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The Peace Ship was the common name for the ocean liner Oscar II, on which American industrialist Henry Ford organized and launched his 1915 amateur peace mission to Europe;^[1] Ford chartered the Oscar II and invited prominent peace activists to join him.^[2] He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to World War I,^[1] but the mission was widely mocked by the press, which referred to the Oscar II as the "Ship of Fools" as well as the "Peace Ship".^[3] Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage.^[4] Five days after Oscar II arrived in Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States.^[5] The peace mission was unsuccessful, which reinforced Ford's reputation as a supporter of unusual causes.^[6] The ship was named after the former Swedish Monarch H.M. King Oscar II of Sweden (until 1905 also King of Norway) who, according to Ford, was a peaceloving monarch.

Background

In early 1915, Ford began to express pacifist sentiments publicly and to denounce the ongoing war in Europe.^[7] Later that year, American peace activist Louis P. Lochner and Hungarian journalist Rosika Schwimmer approached Ford, now commonly recognized as a pacifist, with a proposal to launch an amateur diplomatic mission to Europe to broker an end to World War I.^[7] Schwimmer claimed to possess diplomatic correspondence that proved that the European powers were willing to negotiate, which was an outright fabrication.^[7] Nevertheless, Ford agreed to finance a peace campaign.^[7]

Ford initially sought President Woodrow Wilson's endorsement of his diplomatic undertaking.^[2] Ford and Lochner secured a meeting with Wilson at the White House and proposed for Wilson to commission Ford's mission to Europe officially.^[2] Although Wilson was sympathetic to Ford's aims, he declined the offer on the ground that the venture was most unlikely to succeed.^[2]

Disappointed by Wilson's response, Ford told Lochner that Wilson was a "small man."^[8]

Ford was undeterred by Wilson's refusal to endorse the expedition and planned it as a private delegation to Europe.^[2] On 24 November 1915, he announced to a New York City press conference that he had chartered the ocean liner Oscar II for a diplomatic mission to Europe, and he invited the most prominent pacifists of the age to join him.^[2] Among those invited were Jane Addams, William Jennings Bryan, Thomas Edison, and John Wanamaker.^[3]

Addams, Bryan, Edison, and Wanamaker all declined.^[3] However, a number of noted peace activists joined the voyage, such as suffragette Inez Milholland and publisher S. S. McClure. Also aboard the ship were more than 40 reporters and Ford's friend, Rev. Samuel Marquis. ^[9]

Mission to Europe

The Oscar II set sail from Hoboken, New Jersey, on 4 December 1915, amid an atmosphere that the press later derided as circus-like.^[10] A crowd of about 15,000 watched the Oscar II depart from the harbor while a band played "I Didn't Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier."^[11]

Just before the ship's departure, a prankster placed a cage containing two squirrels and a sign reading "To the Good Ship Nutty" on the ship's gangplank.^[11] When the ship departed, a fully dressed man jumped off the pier and attempted to swim after it.^[11] The harbor police rescued the man, who identified himself as Mr. Zero, explaining that he was "swimming to reach public opinion."^[9]

Infighting among the delegates plagued Oscar II for much of its journey across the Atlantic.^[6] In particular, they quarrelled over the proper response to send to the media after they received news of Wilson's 7 December address to Congress, which called for considerable increases to the US Army and Navy.^[9] The majority of delegates signed a resolution that denounced Wilson's policy of military preparedness, but a substantial minority refused to sign the resolution, on the ground that the resolution was unpatriotic.^[12]

After the pro-Wilson minority threatened to abandon the mission upon landing in Europe, the two factions denounced each other.^[12]

An outbreak of influenza spread through the ship about halfway across the Atlantic, resulting in one person dying of pneumonia and many others being afflicted.^[4] Ford himself fell ill and withdrew to his cabin,^[9] avoiding reporters.^[4] Nevertheless, a group of them barged into his cabin to check on a rumor that he had died.^[9]

The Peace Ship arrived at its first destination, Oslo, Norway, on 18 December,^[4] receiving a cool reception from the Norwegians, many of whom supported military preparedness and were skeptical towards the ship and its delegates.^[4] Ford, still sick with flu, retreated to his room at the Grand Hotel for four days.^[5] He met the press in his suite in the evening on 21 December, but he spoke little about the Peace Ship and its mission.^[5]

His statement to the press was reported in Aftenposten, an Oslo newspaper, and Dagens Nyheter, a Stockholm morning newspaper, on 22 December. (Aftenposten has a digital version and Dagens Nyheter is on record on microfilm at the Swedish National Library in Stockholm.)

About then, Sanuel Marquis convinced Ford to abandon the Peace Ship, on account of Ford's illness and Schwimmer's failure to produce the documents that supposedly proved that the belligerent nations were ready to mediate.^[13]

On 23 December. Ford and Marquis slipped out of their hotel, took the train to Bergen and sailed on the steamer Bergensfjord back to the United States on 24 December, arriving in New York 2 January 1916.^[4]

Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation

Despite Ford's abandonment of the endeavor, the Peace Ship continued its journey around Europe.^[6]

The Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation began in Stockholm on February 10, 1916, gathering representatives from the United States, Denmark, Holland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. Lochner was the general secretary of the Conference. The two US delegates were Charles A. Aked and Emily Greene Balch. There was a "Committee of Seven" overseeing the resulting Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation, including Lola Maverick Lloyd.^[14]^[15] Envoys were sent to England, Germany, and Russia, all ultimately unsuccessful. In autumn of 1916 Schwimmer traveled back to the United States to gather support.

Ford continued to pay for the ship's expenses and the Conference until early 1917, when it became clear the US was edging closer to entering the war.^[5]In total, the Peace Ship expedition ultimately cost Ford approximately half a million dollars (US$ 11,890,000 in 2024).^[6]

Response

Initially, the press response to the Peace Ship was respectful.^[8] The New York Times warned that an immediate peace would entail German possession of Belgium and part of France, but concluded that Ford's plan would do "as little harm as good".^[8] Some newspapers applauded Ford's efforts. The New York Herald asserted that, "We need more Fords, more peace talks, and less indifference to the greatest crime in the world's history".^[16]

After all Ford's most prominent invitees declined his offer of sailing to Europe, the press reaction turned negative.^[16] The Baltimore Sun noted that "All the amateur efforts of altruistic and notoriety-seeking millionaires only make matters worse" while the New York World stated that "Henry Ford says he would give all his fortune to end the war. So would many another man. But this is something that money will not do".^[17] Other papers openly mocked Ford's amateur peace campaign. The Philadelphia Record claimed that "Henry Ford's millions have gone to his head". The Louisville Courier was even more severe, suggesting that Henry Ford carried "cold cream in his head".^[17]

Also critical of Ford's endeavor were former United States Senator Chauncey M. Depew and one- time presidential candidate Alton B. Parker. Depew famously commented of the Peace Ship, "In uselessness and absurdity it will stand without an equal".^[17] Parker also publicly criticized the peace ship, stating "chances are that his antics will be taken seriously and they will tend to bring us into contempt if not hatred".^[17]

Although the press mocked Ford's peace mission, it viewed Ford as a victim of manipulation by the other pacifists aboard the ship.^[9] The reporters on the Oscar II took a liking to Ford and decided that he should be afforded more respect than the rest of his entourage.^[4] The correspondent for The New York Times stated that the reporters on the ship earned "an immense respect and liking for the character and abilities of Henry Ford".^[4]

However, the press portrayed the majority of Ford's entourage aboard the ship as buffoons, and ridiculed the delegates for the infighting.^[4] The press was exceptionally critical of Rosika Schwimmer, who insisted she had diplomatic correspondence that proved the European powers were open to negotiation, but refused to show these documents to the press.^[12] Schwimmer responded to her negative treatment by the press by locking them out of the wireless room.^[12]

Legacy

The Peace Ship's mission was ultimately a failure, producing only inconsequential meetings with "quasi-official representatives" from several European governments.^[6] Nevertheless, Ford asserted that the Peace Ship's expedition was successful on the grounds that it stimulated discussions about peace.^[5] Ford told the press that the Peace Ship "got people thinking, and when you get them to think they will think right".^[5] Despite roundly criticizing the Peace Ship, the press generally treated Ford favorably upon his return from Europe.^[18] Even papers that derided the Peace Ship, such as the New York American, often voiced support for Ford's calls for peace.^[18] In the following years, Ford continued his antiwar activism and paid for anti-preparedness advertisements to appear in newspapers across the United States.^[5]

References

^ ^a ^b Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 228.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 229.
^ ^a ^b ^c Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 206.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 234.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 235.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Henry, Jim (June 15, 2003). "Noble cause becomes a farce ; Peace Ship cements Henry Ford's image as a well-meaning but naive do-gooder". Automotive News. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 204.
^ ^a ^b ^c Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 205.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 209.
^ "PEACE ARK STARTS; FORD IS BUOYANT: Cheers, with 3,000 Others". The New York Times. December 5, 1915. pp. 1, 3.
^ ^a ^b ^c Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 232.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 233.
^ Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 209–210.
^ "Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation (1916) · Jane Addams Digital Edition".
^ Ruttum, Laura (October 2005). Lola Maverick Lloyd Papers: 1856-1949 (PDF). New York Public Library.
^ ^a ^b Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 231.
^ ^a ^b Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 240.

External links

Media related to Oscar II (ship, 1902) at Wikimedia Commons
"Ford peace expedition", Information: A digest of current events covering 1915. January 1916.

[Watts228-1] Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 228.

[Watts229-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 229.

[Traxel206-3] Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 206.

[Watts234-4] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 234.

[Watts235-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 235.

[Henry-6] Henry, Jim (June 15, 2003). "Noble cause becomes a farce ; Peace Ship cements Henry Ford's image as a well-meaning but naive do-gooder". Automotive News. Retrieved 7 December 2012.

[Traxel204-7] Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 204.

[Traxel205-8] Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 205.

[Traxel209-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 209.

[10] "PEACE ARK STARTS; FORD IS BUOYANT: Cheers, with 3,000 Others". The New York Times. December 5, 1915. pp. 1, 3.

[Watts232-11] Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 232.

[Watts233-12] Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 233.

[13] Traxel, David (2006). Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 209–210.

[14] "Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation (1916) · Jane Addams Digital Edition".

[NYPL-15] Ruttum, Laura (October 2005). Lola Maverick Lloyd Papers: 1856-1949 (PDF). New York Public Library.

[Watts230-16] Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230.

[Watts231-17] Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 231.

[Watts240-18] Watts, Steven (2005). The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 240.

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+{{Short description|Henry Ford's 1915 peace mission to Europe}}
-The '''Peace Ship''' was the common name for the ocean liner '''''Oscar II''''', on which American industrialist [[Henry Ford]] organized and launched his 1915 amateur peace mission to Europe;<ref name = "Watts228">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=228}}</ref> Ford chartered the ''Oscar II'' and invited prominent [[peace activists]] to join him.<ref name ="Watts229">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=229}}</ref> He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to [[World War I]],<ref name = "Watts228" /> but the mission was widely mocked by the press, which referred to the ''Oscar II'' as the “Ship of Fools” as well as the “Peace Ship”.<ref name = "Traxel206">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|year=2006|location=New York|pages=206|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwXy3epB27kC}}</ref> Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage.<ref name = "Watts234">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=234}}</ref> Five days after ''Oscar II'' arrived in Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States.<ref name = "Watts235">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=235}}</ref> The peace mission was unsuccessful, which reinforced Ford’s reputation as a supporter of unusual causes.<ref name = "Henry">{{cite news|last=Henry|first=Jim|title=Noble cause becomes a farce ; Peace Ship cements Henry Ford's image as a well-meaning but naive do-gooder|url=http://www.autonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030616/SUB/306160718/1378|accessdate=7 December 2012|newspaper=Automotive News|date=June 15, 2003}}</ref>
+[[File:Oscar II 1915.jpg|thumb|''Oscar II'' Peace Ship leaving New York Dec. 4, 1915]]
+The '''Peace Ship''' was the common name for the ocean liner '''''Oscar II''''', on which American industrialist [[Henry Ford]] organized and launched his 1915 amateur peace mission to Europe;<ref name = "Watts228">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/228 228]}}</ref> Ford chartered the ''Oscar II'' and invited prominent [[peace activists]] to join him.<ref name ="Watts229">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/229 229]}}</ref> He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to [[World War I]],<ref name = "Watts228" /> but the mission was widely mocked by the press, which referred to the ''Oscar II'' as the "Ship of Fools" as well as the "Peace Ship".<ref name = "Traxel206">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2006|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax/page/206 206]|url=https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax|url-access=registration}}</ref> Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage.<ref name = "Watts234">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/234 234]}}</ref> Five days after ''Oscar II'' arrived in Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States.<ref name = "Watts235">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/235 235]}}</ref> The peace mission was unsuccessful, which reinforced Ford's reputation as a supporter of unusual causes.<ref name = "Henry">{{cite news|last=Henry|first=Jim|title=Noble cause becomes a farce ; Peace Ship cements Henry Ford's image as a well-meaning but naive do-gooder|url=http://www.autonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030616/SUB/306160718/1378|accessdate=7 December 2012|newspaper=Automotive News|date=June 15, 2003}}</ref> The ship was named after the former [[Monarchy of Sweden|Swedish Monarch]] [[Oscar II|H.M. King Oscar II of Sweden]] (until 1905 also [[Monarchy of Norway|King of Norway]]) who, according to Ford, was a peaceloving monarch.
 ==Background==
+In early 1915, Ford began to express pacifist sentiments publicly and to denounce the ongoing war in Europe.<ref name = "Traxel204">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2006|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax/page/204 204]|url=https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax|url-access=registration}}</ref> Later that year, American peace activist [[Louis P. Lochner]] and Hungarian journalist [[Rosika Schwimmer]] approached Ford, now commonly recognized as a [[pacifism|pacifist]], with a proposal to launch an amateur diplomatic mission to Europe to broker an end to World War I.<ref name = "Traxel204" /> Schwimmer claimed to possess diplomatic correspondence that proved that the European powers were willing to negotiate, which was an outright fabrication.<ref name = "Traxel204" /> Nevertheless, Ford agreed to finance a peace campaign.<ref name = "Traxel204" />
-[[File:Oscar II 1915.jpg|thumb|left|''Oscar II'' Peace Ship leaving New York Dec. 4, 1915]]
-In early 1915, Ford began to express pacifist sentiments publicly and to denounce the ongoing war in Europe.<ref name = "Traxel204">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|year=2006|location=New York|pages=204|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwXy3epB27kC}}</ref> Later that year, American peace activist [[Louis P. Lochner|Louis Lochner]] and Hungarian journalist [[Rosika Schwimmer]] approached Ford, now commonly recognized as a [[pacifism|pacifist]], with a proposal to launch an amateur diplomatic mission to Europe to broker an end to World War I.<ref name = "Traxel204" /> Schwimmer claimed to possess diplomatic correspondence that proved that the European powers were willing to negotiate, which was an outright fabrication.<ref name = "Traxel204" /> Nevertheless, Ford agreed to finance a peace campaign.<ref name = "Traxel204" />
 [[File:Rosika Schwimmer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Rosika Schwimmer]]
-Ford initially sought President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s endorsement of his diplomatic undertaking.<ref name ="Watts229" /> Ford and Lochner secured a meeting with Wilson at the [[White House]] and proposed for Wilson to commission Ford's mission to Europe officially.<ref name ="Watts229" /> Although Wilson was sympathetic to Ford’s aims, he declined the offer on the ground that the venture was most unlikely to succeed.<ref name ="Watts229" />
+Ford initially sought President [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s endorsement of his diplomatic undertaking.<ref name ="Watts229" /> Ford and Lochner secured a meeting with Wilson at the [[White House]] and proposed for Wilson to commission Ford's mission to Europe officially.<ref name ="Watts229" /> Although Wilson was sympathetic to Ford's aims, he declined the offer on the ground that the venture was most unlikely to succeed.<ref name ="Watts229" />
-Disappointed by Wilson's response, Ford told Lochner that Wilson was a "small man."<ref name = "Traxel205">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|year=2006|location=New York|pages=205|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwXy3epB27kC}}</ref>
+Disappointed by Wilson's response, Ford told Lochner that Wilson was a "small man."<ref name = "Traxel205">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2006|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax/page/205 205]|url=https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax|url-access=registration}}</ref>
 Ford was undeterred by Wilson's refusal to endorse the expedition and planned it as a private delegation to Europe.<ref name ="Watts229" /> On 24 November 1915, he announced to a New York City press conference that he had chartered the ocean liner ''Oscar II'' for a diplomatic mission to Europe, and he invited the most prominent pacifists of the age to join him.<ref name ="Watts229"/> Among those invited were [[Jane Addams]], [[William Jennings Bryan]], [[Thomas Edison]], and [[John Wanamaker]].<ref name = "Traxel206" />
 Addams, Bryan, Edison, and Wanamaker all declined.<ref name = "Traxel206" /> However, a number of noted peace activists joined the voyage, such as suffragette [[Inez Milholland]] and publisher S. S. McClure. Also aboard the ship were more than 40 reporters and Ford's friend, Rev. Samuel Marquis.
+<ref name = "Traxel209">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2006|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax/page/209 209]|url=https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax|url-access=registration}}</ref>
+== Mission to Europe ==
-<ref name = "Traxel209">{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|year=2006|location=New York|pages=209|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwXy3epB27kC}}</ref>
 [[File:Ford Peace Ship 1915.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Oscar II'' Peace Ship with Capt. G. W. Hempel and Henry Ford]]
-The ''Oscar II'' set sail from [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], on 4 December 1915, amid an atmosphere that the press later derided as circus-like.<ref> {{cite news |title=PEACE ARK STARTS; FORD IS BUOYANT: Cheers, with 3,000 Others |publisher=The New York Times |date=December 5, 1915 |pages=1, 3 }}</ref> A crowd of about 15,000 watched the ''Oscar II'' depart from the harbor while a band played "I Didn't Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier."<ref name = "Watts232">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=232}}</ref>
+The ''Oscar II'' set sail from [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], on 4 December 1915, amid an atmosphere that the press later derided as circus-like.<ref> {{cite news |title=PEACE ARK STARTS; FORD IS BUOYANT: Cheers, with 3,000 Others |work=The New York Times |date=December 5, 1915 |pages=1, 3 }}</ref> A crowd of about 15,000 watched the ''Oscar II'' depart from the harbor while a band played "I Didn't Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier."<ref name = "Watts232">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/232 232]}}</ref>
-Just before the ship's departure, a prankster placed a cage containing two squirrels and a sign reading " To the Good Ship Nutty" on the ship's gangplank.<ref name = "Watts232" />  When the ship departed, a fully dressed man jumped off the pier and attempted to swim after it.<ref name = "Watts232" /> The harbor police rescued the man, who identified himself as [[Urbain Ledoux|Mr. Zero]], explaining that he was "swimming to reach public opinion."<ref name = "Traxel209" />
+Just before the ship's departure, a prankster placed a cage containing two squirrels and a sign reading "To the Good Ship Nutty" on the ship's gangplank.<ref name = "Watts232" /> When the ship departed, a fully dressed man jumped off the pier and attempted to swim after it.<ref name = "Watts232" /> The harbor police rescued the man, who identified himself as [[Urbain Ledoux|Mr. Zero]], explaining that he was "swimming to reach public opinion."<ref name = "Traxel209" />
-Infighting among the delegates plagued ''Oscar II'' for much of its journey across the Atlantic.<ref name = "Henry" /> In particular, they quarrelled over the proper response to send to the media after they received news of Wilson's 7 December address to Congress, which called for considerable increases to the US Army and Navy.<ref name = "Traxel209" /> The majority of delegates signed a resolution that denounced Wilson's policy of military preparedness, but a substantial minority refused to sign the resolution, on the ground that the resolution was unpatriotic.<ref name = "Watts233">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=233}}</ref>
+Infighting among the delegates plagued ''Oscar II'' for much of its journey across the Atlantic.<ref name = "Henry" /> In particular, they quarrelled over the proper response to send to the media after they received news of Wilson's 7 December address to Congress, which called for considerable increases to the US Army and Navy.<ref name = "Traxel209" /> The majority of delegates signed a resolution that denounced Wilson's policy of military preparedness, but a substantial minority refused to sign the resolution, on the ground that the resolution was unpatriotic.<ref name = "Watts233">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/233 233]}}</ref>
 After the pro-Wilson minority threatened to abandon the mission upon landing in Europe, the two factions denounced each other.<ref name = "Watts233" />
-An outbreak of influenza spread through the ship about halfway across the Atlantic, resulting in one person dying of pneumonia and many others being afflicted.<ref name = "Watts234" />  Ford himself fell ill and withdrew to his cabin,<ref name = "Traxel209" /> avoiding reporters.<ref name = "Watts234" /> Nevertheless, a group of them barged into his cabin to check on a rumor that he had died.<ref name = "Traxel209" />
+An outbreak of influenza spread through the ship about halfway across the Atlantic, resulting in one person dying of pneumonia and many others being afflicted.<ref name = "Watts234" /> Ford himself fell ill and withdrew to his cabin,<ref name = "Traxel209" /> avoiding reporters.<ref name = "Watts234" /> Nevertheless, a group of them barged into his cabin to check on a rumor that he had died.<ref name = "Traxel209" />
 The Peace Ship arrived at its first destination, [[Oslo]], [[Norway]], on 18 December,<ref name = "Watts234" /> receiving a cool reception from the Norwegians, many of whom supported military preparedness and were skeptical towards the ship and its delegates.<ref name = "Watts234" /> Ford, still sick with flu, retreated to his room at the Grand Hotel for four days.<ref name = "Watts235" /> He met the press in his suite in the evening on 21 December, but he spoke little about the Peace Ship and its mission.<ref name = "Watts235" />
@@ Line 29: / Line 31: @@
 His statement to the press was reported in ''Aftenposten'', an Oslo newspaper, and ''Dagens Nyheter'', a Stockholm morning newspaper, on 22 December. (''Aftenposten'' has a digital version and ''Dagens Nyheter'' is on record on microfilm at the Swedish National Library in Stockholm.)
-About then, Sanuel Marquis convinced Ford to abandon the Peace Ship, on account of Ford's illness and Schwimmer's failure to produce the documents that supposedly proved that the belligerent nations were ready to mediate.<ref>{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|year=2006|location=New York|pages=209–210 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwXy3epB27kC}}</ref>
+About then, Sanuel Marquis convinced Ford to abandon the Peace Ship, on account of Ford's illness and Schwimmer's failure to produce the documents that supposedly proved that the belligerent nations were ready to mediate.<ref>{{cite book|last=Traxel|first=David|title=Crusader Nation: The United States in Peace and the Great War 1898-1920|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2006|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax/page/209 209]–210 |url=https://archive.org/details/crusadernationun00trax|url-access=registration}}</ref>
-On 23 December. Ford and Marquis slipped out of their hotel, took the train to Bergen and boarded Bergensfjord back to the United States on 24 December.<ref name = "Watts234" /> Despite Ford's abandonment of the endeavor, the Peace Ship continued its journey around Europe.<ref name = "Henry" /> Ford continued to pay for the ship’s expenses until early 1917.<ref name = "Watts235" />
+On 23 December. Ford and Marquis slipped out of their hotel, took the train to Bergen and sailed on the steamer [[SS Bergensfjord|''Bergensfjord'']] back to the United States on 24 December, arriving in New York 2 January 1916.<ref name = "Watts234" />
+=== Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation ===
-In total, the Peace Ship expedition ultimately cost Ford approximately half a million dollars (US$ {{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|500000|1917|r=-4}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}).<ref name = "Henry" />
+Despite Ford's abandonment of the endeavor, the Peace Ship continued its journey around Europe.<ref name = "Henry" />
+The Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation began in Stockholm on February 10, 1916, gathering representatives from the United States, Denmark, Holland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. Lochner was the general secretary of the Conference. The two US delegates were Charles A. Aked and [[Emily Greene Balch]]. There was a "Committee of Seven" overseeing the resulting Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation, including [[Lola Maverick Lloyd]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://digital.janeaddams.ramapo.edu/items/show/8385 | title=Neutral Conference for Continuous Mediation (1916) · Jane Addams Digital Edition }}</ref><ref name="NYPL">{{cite book|last=Ruttum|first=Laura|title=Lola Maverick Lloyd Papers: 1856-1949|url=http://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/lloydlola.pdf|publisher=[[New York Public Library]]|date=October 2005}}</ref> Envoys were sent to England, Germany, and Russia, all ultimately unsuccessful. In autumn of 1916 Schwimmer traveled back to the United States to gather support.
+Ford continued to pay for the ship's expenses and the Conference until early 1917, when it became clear the US was edging closer to entering the war.<ref name = "Watts235" />In total, the Peace Ship expedition ultimately cost Ford approximately half a million dollars (US$ {{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|500000|1917|r=-4}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}).<ref name = "Henry" />
 ==Response==
 [[File:Punch 1915c.jpg|thumb|330px|''The Tug of Peace'' by Raven Hill, ''Punch'' 15 Dec. 1915]]
-Initially, the press response to the Peace Ship was respectful.<ref name = "Traxel205" /> ''[[The New York Times]]'' warned that an immediate peace would entail [[Germany|German]] possession of [[Belgium]] and part of [[France]], but concluded that Ford’s plan would do “as little harm as good”.<ref name = "Traxel205" />  Some newspapers applauded Ford’s efforts. ''[[The New York Herald]]'' asserted that, “We need more Fords, more peace talks, and less indifference to the greatest crime in the world’s history”.<ref name = "Watts230">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=230}}</ref>
+Initially, the press response to the Peace Ship was respectful.<ref name = "Traxel205" /> ''[[The New York Times]]'' warned that an immediate peace would entail [[Germany|German]] possession of [[Belgium]] and part of [[France]], but concluded that Ford's plan would do "as little harm as good".<ref name = "Traxel205" /> Some newspapers applauded Ford's efforts. ''[[The New York Herald]]'' asserted that, "We need more Fords, more peace talks, and less indifference to the greatest crime in the world's history".<ref name = "Watts230">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/230 230]}}</ref>
-After all Ford’s most prominent invitees declined his offer of sailing to Europe, the press reaction turned negative.<ref name = "Watts230" /> ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'' noted that “All the amateur efforts of altruistic and notoriety-seeking millionaires only make matters worse” while the ''New York World'' stated that “Henry Ford says he would give all his fortune to end the war. So would many another man. But this is something that money will not do”.<ref name = "Watts231">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=231}}</ref> Other papers openly mocked Ford’s amateur peace campaign. The ''[[Philadelphia Record]]'' claimed that "Henry Ford’s millions have gone to his head". The ''[[Louisville Courier]]'' was even more severe, suggesting that Henry Ford carried "cold cream in his head".<ref name = "Watts231" />
+After all Ford's most prominent invitees declined his offer of sailing to Europe, the press reaction turned negative.<ref name = "Watts230" /> ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'' noted that "All the amateur efforts of altruistic and notoriety-seeking millionaires only make matters worse" while the ''New York World'' stated that "Henry Ford says he would give all his fortune to end the war. So would many another man. But this is something that money will not do".<ref name = "Watts231">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/231 231]}}</ref> Other papers openly mocked Ford's amateur peace campaign. The ''[[Philadelphia Record]]'' claimed that "Henry Ford's millions have gone to his head". The ''[[Louisville Courier]]'' was even more severe, suggesting that Henry Ford carried "cold cream in his head".<ref name = "Watts231" />
-Also critical of Ford’s endeavor were former United States Senator [[Chauncey M. Depew]] and one- time presidential candidate [[Alton B. Parker]]. Depew famously commented of the Peace Ship, “In uselessness and absurdity it will stand without an equal”.<ref name = "Watts231" /> Parker also publicly criticized the peace ship, stating “chances are that his antics will be taken seriously and they will tend to bring us into contempt if not hatred”.<ref name = "Watts231" />
+Also critical of Ford's endeavor were former United States Senator [[Chauncey M. Depew]] and one- time presidential candidate [[Alton B. Parker]]. Depew famously commented of the Peace Ship, "In uselessness and absurdity it will stand without an equal".<ref name = "Watts231" /> Parker also publicly criticized the peace ship, stating "chances are that his antics will be taken seriously and they will tend to bring us into contempt if not hatred".<ref name = "Watts231" />
-Although the press mocked Ford’s peace mission, it viewed Ford as a victim of manipulation by the other pacifists aboard the ship.<ref name = "Traxel209" /> The reporters on the ''Oscar II'' took a liking to Ford and decided that he should be afforded more respect than rest of his entourage.<ref name = "Watts234" /> The correspondent for ''The New York Times'' stated that the reporters on the ship earned "an immense respect and liking for the character and abilities of Henry Ford".<ref name = "Watts234" />
+Although the press mocked Ford's peace mission, it viewed Ford as a victim of manipulation by the other pacifists aboard the ship.<ref name = "Traxel209" /> The reporters on the ''Oscar II'' took a liking to Ford and decided that he should be afforded more respect than the rest of his entourage.<ref name = "Watts234" /> The correspondent for ''The New York Times'' stated that the reporters on the ship earned "an immense respect and liking for the character and abilities of Henry Ford".<ref name = "Watts234" />
-However, the press portrayed the majority of Ford’s entourage aboard the ship as buffoons, and ridiculed the delegates for the infighting.<ref name = "Watts234" /> The press was exceptionally critical of Rosika Schwimmer, who insisted she had diplomatic correspondence that proved the European powers were open to negotiation, but refused to show these documents to the press.<ref name = "Watts233" /> Schwimmer responded to her negative treatment by the press by locking them out of the wireless room.<ref name = "Watts233" />
+However, the press portrayed the majority of Ford's entourage aboard the ship as buffoons, and ridiculed the delegates for the infighting.<ref name = "Watts234" /> The press was exceptionally critical of Rosika Schwimmer, who insisted she had diplomatic correspondence that proved the European powers were open to negotiation, but refused to show these documents to the press.<ref name = "Watts233" /> Schwimmer responded to her negative treatment by the press by locking them out of the wireless room.<ref name = "Watts233" />
 ==Legacy==
-The Peace Ship’s mission was ultimately a failure, producing only inconsequential meetings with “quasi-official representatives” from several European governments.<ref name = "Henry" /> Nevertheless, Ford asserted that the Peace Ship’s expedition was successful on the grounds that it stimulated discussions about peace.<ref name = "Watts235" /> Ford told the press that the Peace Ship "got people thinking, and when you get them to think they will think right".<ref name = "Watts235" /> Despite roundly criticizing the Peace Ship, the press generally treated Ford favorably upon his return from Europe.<ref name = "Watts240">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=240}}</ref> Even papers that derided the Peace Ship, such as the ''New York American'', often voiced support for Ford’s calls for peace.<ref name = "Watts240" /> In the following years, Ford continued his [[antiwar]] activism and paid for anti-preparedness advertisements to appear in newspapers across the United States.<ref name = "Watts235" />
+The Peace Ship's mission was ultimately a failure, producing only inconsequential meetings with "quasi-official representatives" from several European governments.<ref name = "Henry" /> Nevertheless, Ford asserted that the Peace Ship's expedition was successful on the grounds that it stimulated discussions about peace.<ref name = "Watts235" /> Ford told the press that the Peace Ship "got people thinking, and when you get them to think they will think right".<ref name = "Watts235" /> Despite roundly criticizing the Peace Ship, the press generally treated Ford favorably upon his return from Europe.<ref name = "Watts240">{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Steven|title=The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplestycoonhen00watt/page/240 240]}}</ref> Even papers that derided the Peace Ship, such as the ''New York American'', often voiced support for Ford's calls for peace.<ref name = "Watts240" /> In the following years, Ford continued his [[antiwar]] activism and paid for anti-preparedness advertisements to appear in newspapers across the United States.<ref name = "Watts235" />
 ==References==
 {{Reflist}}
+== External links ==
+*{{Commons category-inline|Oscar II (ship, 1902)}}
+*[https://books.google.com/books?id=pjhMAQAAMAAJ&dq=Bergensfjord+Ford&pg=PT531 "Ford peace expedition"], ''Information: A digest of current events covering 1915''. January 1916.
+{{Authority control}}
 [[Category:Opposition to World War I]]

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