], ex-member of [[alternative rock]] band [[The Smashing Pumpkins]]
* [[James Iha]] (born 1968), [[guitarist]], member of [[alternative rock]] band [[The Smashing Pumpkins]]
* [[Daniel K. Inouye]] (1924–2012), Senator from Hawaii, Medal of Honor recipient World War II<ref name="RL3011-10"/>
* [[Daniel K. Inouye]] (1924–2012), Senator from Hawaii, Medal of Honor recipient World War II<ref name="RL3011-10" />
* [[Yeiki Kobashigawa]] (1920–2005), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-12">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 12.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Yeiki Kobashigawa]] (1920–2005), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-12">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 12.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Yuri Kochiyama]] (1921–2014), civil rights activist<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Yuri_Kochiyama Kochiyama bio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829155854/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Yuri_Kochiyama |date=August 29, 2008 }}</ref>
* [[Yuri Kochiyama]] (1921–2014), civil rights activist<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Yuri_Kochiyama Kochiyama bio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829155854/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Yuri_Kochiyama |date=August 29, 2008}}</ref>
* [[Ford Konno]] (born 1933), Olympic gold medalist (1952, 1952) and silver medalist (1952, 1956) swimmer
* [[Ford Konno]] (born 1933), Olympic gold medalist (1952, 1952) and silver medalist (1952, 1956) swimmer
* [[Tommy Kono]] (1930–2016 ), Olympic gold medalist (1952, 1956) and silver medalist (1960) weightlifter and only lifter to have set world records in four different weightlifting classes<ref name=svinth>{{cite web | last = Svinth | first = Joseph R. | title=Tommy Kono|url=http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_svinth_0100.htm| year=2000 | publisher = Physical Training}}</ref>
* [[Tommy Kono]] (1930–2016 ), Olympic gold medalist (1952, 1956) and silver medalist (1960) weightlifter and only lifter to have set world records in four different weightlifting classes<ref name=svinth>{{cite web |last=Svinth |first=Joseph R. |title=Tommy Kono |url=http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_svinth_0100.htm |year=2000 |publisher=Physical Training}}</ref>
* [[Robert T. Kuroda]] (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-12"/>
* [[Robert T. Kuroda]] (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-12" />
* [[Ben Kuroki]] (1917–2015), only Japanese American [[U.S. Army Air Forces]] aircrew member to fly combat missions in the Pacific theater in World War II<ref>Yenne, Bill. (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3JZw28xhEC&pg=PA12&dq=issei&lr=&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U2JXjxtiwBCtH0UYVFMwH-8lWGkFA#PPA137,M1 ''Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II''], pp. 1376–141.</ref>
* [[Ben Kuroki]] (1917–2015), only Japanese American [[U.S. Army Air Forces]] aircrew member to fly combat missions in the Pacific theater in World War II<ref>Yenne, Bill. (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3JZw28xhEC&dq=issei&pg=PA12 ''Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II''], pp. 1376–141.</ref>
* [[Mike Masaoka]] (1915–1991) leader of the [[Japanese American Citizens League]] (JACL)<ref>University of Utah, [http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/UU_EAD&CISOPTR=2688 Mike M. Masaoka Photograph Collection, bio]</ref>
* [[Mike Masaoka]] (1915–1991) leader of the [[Japanese American Citizens League]] (JACL)<ref>University of Utah, [http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/UU_EAD&CISOPTR=2688 Mike M. Masaoka Photograph Collection, bio].</ref>
* [[Spark Matsunaga]] (1916–1990), US Senator from Hawaii<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Spark_M._Matsunaga Matsunaga bio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219234322/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Spark_M._Matsunaga |date=December 19, 2005 }}; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Spark Matsunaga]] (1916–1990), US Senator from Hawaii<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Spark_M._Matsunaga Matsunaga bio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219234322/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Spark_M._Matsunaga |date=December 19, 2005}}; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref>
* [[Norman Mineta]] (born 1931), former Congressman from California and Secretary of Transportation<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20130415002149/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Norman_Y._Mineta Mineta bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17</ref>
* [[Norman Mineta]] (1931–2022), former Congressman from California and Secretary of Transportation<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.today/20130415002149/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Norman_Y._Mineta Mineta bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17.</ref>
* [[Wataru Misaka]] (1923–2019), became the first player of Asian descent and the first non-Caucasian to play in the NBA in 1947<ref name=hokubei>{{cite web| title=A Nisei in the NBA: The Wat Misaka Story| url=http://www.hokubei.com/en/news/2008/08/Nisei-NBA-Wat-Misaka-Story| date=2008-08-29| publisher=Hokubei.com| access-date=October 17, 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122040806/http://www.hokubei.com/en/news/2008/08/Nisei-NBA-Wat-Misaka-Story| archive-date=November 22, 2008| url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Wataru Misaka]] (1923–2019), became the first player of Asian descent and the first non-Caucasian to play in the NBA in 1947<ref name=hokubei>{{cite web |title=A Nisei in the NBA: The Wat Misaka Story |url=http://www.hokubei.com/en/news/2008/08/Nisei-NBA-Wat-Misaka-Story |date=2008-08-29 |publisher=Hokubei.com |access-date=October 17, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122040806/http://www.hokubei.com/en/news/2008/08/Nisei-NBA-Wat-Misaka-Story |archive-date=November 22, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Hiroshi Miyamura]] (born 1925), US Medal of Honor recipient in Korean War<ref>US Army Center of Military History, [http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/koreanwar.html "Medal of Honor Recipients, Korean War"]; retrieved 2012-12-13.</ref>
* [[Hiroshi Miyamura]] (1925–2022), US Medal of Honor recipient in Korean War<ref>US Army Center of Military History, [http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/koreanwar.html "Medal of Honor Recipients, Korean War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310142628/http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/koreanwar.html |date=March 10, 2009}}; retrieved 2012-12-13.</ref>
* [[Pat Morita]] (1932–2005), television and movie actor nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] in 1984<ref name=apobit>{{citation |title=Pat Morita, 73, Actor Known for 'Karate Kid' and 'Happy Days,' Dies | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 26, 2005 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/26/arts/26morita.html}}</ref>
* [[Pat Morita]] (1932–2005), television and movie actor nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] in 1984<ref name=apobit>{{citation |title=Pat Morita, 73, Actor Known for 'Karate Kid' and 'Happy Days,' Dies |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 26, 2005 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/26/arts/26morita.html}}</ref>
* [[Kaoru Moto]] (1917–1992), Medal of Honor
* [[Kaoru Moto]] (1917–1992), Medal of Honor
* [[Sadao Munemori]] (1922–1945), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name=tamashiro>{{cite web | last = Tamashiro | first = Ben H. | title=The Congressional Medal of Honor: Sadao Munemori |url=http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149130450078.html| date=March 15, 1985 | publisher=The Hawaii Herald}}</ref>
* [[Sadao Munemori]] (1922–1945), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name=tamashiro>{{cite web |last=Tamashiro |first=Ben H. |title=The Congressional Medal of Honor: Sadao Munemori |url=http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149130450078.html |date=March 15, 1985 |publisher=The Hawaii Herald |access-date=October 18, 2009 |archive-date=February 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227195020/http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149130450078.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Kiyoshi K. Muranaga]] (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-13"/>
* [[Kiyoshi K. Muranaga]] (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-13" />
* [[Mirai Nagasu]] (1993– ), U.S. Figure Skating champion in 2008 and Olympic bronze medalist<ref>{{cite news |first= Jack |last= Gallagher |title= Young star Nagasu has priorities in order |url= http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/sp20071014a1.html |work= [[The Japan Times]] Online |date= 2007-10-14 |access-date=2008-10-02 }}</ref>
* [[Mirai Nagasu]] (1993– ), U.S. Figure Skating champion in 2008 and Olympic bronze medalist<ref>{{cite news |first=Jack |last=Gallagher |title=Young star Nagasu has priorities in order |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/sp20071014a1.html |work=[[The Japan Times]] Online |date=2007-10-14 |access-date=2008-10-02}}</ref>
* [[Masato Nakae]] (1917–1998), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-14">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 14.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Masato Nakae]] (1917–1998), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-14">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 14.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Shinyei Nakamine]] (1920–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-14"/>
* [[Shinyei Nakamine]] (1920–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-14" />
* [[William K. Nakamura]] (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-15">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 15.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[William K. Nakamura]] (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-15">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 15.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[George Nakashima]] (1905–1990), furniture and cabinetmaker<ref>Saxon, Wolfgang. [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/06/18/obituaries/george-nakashima-is-dead-at-85-designer-and-master-woodworker.html?scp=1&sq=geroge%20nakashima%20obit&st=cse "George Nakashima Is Dead at 85; Designer and Master Woodworker,"] ''The New York Times'' (US). June 18, 1990</ref>
* [[George Nakashima]] (1905–1990), furniture and cabinetmaker<ref>Saxon, Wolfgang. [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/06/18/obituaries/george-nakashima-is-dead-at-85-designer-and-master-woodworker.html?scp=1&sq=geroge%20nakashima%20obit&st=cse "George Nakashima Is Dead at 85; Designer and Master Woodworker,"] ''The New York Times'' (US). June 18, 1990.</ref>
* [[Joe M. Nishimoto]] (1920–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-15"/>
* [[Joe M. Nishimoto]] (1920–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-15" />
* [[Isamu Noguchi]] (1904–1988), sculptor and landscape architect<ref>Brenson, Michael. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1531F932A05751C1A96E948260&scp=7&sq=Isamu+Noguchi "Isamu Noguchi, the Sculptor, Dies at 84"], ''New York Times'' (US). December 31, 1988.</ref>
* [[Isamu Noguchi]] (1904–1988), sculptor and landscape architect<ref>Brenson, Michael. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE7DC1531F932A05751C1A96E948260&scp=7&sq=Isamu+Noguchi "Isamu Noguchi, the Sculptor, Dies at 84"], ''New York Times'' (US). December 31, 1988.</ref>
* [[Lars Nootbaar]] (born 1997), Major League Baseball player
* [[Allan M. Ohata]] (1918–1977), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-16">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 16.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Allan M. Ohata]] (1918–1977), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-16">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 16.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Apolo Anton Ohno]] (born 1982) Olympic gold (2002, 2006), silver (2002, 2010), and bronze (2006, 2010) medalist speed skater
* [[Apolo Anton Ohno]] (born 1982) Olympic gold (2002, 2006), silver (2002, 2010), and bronze (2006, 2010) medalist speed skater
* [[John Okada]] (1923–1971), writer
* [[John Okada]] (1923–1971), writer
* [[James K. Okubo]] (1920–1967), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-16"/>
* [[James K. Okubo]] (1920–1967), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-16" />
* [[Yukio Okutsu]] (1921–2003), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-17">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 17.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Yukio Okutsu]] (1921–2003), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-17">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 17.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Frank H. Ono]] (1923–1980), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-17"/>
* [[Frank H. Ono]] (1923–1980), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-17" />
* [[Ken Ono]] (born 1968), mathematician
* [[Ken Ono]] (born 1968), mathematician
* [[Santa J. Ono]] (born 1962), President [[University of Cincinnati]] and President [[University of British Columbia]]
* [[Santa J. Ono]] (born 1962), immunologist, President [[University of Cincinnati]], President [[University of British Columbia]], President [[University of Michigan]]
* [[Kazuo Otani]] (1918–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-18">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 18.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Kazuo Otani]] (1918–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-18">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 18.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[Yoshinobu Oyakawa]] (born 1933), Olympic gold medalist (1952) in swimming<ref name="usms">{{cite web | title=Stories About USMS Swimmers: Yoshi Oyakawa|url=http://www.usms.org/hist/sto/index.php?ID=23&srt=| access-date=2007-10-12}}</ref>
* [[Yoshinobu Oyakawa]] (born 1933), Olympic gold medalist (1952) in swimming<ref name="usms">{{cite web |title=Stories About USMS Swimmers: Yoshi Oyakawa |url=http://www.usms.org/hist/sto/index.php?ID=23&srt= |access-date=2007-10-12}}</ref>
* [[George T. Sakato]] (1921–2015), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-19">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 19.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[George T. Sakato]] (1921–2015), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II<ref name="RL3011-19">Medal of Honor: [https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30011.pdf CRS RL30011, p. 19.] June 4, 2008.</ref>
* [[James Shigeta]] (1929–2014), an American film and television actor
* [[James Shigeta]] (1929–2014), an American film and television actor
* [[Mike Shinoda]] (born 1977), musician, rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, graphic designer, manager and film composer. Member of the American band Linkin Park
* [[Mike Shinoda]] (born 1977), musician, rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, graphic designer, manager and film composer. Member of the American band [[Linkin Park]] and supplementary group [[Fort Minor]]
* [[Monica Sone]] (1919–2011), American author of the autobiographical ''Nisei Daughter''
* [[Monica Sone]] (1919–2011), American author of the autobiographical ''Nisei Daughter''
* [[David Suzuki]] (born 1936), Canadian academic, science broadcaster and environmental activist
* [[David Suzuki]] (born 1936), Canadian academic, science broadcaster and environmental activist
* [[Shinkichi Tajiri]] (1923–2009), sculptor<ref name=murata>{{cite web | last = Murata | first = Alice | title = Shinkichi Tajiri : World Renown Sculptor | url = http://www.cjahs.org/voc_shinkichi.htm | date = February 2006 | publisher = Chicago Japanese American Historical Society | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070208111315/http://www.cjahs.org/voc_shinkichi.htm | archive-date = 2007-02-08 }}</ref>
* [[Shinkichi Tajiri]] (1923–2009), sculptor<ref name=murata>{{cite web |last=Murata |first=Alice |title=Shinkichi Tajiri : World Renown Sculptor |url=http://www.cjahs.org/voc_shinkichi.htm |date=February 2006 |publisher=Chicago Japanese American Historical Society |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070208111315/http://www.cjahs.org/voc_shinkichi.htm |archive-date=2007-02-08}}</ref>
*[[Atsuko Tanaka (ski jumper)]] (born 1992), Canadian Olympic ski jumper
*[[Atsuko Tanaka (ski jumper)]] (born 1992), Canadian Olympic ski jumper
* [[George Takei]] (born 1937), actor and gay rights activist best known for his role in the television series ''Star Trek''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.filmreference.com/film/35/George-Takei.html|title=George Takei Biography (1937–)|website=www.filmreference.com}}</ref>
* [[George Takei]] (born 1937), actor and gay rights activist best known for his role in the television series ''Star Trek''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.filmreference.com/film/35/George-Takei.html|title=George Takei Biography (1937–)|website=www.filmreference.com}}</ref>
Line 224: Line 186:
* Traci Toguchi (born 1974), actress and singer
* Traci Toguchi (born 1974), actress and singer
* [[Hisaye Yamamoto]] (1921–2011), author
* [[Hisaye Yamamoto]] (1921–2011), author
* [[Minoru Yamasaki]] (1912–1986), architect best known for the New York World Trade Center "Twin Towers"<ref name=hadley>{{citation |last=Hadley |first=Jane |title=Seattle architect created trade center as peace symbol | newspaper=[[The Seattle Post-Intelligencer]] |date=September 13, 2001 |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/local/38737_architect13.shtml}}</ref>
* [[Minoru Yamasaki]] (1912–1986), architect best known for the New York World Trade Center "Twin Towers"<ref name=hadley>{{citation |last=Hadley |first=Jane |title=Seattle architect created trade center as peace symbol |newspaper=[[The Seattle Post-Intelligencer]] |date=September 13, 2001 |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/local/38737_architect13.shtml}}</ref>
*[[Karl Yoneda]] (1906–1999), Communist labor activist<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker|last=Yoneda|first=Karl|publisher=UCLA Asian American Studies Center|year=1983}}</ref>
*[[Karl Yoneda]] (1906–1999), Communist labor activist<ref>{{cite book|title=Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker|last=Yoneda|first=Karl|publisher=UCLA Asian American Studies Center|year=1983}}</ref>
* George Yoshia (born 1922), California musician and teacher<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encyclopedia.densho.org/George%20Yoshida/|title=George Yoshida &#124; Densho Encyclopedia}}</ref>
* George Yoshia (born 1922), California musician and teacher<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encyclopedia.densho.org/George%20Yoshida/|title=George Yoshida &#124; Densho Encyclopedia}}</ref>


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==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
* [[Leonard Dinnerstein|Dinnerstein, Leonard]] & Reimers, David M. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOFDhehJ68gC&dq=Ethnic+Americans&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration.''] New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-231-11189-8}}
* [[Leonard Dinnerstein|Dinnerstein, Leonard]] & Reimers, David M. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOFDhehJ68gC&q=Ethnic+Americans ''Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration.''] New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-231-11189-8}}
* Hosokawa, Bill. (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=-VoAAAAACAAJ&dq=nisei&client=firefox-a ''Nisei: The Quiet Americans.''] Boulder: [[University Press of Colorado]] {{ISBN|978-0-87081-668-0}}
* Hosokawa, Bill. (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=-VoAAAAACAAJ&q=nisei ''Nisei: The Quiet Americans.''] Boulder: [[University Press of Colorado]] {{ISBN|978-0-87081-668-0}}
* Itoh, Keiko. (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=VBijCPLvWyUC&dq=he+Japanese+Community+in+Pre-War+Britain&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration.''] London: [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1487-2}}
* Itoh, Keiko. (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=VBijCPLvWyUC&q=he+Japanese+Community+in+Pre-War+Britain ''The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration.''] London: [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1487-2}}
* McLellan, Janet. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=Sansei+canada&lr=&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto.''] Toronto: [[University of Toronto Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8020-8225-1}}
* McLellan, Janet. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&q=Sansei+canada ''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto.''] Toronto: [[University of Toronto Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8020-8225-1}}
* Moulin, Pierre. (2007). [https://archive.org/details/dachauholocaustu00moul <!-- quote=nisei. --> ''Dachau, Holocaust, and US Samurais: Nisei Soldiers First in Dachau?''] Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse. {{ISBN|978-1-4259-3801-7}}
* Moulin, Pierre. (2007). [https://archive.org/details/dachauholocaustu00moul <!-- quote=nisei. --> ''Dachau, Holocaust, and US Samurais: Nisei Soldiers First in Dachau?''] Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse. {{ISBN|978-1-4259-3801-7}}
* Tamura, Eileen & Daniels, Roger. (1994). [https://archive.org/details/americanizationa0000tamu <!-- quote=nisei. --> ''Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: The Nisei Generation in Hawaii.''] Urbana: [[University of Illinois Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-252-06358-9}}
* Tamura, Eileen & Daniels, Roger. (1994). [https://archive.org/details/americanizationa0000tamu <!-- quote=nisei. --> ''Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: The Nisei Generation in Hawaii.''] Urbana: [[University of Illinois Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-252-06358-9}}
* Yenne, Bill. (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3JZw28xhEC&dq=issei&lr=&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II.''] New York: [[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|978-0-312-35464-0}}
* Yenne, Bill. (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3JZw28xhEC&q=issei ''Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II.''] New York: [[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|978-0-312-35464-0}}
* Yoo, David & Daniels, Roger. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=CreUWo-obWUC&dq=nisei&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Growing Up Nisei: Race, Generation, and Culture Among Japanese Americans of California, 1924–49.''] Urbana: University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|978-0-252-06822-5}}
* Yoo, David & Daniels, Roger. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=CreUWo-obWUC&q=nisei ''Growing Up Nisei: Race, Generation, and Culture Among Japanese Americans of California, 1924–49.''] Urbana: University of Illinois Press. {{ISBN|978-0-252-06822-5}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* Asahina, Robert. (2007). ''Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad''. New York: Gotham Books. {{ISBN|1-59240-300-X}}
* Asahina, Robert (2007). ''Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad: The Story of the 100th Battalion''. New York: Gotham Books. {{ISBN|1-59240-300-X}}. {{Oclc|143249949}}.
* Harrington, Joseph D. (1979). ''Yankee Samurai: The Secret Role of Nisei in America's Pacific Victory'' Pettigrew Enterprises. {{ISBN|978-0-933680-11-1}}
* Harrington, Joseph D. (1979). ''Yankee Samurai: The Secret Role of Nisei in America's Pacific Victory''. Detroit: Pettigrew Enterprises. {{ISBN|9780093368010}}. {{Oclc|5184099}}.
* McNaughton, James. (2006). ''Nisei Linguists: Japanese Americans in the Military Intelligence Service During World War II''. Washington, D.C. : Department of the Army.
* McNaughton, James (2006). ''Nisei Linguists: Japanese Americans in the Military Intelligence Service During World War II''. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army. {{Isbn|9780160729577}}. {{Oclc|70149258}}.
* Moulin, Pierre. (1993). ''U.S. Samurais in Bruyeres : People of France and Japanese Americans: Incredible Story''. Luxembourg: CPL Editions. {{ISBN|2-9599984-0-5}}
* Moulin, Pierre (1993). ''U.S. Samuraïs in Bruyeres: People of France and Japanese Americans: Incredible Story''. Peace and Freedom Trail, France (ed.). Translator: David Guinsbourg. Vagney, France: G. Louis. {{ISBN|2-9599984-0-5}}. {{Oclc|82373241}}.
* Sterner, C. Douglas (2008). ''Go For Broke: The Nisei Warriors of World War II Who Conquered Germany, Japan, and American Bigotry''. Clearfield : Utah American Legacy Historical Press. {{ISBN|978-0-9796896-1-1}}
* Sterner, C. Douglas (2008). ''Go for Broke: The Nisei Warriors of World War II Who Conquered Germany, Japan, and American Bigotry''. Clearfield, Utah: Utah American Legacy Historical Press. {{ISBN|978-0-9796896-1-1}}. {{Oclc|141855086}}.


==External links==
==External links==
{{commons category|Japanese American internment}}
{{commons category|Japanese American internment}}
* [http://www.janm.org Japanese American National Museum]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20101224165059/http://blogs.laweekly.com/squidink/2010/12/janm_chado_intro_5_new_generational_teas.php JANM generational teas]
* [http://www.janm.org Japanese American National Museum]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20101224165059/http://blogs.laweekly.com/squidink/2010/12/janm_chado_intro_5_new_generational_teas.php JANM generational teas]
* [http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/english/html/index.htm Embassy of Japan] in [[Washington, DC]]
* [http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/english/html/index.htm Embassy of Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216003413/https://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/english/html/index.htm |date=February 16, 2019}} in [[Washington, DC]]
* [http://www.jacl.org Japanese American Citizens League]
* [http://www.jacl.org Japanese American Citizens League]
* [http://www.jcccnc.org Japanese Cultural & Community Center] of [[Northern California]]
* [http://www.jcccnc.org Japanese Cultural & Community Center] of [[Northern California]]
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/19971007205743/http://www.janet.org/ Japanese American Network]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19971007205743/http://www.janet.org/ Japanese American Network]
* [http://www.shittoku.com Japanese-American's own companies in USA]
* [http://www.shittoku.com Japanese-American's own companies in USA]
* [http://jarda.cdlib.org/ Japanese American Relocation Digital Archives]
* [http://jarda.cdlib.org/ Japanese American Relocation Digital Archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021125223415/http://jarda.cdlib.org/ |date=November 25, 2002}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080924071732/http://departments.oxy.edu/digitalarch/Web/index.htm Online Archive of the Japanese American Relocation during World War II]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080924071732/http://departments.oxy.edu/digitalarch/Web/index.htm Online Archive of the Japanese American Relocation during World War II]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110525012332/http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/yamato.cfm Photo Exhibit of Japanese American community] in [[Florida]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110525012332/http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/yamato.cfm Photo Exhibit of Japanese American community] in [[Florida]]
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* [http://www.discovernikkei.org/ Discover Nikkei]
* [http://www.discovernikkei.org/ Discover Nikkei]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061114021833/http://www.nichibeitimes.com/issues/articles/072706/panel.html Summary of a panel discussion on changing Japanese American identities]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061114021833/http://www.nichibeitimes.com/issues/articles/072706/panel.html Summary of a panel discussion on changing Japanese American identities]
* [https://www.pbs.org/thewar/at_war_democracy_japanese_american.htm The War: Fighting for Democracy: Japanese Americans]
* [https://www.pbs.org/thewar/at_war_democracy_japanese_american.htm The War: Fighting for Democracy: Japanese Americans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310175540/http://www.pbs.org/thewar/at_war_democracy_japanese_american.htm |date=March 10, 2010}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/89manzanar/89manzanar.htm ''“The War Relocation Centers of World War II: When Fear Was Stronger than Justice”'', a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]
*[http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/89manzanar/89manzanar.htm ''"The War Relocation Centers of World War II: When Fear Was Stronger than Justice"'', a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]
* [http://www.themilitant.com/2006/7019/701957.html U.S. Government interned Japanese from Latin America]
* [http://www.themilitant.com/2006/7019/701957.html U.S. Government interned Japanese from Latin America]



Revision as of 13:07, 8 March 2024

Nisei (二世, "second generation") is a Japanese-language term used in countries in North America and South America to specify the ethnically Japanese children born in the new country to Japanese-born immigrants (who are called Issei). The Nisei are considered the second generation and the grandchildren of the Japanese-born immigrants are called Sansei, or third generation. (Ichi, ni, san are Japanese for "one, two, three", and are the ordinals used with sei; see Japanese numerals.) Though nisei means "second-generation immigrant", it often refers to the children of the initial diaspora, occurring in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and overlapping with the G.I. and silent generations.

History

The children of these Japanese Brazilian (Nipo-brasileiros) immigrants would be called Nisei.

Although the earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants left Japan centuries ago, and a later group settled in Mexico in 1897,[1] the four largest populations of Japanese immigrants and their descendants live in Brazil, Canada, Peru, and the United States.

American Nisei

Some US Nisei were born after the end of World War II during the baby boom. Most Nisei, however, who were living in the western United States during World War II, were forcibly interned with their parents (Issei) after Executive Order 9066 was promulgated to exclude everyone of Japanese descent from the West Coast areas of California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. It has been argued that some Nisei feel caught in a dilemma between their Nisei parents and other Americans.[2] The Nisei of Hawaii had a somewhat different experience.

In the United States, two representative Nisei were Daniel Inouye and Fred Korematsu. Hawaiian-born Daniel Ken Inouye (井上 建, Inoue Ken, 1924–2012) was one of many young Nisei men who volunteered to fight in the nation's military when restrictions against Japanese-American enlistment were removed in 1943. Inouye later went on to become a U.S. Senator from Hawaii after it achieved statehood.

Fred Toyosaburo Korematsu (是松 豊三郎, Korematsu Toyosaburō, 1919–2005) was one of many Japanese-American citizens living on the West Coast who resisted internment during World War II. In 1944, Korematsu lost a U.S. Supreme Court challenge to the wartime internment of Japanese Americans but gained vindication decades later.[3] The Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States, was awarded to Korematsu in 1998. At the White House award ceremonies, President Bill Clinton explained, "In the long history of our country's constant search for justice, some names of ordinary citizens stand for millions of souls. Plessy, Brown, Parks ... to that distinguished list, today we add the name of Fred Korematsu."[4]

The overwhelming majority of Japanese Americans had reacted to the internment by acquiescing to the government's order, hoping to prove their loyalty as Americans. To them, Korematsu's opposition was treacherous to both his country and his community. Across the span of decades, he was seen as a traitor, a test case, an embarrassment and, finally, a hero.[5]

Brazilian Nisei

Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside of Japan, estimated to number more than 1.5 million (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity),[6] more than that of the 1.2 million in the United States.[7] The Nisei Japanese Brazilians are an important part of the ethnic minority in that South American nation.

Canadian Nisei

Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences.[8][9]

Peruvian Nisei

Among the approximately 80,000 Peruvians of Japanese descent, the Nisei Japanese Peruvians comprise the largest element.

Cultural profile

Generations

Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the Japanese numbers corresponding to the generation with the Japanese word for generation (sei 世). The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like Issei, Nisei, and Sansei which describe the first, second and third generation of immigrants. The fourth generation is called Yonsei (四世) and the fifth is called Gosei (五世). The Issei, Nisei and Sansei generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, and religious belief and practice, and other matters.[10] The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes and behaviour patterns.[8]

The term Nikkei (日系) encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.[11] The collective memory of the Issei and older Nisei was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.[12] In this context, the significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives.

Generation Cohort description
Issei (一世) The generation of people born in Japan who later immigrated to another country.
Nisei (二世) The generation of people born in North America, South America, Australia, Hawaii, or any country outside Japan either to at least one Issei or one non-immigrant Japanese parent.
Sansei (三世) The generation of people born to at least one Nisei parent.
Yonsei (四世) The generation of people born to at least one Sansei parent.
Gosei (五世) The generation of people born to at least one Yonsei parent.[13]

The second generation of immigrants, born in Canada or the United States to parents not born in Canada or the United States, is called Nisei (二世). The Nisei have become part of the general immigrant experience in the United States and Canada to become part of the greater "melting pot" of the United States and the "mosaic" of Canada. Some Nisei have resisted being absorbed into the majority society, largely because of their tendency to maintain Japanese interpersonal styles of relationships.[14]

Most Nisei were educated in Canadian or American school systems where they were taught Canadian or American national values as national citizens of those countries of individualism and citizenship. When these were taken away in the early 1940s, the Nisei confronted great difficulty in accepting or coming to terms with internment and forced resettlement. Older Nisei tended to identify more closely with the Issei, sharing similar economic and social characteristics.[8] Older Nisei who had been employed in small businesses, in farming, in fishing or in semi-skilled occupations, tended to remain in blue-collar work.[15] In contrast, the younger Nisei attended university and college and entered various professions and white-collar employment after the war.[12] This sharp division in post-war experiences and opportunities exacerbated the gaps between these Nisei.

In North America, since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred. The Nisei, their parents and their children are changing the way they look at themselves as individuals of Japanese descent in their respective nations of Canada, the United States and Mexico.[16]

There are currently just over one hundred thousand British Japanese, mostly in London; but unlike other Nikkei terms used centered from Japan to distinguish the distance from Japanese nationality elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as Issei, Nisei, or Sansei.[17]

Aging

The kanreki (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the Issei and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of Nisei. Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values; and this Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older.[18] Aging is affecting the demographics of the Nisei. According to a 2011 columnist in The Rafu Shimpo of Los Angeles, the obituaries showing the number of Japanese Americans in their 80s and 90s — Nisei, in a word — who are passing is staggering"[19]

Languages

The Japanese-born Issei learned Japanese as their mother tongue, and their success in learning English as a second language was varied. Most Nisei speak Japanese to some extent, learned from Issei parents, Japanese school, and living in a Japanese community or in the internment camps. A majority of English-speaking Nisei have retained knowledge of the Japanese language, at least in its spoken form. Most Sansei speak English as their first language and most marry people of non-Japanese ancestry.[12]

Education

An illustrative point-of-view, as revealed in the poetry of an Issei woman:

By Meiji parents
Emigrants to Canada
The Nisei were raised to be
Canadian citizens
Of whom they could be proud.

— Kinori Oka, Kisaragi Poem Study Group, 1975.[20]

Intermarriage

There was relatively little intermarriage during the Nisei generation, partly because the war and the unconstitutional[21] incarceration[22] of these American citizens intervened exactly at a time when the group was of marrying age. Identification of them with the enemy by the American public, made them unpopular and unlikely candidates for interracial marriage. Besides this, they were thrown, en masse, into concentration camps[23][24] with others of the same ethnicity, causing the majority of Nisei to marry other Nisei.

Another factor is that anti-miscegenation laws criminalizing interracial marriage, cohabitation, and sex were in effect in many U.S. states until 1967.

This is why third generation Sansei are mostly still of the same racial appearance as the Issei, who first immigrated to the U.S. The Sansei generation has widely intermarried in the post WWII years, with estimates of such unions at over 60 percent.

History

Internment

When the Canadian and American governments interned West Coast Japanese citizens, Japanese American citizens, and Japanese Canadian citizens in 1942, neither distinguished between American/Canadian-born citizens of Japanese ancestry (Nisei) and their parents, born in Japan but now living in the U.S. or Canada (Issei).[25]

World War II service

Redress

Japanese American redress

In 1978, the Japanese American Citizens League actively began demanding be taken as redress for harms endured by Japanese Americans during World War II.

In 1980, Congress established the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) The commission report, Personal Justice Denied, condemned the internment as "unjust and motivated by racism rather than real military necessity".[26]

In 1988, U.S. President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which provided for a formal apology and payments of $20,000 for each survivor. The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership".[27] The Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992, appropriating an additional $400 million in order to ensure that all remaining internees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush, who also issued another formal apology from the U.S. government.

Japanese and Japanese Americans who were relocated during WWII were compensated for direct property losses in 1948. These payments were awarded to 82,210 Japanese Americans or their heirs at a cost of $1.6 billion; the program's final disbursement occurred in 1999.[28]

Japanese Canadian redress

In 1983, the National Association of Japanese Canadians (NAJC) mounted a campaign demanding redress for injustices during the war years.[29] NAJC hired Price Waterhouse to estimate the economic losses to Japanese Canadians resulting from property confiscations and loss of wages due to internment. On the basis of detailed records maintained by the Custodian of Alien Property,[30] it was determined that the total loss totalled $443 million (in 1986 dollars).[29]

In 1988, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney gave that long-awaited formal apology and the Canadian government began to make good on a compensation package—including $21,000 to all surviving internees, and the re-instatement of Canadian citizenship to those who were deported to Japan.[31]

Life

Politics

Notable individuals

The number of nisei who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the nikkei. Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by nisei from North America, the Latin American member countries of the Pan American Nikkei Association (PANA) include Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay, in addition to the English-speaking United States and Canada.[32]

See also

References

  1. ^ Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), "Japan-Mexico Relations"; retrieved 2011-05-17.
  2. ^ Miyoshi, Nobu. (1978). "Identity Crisis of the Sansei and the Concentration Camp", NIMH Grant No. 1 R13 MH25655-01.
  3. ^ Lewis, Neil A. "President Names 15 for Nation's Top Civilian Honor", New York Times. January 9, 1998.
  4. ^ Goldstein, Richard. Fred Korematsu, 86, Dies; Lost Key Suit on Internment, New York Times. April 1, 2005.
  5. ^ Bai, Matt. He Said No to Internment, New York Times. December 25, 2005.
  6. ^ MOFA, "Japan-Brazil Relations"; retrieved 2011-05-17.
  7. ^ US Census, "Selected Population Profile in the United States; Japanese alone or in any combination," 2005 Archived February 10, 2020, at archive.today; retrieved 2011-05-17.
  8. ^ a b c McLellan, Janet. (1999). Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto, p. 36.
  9. ^ Ikawa, Fumiko. "Reviews: Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura by Masao Gamo and "Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin" by Kazuko Tsurumi, American Anthropologist (US). New Series, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb., 1963), pp. 152–156.
  10. ^ McLellan, p. 59.
  11. ^ "What is Nikkei?" Archived May 3, 2009, at the Wayback Machine Japanese American National Museum.
  12. ^ a b c McLellan, p. 37.
  13. ^ Ikezoe-Halevi, Jean. "Voices of Chicago: Day of Remembrance 2006," Discover Nikkei (US). October 31, 2006.
  14. ^ Miyamoto, S. Frank. "Problems of Interpersonal Style among the Nisei," Amerasia Journal. v13 n2 p29-45 (1986–87).
  15. ^ McLellan, pp. 36–37.
  16. ^ McLellan, p. 68.
  17. ^ Itoh, p. 7.
  18. ^ Doi, Mary L. "A Transformation of Ritual: The Nisei 60th Birthday." Journal Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology. Vol. 6, No. 2 (April, 1991).
  19. ^ Johnson, George Toshio. "Into the Next Stage: Japanese American Newspapers: Over and Out?" Archived November 6, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Rafu Shimpo (US). February 17, 2011.
  20. ^ Kobayashi, p. 64.
  21. ^ Sklansky, David (2016-11-18). Japanese Internment Case Not "Good Law". Stanford Law School. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
  22. ^ Densho.org. Terminology.. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
  23. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica. Concentration camp. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
  24. ^ Lachman, Joseph Shoji (2017-02-20). FDR Called Them Concentration Camps: Why Terminology Matters. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
  25. ^ Dinnerstein, Leonard et al. (1999). Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration, p. 181.
  26. ^ Personal Justice Denied.
  27. ^ 100th Congress, S. 1009, reproduced at internmentarchives.com].
  28. ^ DemocracyNow: WWII Reparations: Japanese-American Internees.
  29. ^ a b Establishing Recognition of Past Injustices: Uses of Archival Records in Documenting the Experience of Japanese Canadians During the Second World War. Roberts-Moore, Judith. Archivaria: The Journal of the Association of Canadian Archivists, 53 (2002).
  30. ^ Order-in-Council, P.C. 1665: Yesaki, Mitsuo. (2003). Sutebusuton: A Japanese Village on the British Columbia Coast, p. 111.
  31. ^ Apology and compensation, CBC Archives.
  32. ^ National Association of Japanese Canadians: PANA Archived February 18, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  33. ^ DiscoverNikkei: Aiso bio; retrieved 2011-05-17.
  34. ^ DiscoverNikkei: Fujimori bio; retrieved 2011-05-17.
  35. ^ Ferreira, Lenilson. "Son of conservative Japanese a star in Brazil's new leftist administration" Archived October 17, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, The Japan Times. December 24, 2002; retrieved 2012-12-3.
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  37. ^ a b Medal of Honor: CRS RL30011, p. 9. June 4, 2008.
  38. ^ a b Medal of Honor: CRS RL30011, p. 13. June 4, 2008.
  39. ^ a b Medal of Honor: CRS RL30011, p. 10. June 4, 2008.
  40. ^ Japanese American National Museum (JANM): William Honri bio Archived March 29, 2012, at the Wayback Machine; Martin, Douglas. "William Hohri Dies at 83; Sought Money for Internees," The New York Times (US). November 24, 2010; retrieved 2011-05-17.
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  47. ^ DiscoverNikkei: Mineta bio; retrieved 2011-05-17.
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  66. ^ Yoneda, Karl (1983). Ganbatte: Sixty-Year Struggle of a Kibei Worker. UCLA Asian American Studies Center.
  67. ^ "George Yoshida | Densho Encyclopedia".

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Asahina, Robert (2007). Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad: The Story of the 100th Battalion. New York: Gotham Books. ISBN 1-59240-300-X. OCLC 143249949.
  • Harrington, Joseph D. (1979). Yankee Samurai: The Secret Role of Nisei in America's Pacific Victory. Detroit: Pettigrew Enterprises. ISBN 9780093368010. OCLC 5184099.
  • McNaughton, James (2006). Nisei Linguists: Japanese Americans in the Military Intelligence Service During World War II. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army. ISBN 9780160729577. OCLC 70149258.
  • Moulin, Pierre (1993). U.S. Samuraïs in Bruyeres: People of France and Japanese Americans: Incredible Story. Peace and Freedom Trail, France (ed.). Translator: David Guinsbourg. Vagney, France: G. Louis. ISBN 2-9599984-0-5. OCLC 82373241.
  • Sterner, C. Douglas (2008). Go for Broke: The Nisei Warriors of World War II Who Conquered Germany, Japan, and American Bigotry. Clearfield, Utah: Utah American Legacy Historical Press. ISBN 978-0-9796896-1-1. OCLC 141855086.