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{{Short description|Text of the Samkhya school of Indian philosophy}} |
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{{Hindu scriptures}} |
{{Hindu scriptures}} |
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The '''Samkhyakarika''' ({{lang-sa|सांख्यकारिका}}, {{IAST |Sāṁkhyakārikā}}) is the earliest surviving text of the [[Samkhya]] school of [[ |
The '''Samkhyakarika''' ({{lang-sa|सांख्यकारिका}}, {{IAST |Sāṁkhyakārikā}}) is the earliest surviving text of the [[Samkhya]] school of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name=larson>Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0503-8}}, pages 146-153</ref><ref>Mircea Eliade, Willard Ropes Trask and David Gordon White (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691142036}}, page 367</ref> The text's original composition date is unknown, but its ''terminus ad quem'' (completed before) date has been established through its Chinese translation that became available by 569 CE.<ref>Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0503-8}}, page 4</ref> It is attributed to [[Isvarakrsna|Ishvara Krishna]] ({{IAST|Iśvarakṛṣṇa}}, 350 CE).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Yoga Tradition|last = Feuerstein|first = Georg|publisher = Hohm Press|year = 2008|isbn = 978-1-890772-18-5|location = Prescott, Arizona|pages = 75}}</ref> |
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In the text, the author described himself as a successor of the disciples from the great sage [[Kapila]], through {{IAST|Āsuri}} and {{IAST| Pañcaśikha}}. His {{IAST |Sāṁkhya Kārikā}} consists of 72 {{IAST |śloka}}s written in the [[Arya metre|Ārya metre]], with the last verse asserting that the original Samkhya Karika had only 70 verses.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 146-147</ref> |
In the text, the author described himself as a successor of the disciples from the great sage [[Kapila]], through {{IAST|Āsuri}} and {{IAST| Pañcaśikha}}. His {{IAST |Sāṁkhya Kārikā}} consists of 72 {{IAST |śloka}}s written in the [[Arya metre|Ārya metre]], with the last verse asserting that the original Samkhya Karika had only 70 verses.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 146-147</ref> |
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{{Quote box |width=26em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right |
{{Quote box |width=26em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right |
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|quote='''The significance'''<br> |
|quote='''The significance'''<br/> |
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Besides the [[Vedanta]] school, the Samkhya school is the one which exerted the greatest influence upon the history of Indian thought, and a blending and synthesis of the thought of the two schools can often be found in important works of thought in India. The Samkhyakarika is the classical text book of the Samkhya school. |
Besides the [[Vedanta]] school, the Samkhya school is the one which exerted the greatest influence upon the history of Indian thought, and a blending and synthesis of the thought of the two schools can often be found in important works of thought in India. The Samkhyakarika is the classical text book of the Samkhya school. |
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|source =—Hajime Nakamura<ref>Hajime Nakamura (1989), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120806511}}, page 334</ref>}} |
|source =—Hajime Nakamura<ref>Hajime Nakamura (1989), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120806511}}, page 334</ref>}} |
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While the Samkhya ideas developed in second half of 1st millennium BCE through the Gupta period, the analysis of evidence shows, states Gerald Larson, that Samkhya is rooted in the speculations of the Vedic era [[Brahmanas]] and the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism on the nature of man, and that it is generally agreed that Samkhya's formulation took place at the earliest after the oldest Upanishads had been composed (~800 BCE).<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 42</ref> |
While the Samkhya ideas developed in second half of 1st millennium BCE through the Gupta period, the analysis of evidence shows, states Gerald Larson, that Samkhya is rooted in the speculations of the Vedic era [[Brahmanas]] and the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism on the nature of man, and that it is generally agreed that Samkhya's formulation took place at the earliest after the oldest Upanishads had been composed (~800 BCE).<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 42</ref> |
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In terms of comparative textual chronology, states Larson, the final redaction of [[Yogasutra]] and the writing of Samkhya-karika were probably contemporaneous.<ref name="Gerald James Larson 2011">Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 149</ref> The Samkhya literature grew with later developments such as through ''[[Bhashya]]'' on Samkhya karika in the 9th-century ''Samkhya Tattva Kaumudi'' of Vacaspati Mishra.<ref>Larson, 1979, p. 253</ref> |
In terms of comparative textual chronology, states Larson, the final redaction of [[Yogasutra]] and the writing of Samkhya-karika were probably contemporaneous.<ref name="Gerald James Larson 2011">[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 149</ref> The Samkhya literature grew with later developments such as through ''[[Bhashya]]'' on Samkhya karika in the 9th-century ''Samkhya Tattva Kaumudi'' of Vacaspati Mishra.<ref>Larson, 1979, p. 253</ref> |
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==Structure== |
==Structure== |
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In mid 20th-century, the first manuscript of ''Yuktidipika'' was discovered in India, which is a review and commentary on the ''Karika''.<ref name=wezler/> ''Yuktidipika'', for unknown reasons, skipped commenting on verses sixty through sixty three, verse sixty five and sixty six, but reviews and analyzes the remaining 66 of 72 verses.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/> |
In mid 20th-century, the first manuscript of ''Yuktidipika'' was discovered in India, which is a review and commentary on the ''Karika''.<ref name=wezler/> ''Yuktidipika'', for unknown reasons, skipped commenting on verses sixty through sixty three, verse sixty five and sixty six, but reviews and analyzes the remaining 66 of 72 verses.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/> |
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The medieval era ''Matharavrtti'' text states that the ''Karika'' has seventy three verses.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/> In contrast, verse seventy two of the surviving 6th-century CE ''Karika'' declares that its original had just seventy verses, implying that a more ancient version of Samkhya-karika once existed.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/><ref name=wezler/> Scholars have attempted to produce a [[critical edition]], by identifying the most ancient original set of seventy verses, but this effort has not produced a consensus among scholars.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/> In terms of content, importance and meaning, the text is essentially the same regardless of which version of the manuscript is referred to.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/><ref name=wezler/><ref> |
The medieval era ''Matharavrtti'' text states that the ''Karika'' has seventy three verses.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/> In contrast, verse seventy two of the surviving 6th-century CE ''Karika'' declares that its original had just seventy verses, implying that a more ancient version of Samkhya-karika once existed.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/><ref name=wezler/> Scholars have attempted to produce a [[critical edition]], by identifying the most ancient original set of seventy verses, but this effort has not produced a consensus among scholars.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/> In terms of content, importance and meaning, the text is essentially the same regardless of which version of the manuscript is referred to.<ref name=gjlarsoncs146/><ref name=wezler/><ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, page 163</ref> |
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===Meter=== |
===Meter=== |
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Each verse of the philosophical Samkhya-karika text is composed in a precise mathematical meter, that repeats in a musical rhythm of an Arya meter (also called the Gatha, or song, meter).<ref name=bashamtw511/> Every verse is set in two half stanza with the following rule: both halves have exactly repeating total instants and repeating sub-total pattern in the manner of many ancient Sanskrit compositions.<ref name=bashamtw511/> The stanza is divided into feet, each feet has four instants, with its short syllable counting as one instant ([[Matra (music)|matra]]), while the long syllable prosodically counts are two instants.<ref name=bashamtw511/><ref name=gjlarsoncs147>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 147</ref> |
Each verse of the philosophical Samkhya-karika text is composed in a precise mathematical meter, that repeats in a musical rhythm of an Arya meter (also called the Gatha, or song, meter).<ref name=bashamtw511/> Every verse is set in two half stanza with the following rule: both halves have exactly repeating total instants and repeating sub-total pattern in the manner of many ancient Sanskrit compositions.<ref name=bashamtw511/> The stanza is divided into feet, each feet has four instants, with its short syllable counting as one instant ([[Matra (music)|matra]]), while the long syllable prosodically counts are two instants.<ref name=bashamtw511/><ref name=gjlarsoncs147>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 147</ref> |
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Each verse of ''Karika'' are presented in four quarters (two quarters making one half), the first quarter has exactly three feet (12 beats), the second quarter four and half feet (18 beats), the third quarter of every verse has three feet (12 beats again), while the fourth quarter has three and a half plus an extra short syllable at its end (15 beats).<ref name=bashamtw511/> Thus, metrically, the first half stanza of every verse of this philosophical text has thirty instants, the second has twenty seven.<ref name=bashamtw511>Arthur Basham (Original 1954, Reprint 2014), [[The Wonder That Was India]], Picador, {{ISBN|978-0330439091}}, pages 511-512</ref> |
Each verse of ''Karika'' are presented in four quarters (two quarters making one half), the first quarter has exactly three feet (12 beats), the second quarter four and half feet (18 beats), the third quarter of every verse has three feet (12 beats again), while the fourth quarter has three and a half plus an extra short syllable at its end (15 beats).<ref name=bashamtw511/> Thus, metrically, the first half stanza of every verse of this philosophical text has thirty instants, the second has twenty seven.<ref name=bashamtw511>Arthur Basham (Original 1954, Reprint 2014), [[The Wonder That Was India]], Picador, {{ISBN|978-0330439091}}, pages 511-512</ref> |
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==Contents== |
==Contents== |
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Samkhya emerged in the Vedic tradition, states Gerald Larson, and the ''Karika'' is an important text that was the fruit of those efforts.<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 7, 15-21</ref> |
Samkhya emerged in the Vedic tradition, states Gerald Larson, and the ''Karika'' is an important text that was the fruit of those efforts.<ref>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 7, 15-21</ref> |
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=== Goal of the text: verses 1 to 3 === |
=== Goal of the text: verses 1 to 3 === |
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The ''Samkhya karika'' opens by stating that the pursuit of happiness is a basic need of all human beings.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Samkhya Karika|last = Krishna|first = Ishvara|publisher = Sri Ramakrishna Matt|year = 1995|isbn = 81-7120-711-1|location = Mylapore, Madras|pages = iv|others = Sri Vacaspati Misra|first2 = Virupakshananada) |
The ''Samkhya karika'' opens by stating that the pursuit of happiness is a basic need of all human beings.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Samkhya Karika|last = Krishna|first = Ishvara|publisher = Sri Ramakrishna Matt|year = 1995|isbn = 81-7120-711-1|location = Mylapore, Madras|pages = iv|others = Sri Vacaspati Misra|first2 = Virupakshananada)|last2 = (translated by: Swami}}</ref> Yet, one is afflicted by three forms of suffering, a truth that motivates this text to study means of counteracting suffering:<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore426>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 426-427</ref> |
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The three causes of unhappiness (or the problem of suffering, evil in life) are ''adhyatmika'' that is caused by self; ''adhibhautika'' that is caused by others and external influences; and, ''adhidaivika'' that is caused by nature and supernatural agencies.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore426/><ref name=nandalalsinha1>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/90/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 1-2 (90 of Sutram)</ref> The suffering are two types, of body and of mind. The perceptible means of treatment include physicians, remedies, magic, incantations, expert knowledge of moral and political science, while avoidance through residence in safe places are also perceptible means available.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore426/> These obvious means, state scholars, are considered by Samkhya karika, as temporary as they do not provide absolute or final removal of suffering.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore426/><ref name=nandalalsinha1/> |
The three causes of unhappiness (or the problem of suffering, evil in life) are ''adhyatmika'' that is caused by self; ''adhibhautika'' that is caused by others and external influences; and, ''adhidaivika'' that is caused by nature and supernatural agencies.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore426/><ref name=nandalalsinha1>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/90/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 1-2 (90 of Sutram)</ref> The suffering are two types, of body and of mind. The perceptible means of treatment include physicians, remedies, magic, incantations, expert knowledge of moral and political science, while avoidance through residence in safe places are also perceptible means available.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore426/> These obvious means, state scholars, are considered by Samkhya karika, as temporary as they do not provide absolute or final removal of suffering.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore426/><ref name=nandalalsinha1/> |
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Verse 2 asserts that scriptures too are visible means available, yet they too are ultimately ineffective in relieving sorrow and giving spiritual contentment, because scriptures deal with impurity, decay and inequality.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore427>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 427-428 with footnotes;<br>'''Original Sanskrit:''' दृष्टवदानुश्रविकः स ह्यविशुद्धिक्षयातिशययुक्तः । तद्विपरीतः श्रेयान् व्यक्ताव्यक्तज्ञविज्ञानात् ॥ २ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref><ref name=gjlarson7/> The verse then posits its thesis, states Larson, that "a superior method different from both" exists, and this is the path of knowledge and understanding. More specifically, liberation from suffering comes from discriminative knowledge of ''Vyakta'' (evolving, manifest world), ''Avyakta'' (unevolving, unmanifest empirical world, Prakrti), and ''Jna'' (knower, self, Purusha).<ref name=gjlarson7/> Verse 3 adds that primordial nature is uncreated, seven starting with ''Mahat'' (intellect) is both created and creative, sixteen<ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore list these 16 as five sense organs, five organs of action, the human mind, and five gross elements</ref> are created and evolve (but not creative), while Purusha is neither created nor creative nor evolves (and simply exists).<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore427/><ref name=gjlarson7>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 7-8</ref> |
Verse 2 asserts that scriptures too are visible means available, yet they too are ultimately ineffective in relieving sorrow and giving spiritual contentment, because scriptures deal with impurity, decay and inequality.<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore427>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 427-428 with footnotes;<br/>'''Original Sanskrit:''' दृष्टवदानुश्रविकः स ह्यविशुद्धिक्षयातिशययुक्तः । तद्विपरीतः श्रेयान् व्यक्ताव्यक्तज्ञविज्ञानात् ॥ २ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref><ref name=gjlarson7/> The verse then posits its thesis, states Larson, that "a superior method different from both" exists, and this is the path of knowledge and understanding. More specifically, liberation from suffering comes from discriminative knowledge of ''Vyakta'' (evolving, manifest world), ''Avyakta'' (unevolving, unmanifest empirical world, Prakrti), and ''Jna'' (knower, self, Purusha).<ref name=gjlarson7/> Verse 3 adds that primordial nature is uncreated, seven starting with ''Mahat'' (intellect) is both created and creative, sixteen<ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore list these 16 as five sense organs, five organs of action, the human mind, and five gross elements</ref> are created and evolve (but not creative), while Purusha is neither created nor creative nor evolves (and simply exists).<ref name=radhakrishnanmoore427/><ref name=gjlarson7>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 7-8</ref> |
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===Means of knowledge: verses 4 to 8=== |
===Means of knowledge: verses 4 to 8=== |
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Verse 4 introduces the epistemology of [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, and states that there are three ''[[pramana]]'', that is reliable paths to reliable knowledge: perception, inference and the testimony of reliable person.<ref name=gjlarson9>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 9-10, also see Chapter 3</ref> All other paths to knowing anything is derived from these three, states the ''Karika''. It then adds that these three paths can enable one to know twenty five ''Tattvas'' that exist.<ref>S Radhakrishnan and |
Verse 4 introduces the epistemology of [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, and states that there are three ''[[pramana]]'', that is reliable paths to reliable knowledge: perception, inference and the testimony of reliable person.<ref name=gjlarson9>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 9-10, also see Chapter 3</ref> All other paths to knowing anything is derived from these three, states the ''Karika''. It then adds that these three paths can enable one to know twenty five ''Tattvas'' that exist.<ref>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 427-429 with footnotes;<br/>'''Original Sanskrit:''' दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनञ्च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धिः प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref> Verse 5 of Samkhya-karika defines perception as the immediate knowledge one gains by the interaction of sense organ with anything; inference, it defines as the knowledge one gains based on meditation on one's perception; and testimony as that knowledge one gains from the efforts of those one considers as a reliable source; it then succinctly asserts that there are three types of inferences for the epistemic quest of man, without explaining what these three types of inferences are.<ref name=gjlarson9/><ref>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br/>'''Original Sanskrit:''' प्रतिविषयाध्यवसायो दृष्टं त्रिविधमनुमानमाख्यातम् । तल्लिङ्गलिङ्गिपूर्वकमाप्तश्रुतिराप्तवचनन्तु ॥ ५ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref><ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 21-25</ref> |
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Verse 6 asserts that objects can be known either through sensory organs or through super-sense (inner derivation from observations).<ref>S Radhakrishnan and |
Verse 6 asserts that objects can be known either through sensory organs or through super-sense (inner derivation from observations).<ref>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br/>'''Original Sanskrit:''' सामान्यतस्तु दृष्टादतीन्द्रियाणां प्रतीतिरनुमानात् । तस्मादपि चासिद्धं परोक्षमाप्तागमात्सिद्धम् ॥ ६ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref><ref name=nandalalsinha6>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/n119/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: B.D. Basu, pages 6-8</ref> Verse 7 of the ''Karika'' states that perception alone is not sufficient means to know objects and principles behind observed reality, certain existent things are not perceived and are derived.<ref name=nandalalsinha6/><ref name=colebrookesk27/> The text in verse 8 asserts that the existence of Prakriti (empirical nature, substances) is proven by perception but its subtle principles are non-perceptible.<ref name=nandalalsinha6/> Human mind, among others emerge from Prakriti, states the text, but are not directly perceptible, rather inferred and self derived. The reality of mind and such differ and resemble Prakriti in different aspects.<ref name=colebrookesk27>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 27-32</ref><ref>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br/>'''Original Sanskrit:''' सौक्ष्म्यात्तदनुपलब्धिर्नाभावात्कार्यतस्तदुपलब्धिः । महदादि तच्च कार्यं प्रकृतिविरूपं सरूपञ्च ॥ ८ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref><ref name=gjlarsonskfull>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 255-277</ref> |
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===The theory of causation and the doctrine of Gunas: verses 9 to 14=== |
===The theory of causation and the doctrine of Gunas: verses 9 to 14=== |
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Samkhya karika, in verse 9 introduces its theory of ''Satkaryavada'' (causation), asserting that "the effect is pre-existent in the cause".<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 10</ref> That which exists, states ''Karika'', has a cause; that which exists not, lacks a cause; and when there exists a cause, in it is the seed and longing for the effect; that, a potent cause produces that which it is capable of.<ref name=colebrookesk33>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-39</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br>'''Original Sanskrit:''' असदकरणादुपादानग्रहणात्सर्वसम्भवाभावात् । शक्तस्य शक्यग्रहणात् कारणभावाच्च सत्कार्यम् ॥ ९ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref><ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 164-165</ref> Hence, it is nature of existence that "perceptible principles exist in nature", and effects are manifestation of the perceptible principles.<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-34</ref> The Samkhya theory of causation, ''Satkāryavāda'', is also referred to as the theory of existent effect.<ref>Amita Chatterjee, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism-india/ Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University (2012)</ref> |
Samkhya karika, in verse 9 introduces its theory of ''Satkaryavada'' (causation), asserting that "the effect is pre-existent in the cause".<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 10</ref> That which exists, states ''Karika'', has a cause; that which exists not, lacks a cause; and when there exists a cause, in it is the seed and longing for the effect; that, a potent cause produces that which it is capable of.<ref name=colebrookesk33>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-39</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br/>'''Original Sanskrit:''' असदकरणादुपादानग्रहणात्सर्वसम्भवाभावात् । शक्तस्य शक्यग्रहणात् कारणभावाच्च सत्कार्यम् ॥ ९ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref><ref>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 164-165</ref> Hence, it is nature of existence that "perceptible principles exist in nature", and effects are manifestation of the perceptible principles.<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-34</ref> The Samkhya theory of causation, ''Satkāryavāda'', is also referred to as the theory of existent effect.<ref>Amita Chatterjee, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism-india/ Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University (2012)</ref> |
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Verse 10 asserts that there are two kinds of principles operating in the universe: discrete, un-discrete. The discrete is inconstant, isolated and unpervading, mutable, supporting, mergent, conjunct and with an agent. The un-discrete is constant, field-like, pervasive, immutable, non-supporting, non-mergent, separable and independent of an agent.<ref name=colebrookesk39>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 39-44</ref><ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> Both discrete and un-discrete, describes ''Karika'' in verse 11, are simultaneously imbued with three qualities, and these qualities ([[Guṇa]]) are objective, common, prolific, do not discriminate and are innate. It is in these respects, asserts ''Karika'', that they are the reverse of the nature of Soul (Self, [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) because Soul is devoid of these qualities.<ref name=colebrookesk45>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 45-48</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and |
Verse 10 asserts that there are two kinds of principles operating in the universe: discrete, un-discrete. The discrete is inconstant, isolated and unpervading, mutable, supporting, mergent, conjunct and with an agent. The un-discrete is constant, field-like, pervasive, immutable, non-supporting, non-mergent, separable and independent of an agent.<ref name=colebrookesk39>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 39-44</ref><ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> Both discrete and un-discrete, describes ''Karika'' in verse 11, are simultaneously imbued with three qualities, and these qualities ([[Guṇa]]) are objective, common, prolific, do not discriminate and are innate. It is in these respects, asserts ''Karika'', that they are the reverse of the nature of Soul (Self, [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) because Soul is devoid of these qualities.<ref name=colebrookesk45>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 45-48</ref><ref>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 428-429 with footnotes;<br/>'''Original Sanskrit:''' त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषयः सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि । व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥ [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Source]</ref> |
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The text in verse 12 states that the three Guṇa (qualities), that is [[sattva]], [[tamas (philosophy)|tamas]] and [[rajas]], respectively correspond to pleasure, pain and dulness, mutually domineer, produce each other, rest on each other, always reciprocally present and work together.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref name=colebrookesk49>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 49-53</ref> This Samkhya theory of qualities have been widely adopted by various schools of Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenomena.<ref name=aw>Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237</ref><ref name=khp>Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803091}}, page 112</ref><ref>Ian Whicher (1998), ''The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791438169}}, pages 109-110</ref> |
The text in verse 12 states that the three Guṇa (qualities), that is [[sattva]], [[tamas (philosophy)|tamas]] and [[rajas]], respectively correspond to pleasure, pain and dulness, mutually domineer, produce each other, rest on each other, always reciprocally present and work together.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref name=colebrookesk49>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 49-53</ref> This Samkhya theory of qualities have been widely adopted by various schools of Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenomena.<ref name=aw>Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237</ref><ref name=khp>Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803091}}, page 112</ref><ref>Ian Whicher (1998), ''The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791438169}}, pages 109-110</ref> |
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Verses 13-14 state that Sattva is good, enlightening and illuminating, Rajas is urgent, motion and restless, while Tamas is darkness, obscuring and distressing;<ref name=gjlarson9/> these work together in observed nature just like oil, wick and fire together in a lamp.<ref name=nandalalsinha13>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/90/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 13-14</ref><ref>S Radhakrishnan and |
Verses 13-14 state that Sattva is good, enlightening and illuminating, Rajas is urgent, motion and restless, while Tamas is darkness, obscuring and distressing;<ref name=gjlarson9/> these work together in observed nature just like oil, wick and fire together in a lamp.<ref name=nandalalsinha13>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/90/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 13-14</ref><ref>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 429-430 with footnotes</ref> Nature merely undergoes modification, transformation, or change in appearance, but this is innate effect that already was in the cause, because asserts ''Karika'', nothing cannot produce something.<ref name=gjlarson9/><ref name=nandalalsinha13/> |
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===Nature of Prakrti: verses 15 to 16=== |
===Nature of Prakrti: verses 15 to 16=== |
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The ''Karika'' defines Prakriti as "that nature which evolves", and asserts to be the material cause of the empirically observed world. Prakriti, according to the text, both physical and psychical, is that which is manifested as the matrix of all modifications. Prakriti is not primal matter, nor the metaphysical universal, rather it is the basis of all objective existence, matter, life and mind.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> |
The ''[[Karika]]'' defines [[Prakriti]] as "that nature which evolves", and asserts to be the material cause of the empirically observed world. Prakriti, according to the text, both physical and psychical, is that which is manifested as the matrix of all modifications. [[Prakriti]] is not primal matter, nor the metaphysical universal, rather it is the basis of all objective existence, matter, life and mind.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> |
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Prakriti has two dimensions, that which is ''Vyakta'' (manifest), and that which is ''Avyakta'' (unmanifest). Both have the three Guṇa that, states the text, is in continual tension with one another, and it is their mutual interaction on Prakriti that causes the emergence of the world as we know it.<ref name=gjlarson10>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 10-11</ref> When the Sattva-Rajas-Tamas are in equilibrium, no modification occurs; when one of three innate qualities is more active, the process of evolution is in action, change emerges (''Gunaparinama'').<ref name=gjlarson10/><ref name=colebrookesk60>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 60-65</ref> These two verses are significant, states Larson, in aphoristically presenting Samkhya's doctrines of causation, relationship between ''vyakta'' and ''avyakta'', and its doctrine of what drives evolution.<ref name=gjlarson10/> |
Prakriti has two dimensions, that which is ''Vyakta'' (manifest), and that which is ''[[Avyakta]]'' (unmanifest). Both have the three Guṇa that, states the text, is in continual tension with one another, and it is their mutual interaction on Prakriti that causes the emergence of the world as we know it.<ref name=gjlarson10>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 10-11</ref> When the Sattva-Rajas-Tamas are in equilibrium, no modification occurs; when one of three innate qualities is more active, the process of evolution is in action, change emerges (''Gunaparinama'').<ref name=gjlarson10/><ref name=colebrookesk60>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 60-65</ref> These two verses are significant, states Larson, in aphoristically presenting Samkhya's doctrines of causation, relationship between ''vyakta'' and ''[[avyakta]]'', and its doctrine of what drives evolution.<ref name=gjlarson10/> |
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===Nature of Purusha: verses 17 to 19=== |
===Nature of Purusha: verses 17 to 19=== |
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Samkhya-karika asserts, states Larson, that apart from the Prakriti and emergent creation, of equilibrium and evolution, exists the ''Purusha'' (or self, soul).<ref name=gjlarson11>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 11-12</ref> The Purusha is pure consciousness, is itself inactive yet whose presence disrupts the equilibrium of the three Guṇas in their unmanifest condition.<ref name=gjlarson11/> The disruption triggers the emergence of the manifested condition of empirical reality we experience, states the text.<ref name=gjlarson11/><ref name=colebrookesk65>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 65-73</ref> |
Samkhya-karika asserts, states Larson, that apart from the Prakriti and emergent creation, of equilibrium and evolution, exists the ''[[Purusha]]'' (or self, soul).<ref name=gjlarson11>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 11-12</ref> The Purusha is pure consciousness, is itself inactive yet whose presence disrupts the equilibrium of the three Guṇas in their unmanifest condition.<ref name=gjlarson11/> The disruption triggers the emergence of the manifested condition of empirical reality we experience, states the text.<ref name=gjlarson11/><ref name=colebrookesk65>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 65-73</ref> |
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More specifically, verse 17 offers a proof that soul exists, as follows: |
More specifically, verse 17 offers a proof that soul exists, as follows: |
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Because the assemblage of empirically observed objects is for another's use (I-principle); because the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (from ''regressus ad infinitum'' principle); because there must be superintendence (supervising conscious agent or chariot principle); because there must be one to enjoy; because there is a tendency to abstraction; therefore soul exists. |
Because the assemblage of empirically observed objects is for another's use (I-principle); because the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (from ''regressus ad infinitum'' principle); because there must be superintendence (supervising conscious agent or chariot principle); because there must be one to enjoy; because there is a tendency to abstraction; therefore soul exists. |
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</poem> |
</poem> |
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|Samkhya-karika 17|<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 65</ref><ref name=radhamoore432>S Radhakrishnan and |
|Samkhya-karika 17|<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 65</ref><ref name=radhamoore432>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 431-432</ref>}} |
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Verse 18 of the Karika asserts that many souls must exist because numerous living beings are born, die and exist; because qualities (Gunas) are operating and affect everyone differently; and because everyone is endowed with instruments of cognition and action.<ref name=colebrookesk65/><ref name=radhamoore432/> Verse 19 states that the soul is the conscious "witness, separate, neutral, seer and inactive".<ref name=gjlarson11/><ref name=radhamoore432/> |
Verse 18 of the Karika asserts that many souls must exist because numerous living beings are born, die and exist; because qualities (Gunas) are operating and affect everyone differently; and because everyone is endowed with instruments of cognition and action.<ref name=colebrookesk65/><ref name=radhamoore432/> Verse 19 states that the soul is the conscious "witness, separate, neutral, seer and inactive".<ref name=gjlarson11/><ref name=radhamoore432/> |
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===The connection between Prakriti and Purusha: verses 20 to 21=== |
===The connection between Prakriti and Purusha: verses 20 to 21=== |
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A living being is a union of Prakriti and Purusha, posits Samkhya-karika in verses 20-21.<ref name=radhamoore433>S Radhakrishnan and |
A living being is a union of Prakriti and Purusha, posits Samkhya-karika in verses 20-21.<ref name=radhamoore433>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 433-434</ref> The Prakriti as the insentient evolute, joins with Purusha which is sentient consciousness.<ref name=radhamoore433/><ref name=gjlarson12>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 12-13</ref> |
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The Karika states that the purpose of this union of Prakriti and Purusha, creating the reality of the observed universe, is to actualize a two-fold symbiosis.<ref name=gjlarson12/><ref name=colebrookesk76/> One, it empowers the individual to enjoy and contemplate on Prakriti and Purusha through self-awareness; and second, the conjunction of Prakriti and Purusha empowers the path of Kaivalya and [[Moksha]] (liberation, freedom).<ref name=colebrookesk76>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 76-83</ref> |
The Karika states that the purpose of this union of Prakriti and Purusha, creating the reality of the observed universe, is to actualize a two-fold symbiosis.<ref name=gjlarson12/><ref name=colebrookesk76/> One, it empowers the individual to enjoy and contemplate on Prakriti and Purusha through self-awareness; and second, the conjunction of Prakriti and Purusha empowers the path of Kaivalya and [[Moksha]] (liberation, freedom).<ref name=colebrookesk76>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 76-83</ref> |
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The verse 21 aphoristically mention the example of "the blind and the lame", referring to the Indian legend of a blind and a lame person left in the forest, who find each other, inspire mutual trust and confidence, agree to share the duties with the blind doing the walking and the lame doing the seeing, the lame sits on blind's |
The verse 21 aphoristically mention the example of "the blind and the lame", referring to the Indian legend of a blind and a lame person left in the forest, who find each other, inspire mutual trust and confidence, agree to share the duties with the blind doing the walking and the lame doing the seeing, the lame sits on blind's shoulder, and thus explore and travel through the forest.<ref name=radhamoore433/><ref name=colebrookesk76/> Soul (Purusha), in this allegory, is similarly symbiotically joined with body and nature (Prakriti) in the journey of life. Soul desires freedom, meaning and liberation, and this it can achieve through contemplation and abstraction.<ref name=colebrookesk76/> |
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These verses present a peculiar form of dualism, states Gerald Larson, because they assert unconscious primordial "stuff" on one hand, and pure consciousness on the other.<ref name=gjlarson12/> This contrasts with dualism presented in other schools of Hindu philosophy where dualism focuses on the nature of individual soul and [[Brahman]] (universal reality).<ref name=gjlarson12/><ref>Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> |
These verses present a peculiar form of dualism, states [[Gerald James Larson|Gerald Larson]], because they assert unconscious primordial "stuff" on one hand, and pure consciousness on the other.<ref name=gjlarson12/> This contrasts with dualism presented in other schools of Hindu philosophy where dualism focuses on the nature of individual soul and [[Brahman]] (universal reality).<ref name=gjlarson12/><ref>Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> |
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===The theory of emergence of principles: verses 22 to 38=== |
===The theory of emergence of principles: verses 22 to 38=== |
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These verses, states Larson, provide a detailed discussion of the theory of emergence, that is what emerges, how and the functioning of the different emergents.<ref name=gjlarson13>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 13-14</ref> The discussion includes the emergence of ''buddhi'' (intelligence), the ''ahamkara'' (ego), the ''manas'' (mind), the five ''buddhindriyas'' (sensory organs), the five ''karmendriyas'' (action organs), the five ''tanmantras'' (subtle elements), the five mahabhutas (gross elements), and thereafter the text proceeds to detailing its theory of knowledge process.<ref name=gjlarson13/> |
These verses, states Larson, provide a detailed discussion of the theory of emergence, that is what emerges, how and the functioning of the different emergents.<ref name=gjlarson13>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 13-14</ref> The discussion includes the emergence of ''buddhi'' (intelligence), the ''ahamkara'' (ego), the ''manas'' (mind), the five ''buddhindriyas'' (sensory organs), the five ''karmendriyas'' (action organs), the five ''tanmantras'' (subtle elements), the five mahabhutas (gross elements), and thereafter the text proceeds to detailing its theory of knowledge process.<ref name=gjlarson13/> |
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The Karika's verse 22 asserts that ''Mahat'' (the Great Principle, intellect) is the first evolute of nature (Prakriti, human body), from it emerges ego (''Ahamkara'', I-principle), from which interface the "set of sixteen" (discussed in later verses).<ref name=gjlarson12/><ref name=radhamoore433/> Verses 23-25 describes Sattva, as the quality of seeking goodness, wisdom, virtue, non-attachment. The reverse of Sattva, asserts Karika is Tamasa. Sattva is the characteristic of intellect, states the text.<ref name=colebrookesk83>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 83-94</ref> |
The Karika's verse 22 asserts that ''Mahat'' (the Great Principle, intellect) is the first evolute of nature (Prakriti, human body), from it emerges ego (''Ahamkara'', I-principle), from which interface the "set of sixteen" (discussed in later verses).<ref name=gjlarson12/><ref name=radhamoore433/> Verses 23-25 describes Sattva, as the quality of seeking goodness, wisdom, virtue, non-attachment. The reverse of Sattva, asserts Karika is Tamasa. Sattva is the characteristic of intellect, states the text.<ref name=colebrookesk83>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 83-94</ref> |
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The ''Karika'' lists the sensory organs to be the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin, while action organs as those of voice, hands, feet, excretory organs and that of procreation.<ref name=colebrookesk95>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 95-108</ref> Mind, states the text, is both a sensory organ in some aspects, and an organ of action in other aspects. Mind ponders, it is cognate, it integrates information and then interacts with the organs of action, it is also modified by the three innate qualities and diverse manifestations of it, asserts the text.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref name=radhamoore435>S Radhakrishnan and |
The ''Karika'' lists the sensory organs to be the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin, while action organs as those of voice, hands, feet, excretory organs and that of procreation.<ref name=colebrookesk95>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 95-108</ref> Mind, states the text, is both a sensory organ in some aspects, and an organ of action in other aspects. Mind ponders, it is cognate, it integrates information and then interacts with the organs of action, it is also modified by the three innate qualities and diverse manifestations of it, asserts the text.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref name=radhamoore435>S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 435-436</ref> Ego (Ahamkara), states the text, is self-assertion. Sattva influenced sensory organs and action organs create the ''Vaikrita'' form of Ahamkara, while Tamasa influence creates the ''Bhutadi'' Ahamkara or the Tanmatras.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/24/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 23-24</ref> |
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Verses 29-30 of the text assert that all the organs depend on ''prana'' (breath or life), and that it is prana that connects them to the unseen one, the soul.<ref name=colebrookesk95/> The three internal emergent faculties (''Trayasya''), states Karika in verse 29, are mind, ego and the ability to reason.<ref name=colebrookesk95/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/26/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, page 27</ref> The sensory and action organs perform their respective function, by cooperating with each other, fueled by the life-force, while the soul is the independent observer. The organs manifest the object and the purpose of one's soul, not the purpose of anything outside of oneself, states verse 31 of the text.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref name=colebrookesk95/> Verses 32 through 35 of Karika present its theory how the various sensory organs operate and cooperate to gain information, how action organs apprehend and manifest driven by mind, ego and three innate qualities (Gunas).<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/24/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 23-31</ref> Verses 36 and 37 assert that all sensory organs cooperate to present information to the mind, and it is the mind that presents knowledge and feelings to one's soul (Purusha within).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/30/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: |
Verses 29-30 of the text assert that all the organs depend on ''prana'' (breath or life), and that it is prana that connects them to the unseen one, the soul.<ref name=colebrookesk95/> The three internal emergent faculties (''Trayasya''), states Karika in verse 29, are mind, ego and the ability to reason.<ref name=colebrookesk95/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/26/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, page 27</ref> The sensory and action organs perform their respective function, by cooperating with each other, fueled by the life-force, while the soul is the independent observer. The organs manifest the object and the purpose of one's soul, not the purpose of anything outside of oneself, states verse 31 of the text.<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref name=colebrookesk95/> Verses 32 through 35 of Karika present its theory how the various sensory organs operate and cooperate to gain information, how action organs apprehend and manifest driven by mind, ego and three innate qualities (Gunas).<ref name=gjlarsonskfull/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/24/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 23-31</ref> Verses 36 and 37 assert that all sensory organs cooperate to present information to the mind, and it is the mind that presents knowledge and feelings to one's soul (Purusha within).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/30/mode/2up The Samkhya Karika] Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: B.D. Basu, pages 31-32</ref><ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 116-119</ref> |
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===The theory of reality: verses 39 to 59=== |
===The theory of reality: verses 39 to 59=== |
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===The theory of understanding and freedom: verses 60 to 69=== |
===The theory of understanding and freedom: verses 60 to 69=== |
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{{expand section|date=December 2015}} |
{{expand section|date=December 2015}} |
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The verses 60-69 begin by stating the duality theory of the Samkhya school, which asserts that Prakriti (nature) and Purusha (soul) are absolutely separate.<ref name=gjlarson172>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 172-173, 274 with footnote 32a</ref> |
The verses 60-69 begin by stating the duality theory of the Samkhya school, which asserts that Prakriti (nature) and Purusha (soul) are absolutely separate.<ref name=gjlarson172>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 172-173, 274 with footnote 32a</ref> |
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{{Quote| |
{{Quote| |
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<poem> |
<poem> |
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{{Quote box |width=26em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right |
{{Quote box |width=26em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right |
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|quote='''The state of freedom'''<br> |
|quote='''The state of freedom'''<br/> |
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By that pure single knowledge,<br> |
By that pure single knowledge,<br/> |
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the soul beholds nature<br> |
the soul beholds nature<br/> |
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like a spectator seated at a play beholds an actress. |
like a spectator seated at a play beholds an actress. |
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|source =—Gaudapada's [[bhashya]] on ''Samkhya-karika 65''<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 181</ref>}} |
|source =—Gaudapada's [[bhashya]] on ''Samkhya-karika 65''<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 181</ref>}} |
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The Karika, in verse 63, asserts that human nature variously binds itself by a combination of seven means: weakness, vice, ignorance, power, passion, dispassion and virtue. That same nature, once aware of soul's object, liberates by one means: knowledge.<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 178-179</ref><ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> Verse 64 of the text states that this knowledge is obtained from the study of principles, that there is a difference between inert nature and conscious soul, nature is not consciousness, consciousness is not enslaved to nature and that consciousness is "complete, free from error, pure and ''kevala'' (solitary)". Man's deepest selfhood in these verses of Karika, states Larson, is not his empirical ego or his intelligence, rather it is his consciousness, and "this knowledge of the absolute otherness of consciousness frees man from the illusion of bondage and brings man's deepest selfhood into absolute freedom (''kaivalya'')".<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 13</ref> |
The Karika, in verse 63, asserts that human nature variously binds itself by a combination of seven means: weakness, vice, ignorance, power, passion, dispassion and virtue. That same nature, once aware of soul's object, liberates by one means: knowledge.<ref>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 178-179</ref><ref name=gjlarsonskfull/> Verse 64 of the text states that this knowledge is obtained from the study of principles, that there is a difference between inert nature and conscious soul, nature is not consciousness, consciousness is not enslaved to nature and that consciousness is "complete, free from error, pure and ''kevala'' (solitary)". Man's deepest selfhood in these verses of Karika, states Larson, is not his empirical ego or his intelligence, rather it is his consciousness, and "this knowledge of the absolute otherness of consciousness frees man from the illusion of bondage and brings man's deepest selfhood into absolute freedom (''kaivalya'')".<ref>[[Gerald James Larson]] (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 13</ref> |
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===Transmission of Samkhya tradition: verses 70 to 72=== |
===Transmission of Samkhya tradition: verses 70 to 72=== |
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==Commentaries== |
==Commentaries== |
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The well known and widely studied medieval era reviews and commentaries on Samkhya-karika include the ''Gaudapada Samkhya Karika Bhasya'' (unclear date, certainly before |
The well known and widely studied medieval era reviews and commentaries on Samkhya-karika include the ''Gaudapada Samkhya Karika Bhasya'' (unclear date, certainly before 8th-century),<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, page 148</ref> the Paramartha's Chinese translation (6th-century), the ''Matharavrtti'', the ''Samkhya tattva kaumudi'' (9th-century), the ''Jayamangala'' (likely before 9th-century), and the more recently discovered ''Yuktidipika''.<ref name=gjlarsoncs147/> |
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[[Vacaspati Mishra]]'s {{IAST |Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī}} is well studied commentary, in addition to his well-known commentary to [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]].<ref name="Gerald James Larson 2011"/> |
[[Vacaspati Mishra]]'s {{IAST |Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī}} is well studied commentary, in addition to his well-known commentary to [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]].<ref name="Gerald James Larson 2011"/> |
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The Karika is silent about God, states [[Johannes Bronkhorst]], neither denying nor affirming the existence of God.<ref name=johannes149>[[Johannes Bronkhorst]] (1983), God in Samkhya, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens , Volume 27, pages 149-164</ref> The text discusses existence and consciousness, how the world came into existence and what is the relationship between nature and soul. The numerous Sanskrit commentaries on Samkhya-karika from 1st millennium CE through the 2nd millennium, states Bronkhorst, extensively use the Karika to discuss the question whether or not God is the cause of the world.<ref name=johannes149/> |
The Karika is silent about God, states [[Johannes Bronkhorst]], neither denying nor affirming the existence of God.<ref name=johannes149>[[Johannes Bronkhorst]] (1983), God in Samkhya, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens , Volume 27, pages 149-164</ref> The text discusses existence and consciousness, how the world came into existence and what is the relationship between nature and soul. The numerous Sanskrit commentaries on Samkhya-karika from 1st millennium CE through the 2nd millennium, states Bronkhorst, extensively use the Karika to discuss the question whether or not God is the cause of the world.<ref name=johannes149/> |
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Vācaspati Mishra’s ''Tattvakaumudi'' , for example, states that the creation could not have been supervised by God, since God is without activity and has no need for activity. Further, citing Karika's verses 56-57 and others, that another reason why God cannot be considered the creator of the world, is that God has no desires and no purpose is served for God by creating the universe.<ref name=johannes149/> The text asserts that there is suffering and evil experienced by living beings, but God who is considered to be free from the three [[Guna]]s (qualities) could not be creating Guna in living beings and the vicissitudes of living beings, therefore God is neither the cause of suffering and evil nor the cause of the world.<ref name=johannes149/> |
Vācaspati Mishra’s ''Tattvakaumudi'' , for example, states that the creation could not have been supervised by God, since God is without activity and has no need for activity. Further, citing Karika's verses 56-57 and others, that another reason why God cannot be considered the creator of the world, is that God has no desires and no purpose is served for God by creating the universe.<ref name=johannes149/> The text asserts that there is suffering and evil experienced by living beings, but God who is considered to be free from the three [[Guṇa|Guna]]s (qualities) could not be creating Guna in living beings and the vicissitudes of living beings, therefore God is neither the cause of suffering and evil nor the cause of the world.<ref name=johannes149/> |
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The commentary that was translated into Chinese in 6th-century CE by Paramārtha, states in its review and analysis of Samkhya-karika: |
The commentary that was translated into Chinese in 6th-century CE by Paramārtha, states in its review and analysis of Samkhya-karika: |
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The 11th-century Buddhist commentator Jnanasribhadra, frequently cites various Hindu schools of philosophies in his ''Arya-Lankavatara Vritti'', of which Samkhya school and Samkhya-karika is the most common.<ref name=kfurusaka>Koichi Furusaka (1998), Criticism on Samkhya in the Arya-lankavatara-vrtti, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, Vol. 47, No. 1, pages 493-499</ref> Jnanasribhadra states, citing Samkhya-karika, that Samkhyans believe in the existence of the soul and the world, in contrast to teachings in the Buddhist text ''[[Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra]]'', adding that many Samkhyans are atheistic.<ref name=kfurusaka/> |
The 11th-century Buddhist commentator Jnanasribhadra, frequently cites various Hindu schools of philosophies in his ''Arya-Lankavatara Vritti'', of which Samkhya school and Samkhya-karika is the most common.<ref name=kfurusaka>Koichi Furusaka (1998), Criticism on Samkhya in the Arya-lankavatara-vrtti, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, Vol. 47, No. 1, pages 493-499</ref> Jnanasribhadra states, citing Samkhya-karika, that Samkhyans believe in the existence of the soul and the world, in contrast to teachings in the Buddhist text ''[[Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra]]'', adding that many Samkhyans are atheistic.<ref name=kfurusaka/> |
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Samkhya is an atheistic philosophy according to [[Paul Deussen]] and other scholars.<ref> |
Samkhya is an atheistic philosophy according to [[Paul Deussen]] and other scholars.<ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, page 39</ref><ref name=lpfl>Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 38-39</ref><ref>David Burke (1988), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398948 Transcendence in Classical Sāmkhya], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 38, No. 1, pages 19-29</ref> |
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===Liberation and freedom from suffering=== |
===Liberation and freedom from suffering=== |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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* |
* [[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}} (Appendix A: Translation of Samkhyakarika) |
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* Digambarji, Sahai and Gharote (1989), Glossary of Sankhyakarika, Kaivalyadhama Samiti, {{ISBN|978-8189485108}} |
* Digambarji, Sahai and Gharote (1989), Glossary of Sankhyakarika, Kaivalyadhama Samiti, {{ISBN|978-8189485108}} |
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* Daniel P. Sheridan, ''{{IAST|Īshvarakrishna}}'', in ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World'', Ian McGreal, ed., New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 194–197. |
* Daniel P. Sheridan, ''{{IAST|Īshvarakrishna}}'', in ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World'', Ian McGreal, ed., New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 194–197. |
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* Jens Lauschke (2023). SAMKHYA YOGA: An Interpretation of Iswara Krishna's Samkhya Karika. Taxila Publications {{ISBN|978-3948459604}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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'''Texts''' |
'''Texts''' |
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* [https://archive.org/stream/thesaankhyakaari00alasuoft#page/n3/mode/2up Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna] Henry Colebrook (Translator), Oxford University Press, Oxford |
* [https://archive.org/stream/thesaankhyakaari00alasuoft#page/n3/mode/2up Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna] Henry Colebrook (Translator), Oxford University Press, Oxford |
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* [http://www.sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Samkhya Karika in PDF] |
* [http://www.sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Samkhya Karika in PDF] |
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* [https://archive.org/stream/SamkhyaKarikaGaudapada/sankhya_karika_gaudapada#page/n0/mode/2up Samkhya karika with Gaudapada Bhasya], Sanskrit Original |
* [https://archive.org/stream/SamkhyaKarikaGaudapada/sankhya_karika_gaudapada#page/n0/mode/2up Samkhya karika with Gaudapada Bhasya], Sanskrit Original |
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* [http://theosnet.net/dzyan/hindu/samkhya_karika_and_yukti-dipika_1938.pdf Yuktidipika - |
* [http://theosnet.net/dzyan/hindu/samkhya_karika_and_yukti-dipika_1938.pdf Yuktidipika - a medieval era text that reviews and comments on Samkhyakarika], Sanskrit Original (one of two editions published) |
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'''Papers''' |
'''Papers''' |
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{{hindudharma}} |
{{hindudharma}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Samkhyakarika}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Samkhyakarika}} |
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Revision as of 11:59, 10 January 2024
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The Samkhyakarika (Sanskrit: सांख्यकारिका, Sāṁkhyakārikā) is the earliest surviving text of the Samkhya school of Indian philosophy.[1][2] The text's original composition date is unknown, but its terminus ad quem (completed before) date has been established through its Chinese translation that became available by 569 CE.[3] It is attributed to Ishvara Krishna (Iśvarakṛṣṇa, 350 CE).[4]
In the text, the author described himself as a successor of the disciples from the great sage Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha. His Sāṁkhya Kārikā consists of 72 ślokas written in the Ārya metre, with the last verse asserting that the original Samkhya Karika had only 70 verses.[5]
The earliest important commentary on his Kārikā was written by Gaudapada.[1] Yuktidipika, whose medieval era manuscript editions were discovered and published about mid 20th-century, is among the most significant extant review and commentary on Samkhyakarika.[1][6]
The Sāṁkhya Kārikā was translated into Chinese in the 6th-century CE.[7] In 1832, Christian Lassen translated the text in Latin. H.T. Colebrooke first translated this text into English. Windischmann and Lorinser translated it into German, and Pautier and St. Hilaire translated it into French.
Authorship and chronology
Samkhya is an important pillar of Indian philosophical tradition, called shad-darshana, however, of the standard works of Samkhya only three are available at present. These are: Samkhya Sutras attributed to the founder of Samkhya, Kapila; Tattva Samasa, which some authors (Max Muller) consider prior to Samkhya Sutras,[8] and Samkhya Karika authored by Ishvara Krishna. Ishvara Krishna follows several earlier teachers of Samkhya and is said to come from Kausika family.[9] He taught before Vasubandhu and is placed following Kapila, Asuri, Panca Shikha, Vindhyavasa, Varsaganya, Jaigisavia, Vodhu, Devala and Sanaka.[9]
The significance
Besides the Vedanta school, the Samkhya school is the one which exerted the greatest influence upon the history of Indian thought, and a blending and synthesis of the thought of the two schools can often be found in important works of thought in India. The Samkhyakarika is the classical text book of the Samkhya school.
—Hajime Nakamura[10]
Samkhya karika was probably composed sometime in the Gupta Empire period, between 320-540 CE.[5] The translation of Paramartha into Chinese together with a commentary[11] was composed over 557-569 CE, has survived in China, and it constitutes the oldest surviving version of Samkhya karika.[5] Several manuscripts, with slightly variant verses are known, but these do not challenge the basic thesis or the overall meaning of the text.[5]
While the Samkhya ideas developed in second half of 1st millennium BCE through the Gupta period, the analysis of evidence shows, states Gerald Larson, that Samkhya is rooted in the speculations of the Vedic era Brahmanas and the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism on the nature of man, and that it is generally agreed that Samkhya's formulation took place at the earliest after the oldest Upanishads had been composed (~800 BCE).[12]
In terms of comparative textual chronology, states Larson, the final redaction of Yogasutra and the writing of Samkhya-karika were probably contemporaneous.[13] The Samkhya literature grew with later developments such as through Bhashya on Samkhya karika in the 9th-century Samkhya Tattva Kaumudi of Vacaspati Mishra.[14]
Structure
Number of verses
The Karika, wrote ancient Hindu scholars Gaudapada and Vacaspati Misra, contains seventy two verses.[5] However, Gaudapada commented on the first sixty nine, leading 19th-century colonial era scholars to suggest that the last three may have been added later. With the discovery of 6th-century manuscripts of translations of the Indian text into Chinese language, it became clear that by the 6th-century, the Karika had seventy two verses. The Chinese version includes commentary on the Karika, but for unknown reasons, skips or misses the commentary on verse sixty three.[5]
In mid 20th-century, the first manuscript of Yuktidipika was discovered in India, which is a review and commentary on the Karika.[6] Yuktidipika, for unknown reasons, skipped commenting on verses sixty through sixty three, verse sixty five and sixty six, but reviews and analyzes the remaining 66 of 72 verses.[5]
The medieval era Matharavrtti text states that the Karika has seventy three verses.[5] In contrast, verse seventy two of the surviving 6th-century CE Karika declares that its original had just seventy verses, implying that a more ancient version of Samkhya-karika once existed.[5][6] Scholars have attempted to produce a critical edition, by identifying the most ancient original set of seventy verses, but this effort has not produced a consensus among scholars.[5] In terms of content, importance and meaning, the text is essentially the same regardless of which version of the manuscript is referred to.[5][6][15]
Meter
Each verse of the philosophical Samkhya-karika text is composed in a precise mathematical meter, that repeats in a musical rhythm of an Arya meter (also called the Gatha, or song, meter).[16] Every verse is set in two half stanza with the following rule: both halves have exactly repeating total instants and repeating sub-total pattern in the manner of many ancient Sanskrit compositions.[16] The stanza is divided into feet, each feet has four instants, with its short syllable counting as one instant (matra), while the long syllable prosodically counts are two instants.[16][17]
Each verse of Karika are presented in four quarters (two quarters making one half), the first quarter has exactly three feet (12 beats), the second quarter four and half feet (18 beats), the third quarter of every verse has three feet (12 beats again), while the fourth quarter has three and a half plus an extra short syllable at its end (15 beats).[16] Thus, metrically, the first half stanza of every verse of this philosophical text has thirty instants, the second has twenty seven.[16]
Contents
Samkhya emerged in the Vedic tradition, states Gerald Larson, and the Karika is an important text that was the fruit of those efforts.[18]
Goal of the text: verses 1 to 3
The Samkhya karika opens by stating that the pursuit of happiness is a basic need of all human beings.[19] Yet, one is afflicted by three forms of suffering, a truth that motivates this text to study means of counteracting suffering:[20]
दुःखत्रयाभिघाताज्जिज्ञासा तदभिघातके हेतौ ।
दृष्टे सापार्था चेन्नैकान्तात्यन्ततोऽभावात् ॥ १ ॥
Because of the torment of the three-fold suffering, arises this inquiry to know the means of counteracting it. If it is said that such inquiry is useless because perceptible means of removal exist, we say no because these means are neither lasting nor effective. (1)
The three causes of unhappiness (or the problem of suffering, evil in life) are adhyatmika that is caused by self; adhibhautika that is caused by others and external influences; and, adhidaivika that is caused by nature and supernatural agencies.[20][23] The suffering are two types, of body and of mind. The perceptible means of treatment include physicians, remedies, magic, incantations, expert knowledge of moral and political science, while avoidance through residence in safe places are also perceptible means available.[20] These obvious means, state scholars, are considered by Samkhya karika, as temporary as they do not provide absolute or final removal of suffering.[20][23]
Verse 2 asserts that scriptures too are visible means available, yet they too are ultimately ineffective in relieving sorrow and giving spiritual contentment, because scriptures deal with impurity, decay and inequality.[24][25] The verse then posits its thesis, states Larson, that "a superior method different from both" exists, and this is the path of knowledge and understanding. More specifically, liberation from suffering comes from discriminative knowledge of Vyakta (evolving, manifest world), Avyakta (unevolving, unmanifest empirical world, Prakrti), and Jna (knower, self, Purusha).[25] Verse 3 adds that primordial nature is uncreated, seven starting with Mahat (intellect) is both created and creative, sixteen[26] are created and evolve (but not creative), while Purusha is neither created nor creative nor evolves (and simply exists).[24][25]
Means of knowledge: verses 4 to 8
Verse 4 introduces the epistemology of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, and states that there are three pramana, that is reliable paths to reliable knowledge: perception, inference and the testimony of reliable person.[27] All other paths to knowing anything is derived from these three, states the Karika. It then adds that these three paths can enable one to know twenty five Tattvas that exist.[28] Verse 5 of Samkhya-karika defines perception as the immediate knowledge one gains by the interaction of sense organ with anything; inference, it defines as the knowledge one gains based on meditation on one's perception; and testimony as that knowledge one gains from the efforts of those one considers as a reliable source; it then succinctly asserts that there are three types of inferences for the epistemic quest of man, without explaining what these three types of inferences are.[27][29][30]
Verse 6 asserts that objects can be known either through sensory organs or through super-sense (inner derivation from observations).[31][32] Verse 7 of the Karika states that perception alone is not sufficient means to know objects and principles behind observed reality, certain existent things are not perceived and are derived.[32][33] The text in verse 8 asserts that the existence of Prakriti (empirical nature, substances) is proven by perception but its subtle principles are non-perceptible.[32] Human mind, among others emerge from Prakriti, states the text, but are not directly perceptible, rather inferred and self derived. The reality of mind and such differ and resemble Prakriti in different aspects.[33][34][35]
The theory of causation and the doctrine of Gunas: verses 9 to 14
Samkhya karika, in verse 9 introduces its theory of Satkaryavada (causation), asserting that "the effect is pre-existent in the cause".[36] That which exists, states Karika, has a cause; that which exists not, lacks a cause; and when there exists a cause, in it is the seed and longing for the effect; that, a potent cause produces that which it is capable of.[37][38][39] Hence, it is nature of existence that "perceptible principles exist in nature", and effects are manifestation of the perceptible principles.[40] The Samkhya theory of causation, Satkāryavāda, is also referred to as the theory of existent effect.[41]
Verse 10 asserts that there are two kinds of principles operating in the universe: discrete, un-discrete. The discrete is inconstant, isolated and unpervading, mutable, supporting, mergent, conjunct and with an agent. The un-discrete is constant, field-like, pervasive, immutable, non-supporting, non-mergent, separable and independent of an agent.[42][35] Both discrete and un-discrete, describes Karika in verse 11, are simultaneously imbued with three qualities, and these qualities (Guṇa) are objective, common, prolific, do not discriminate and are innate. It is in these respects, asserts Karika, that they are the reverse of the nature of Soul (Self, Atman) because Soul is devoid of these qualities.[43][44]
The text in verse 12 states that the three Guṇa (qualities), that is sattva, tamas and rajas, respectively correspond to pleasure, pain and dulness, mutually domineer, produce each other, rest on each other, always reciprocally present and work together.[35][45] This Samkhya theory of qualities have been widely adopted by various schools of Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenomena.[46][47][48]
Verses 13-14 state that Sattva is good, enlightening and illuminating, Rajas is urgent, motion and restless, while Tamas is darkness, obscuring and distressing;[27] these work together in observed nature just like oil, wick and fire together in a lamp.[49][50] Nature merely undergoes modification, transformation, or change in appearance, but this is innate effect that already was in the cause, because asserts Karika, nothing cannot produce something.[27][49]
Nature of Prakrti: verses 15 to 16
The Karika defines Prakriti as "that nature which evolves", and asserts to be the material cause of the empirically observed world. Prakriti, according to the text, both physical and psychical, is that which is manifested as the matrix of all modifications. Prakriti is not primal matter, nor the metaphysical universal, rather it is the basis of all objective existence, matter, life and mind.[35]
Prakriti has two dimensions, that which is Vyakta (manifest), and that which is Avyakta (unmanifest). Both have the three Guṇa that, states the text, is in continual tension with one another, and it is their mutual interaction on Prakriti that causes the emergence of the world as we know it.[51] When the Sattva-Rajas-Tamas are in equilibrium, no modification occurs; when one of three innate qualities is more active, the process of evolution is in action, change emerges (Gunaparinama).[51][52] These two verses are significant, states Larson, in aphoristically presenting Samkhya's doctrines of causation, relationship between vyakta and avyakta, and its doctrine of what drives evolution.[51]
Nature of Purusha: verses 17 to 19
Samkhya-karika asserts, states Larson, that apart from the Prakriti and emergent creation, of equilibrium and evolution, exists the Purusha (or self, soul).[53] The Purusha is pure consciousness, is itself inactive yet whose presence disrupts the equilibrium of the three Guṇas in their unmanifest condition.[53] The disruption triggers the emergence of the manifested condition of empirical reality we experience, states the text.[53][54]
More specifically, verse 17 offers a proof that soul exists, as follows:
सङ्घातपरार्थत्वात् त्रिगुणादिविपर्ययादधिष्ठानात् ।
पुरुषोऽस्ति भोक्तृभावात्कैवल्यार्थं प्रवृत्तेश्च ॥ १७ ॥
Because the assemblage of empirically observed objects is for another's use (I-principle); because the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (from regressus ad infinitum principle); because there must be superintendence (supervising conscious agent or chariot principle); because there must be one to enjoy; because there is a tendency to abstraction; therefore soul exists.
Verse 18 of the Karika asserts that many souls must exist because numerous living beings are born, die and exist; because qualities (Gunas) are operating and affect everyone differently; and because everyone is endowed with instruments of cognition and action.[54][56] Verse 19 states that the soul is the conscious "witness, separate, neutral, seer and inactive".[53][56]
The connection between Prakriti and Purusha: verses 20 to 21
A living being is a union of Prakriti and Purusha, posits Samkhya-karika in verses 20-21.[57] The Prakriti as the insentient evolute, joins with Purusha which is sentient consciousness.[57][58]
The Karika states that the purpose of this union of Prakriti and Purusha, creating the reality of the observed universe, is to actualize a two-fold symbiosis.[58][59] One, it empowers the individual to enjoy and contemplate on Prakriti and Purusha through self-awareness; and second, the conjunction of Prakriti and Purusha empowers the path of Kaivalya and Moksha (liberation, freedom).[59]
The verse 21 aphoristically mention the example of "the blind and the lame", referring to the Indian legend of a blind and a lame person left in the forest, who find each other, inspire mutual trust and confidence, agree to share the duties with the blind doing the walking and the lame doing the seeing, the lame sits on blind's shoulder, and thus explore and travel through the forest.[57][59] Soul (Purusha), in this allegory, is similarly symbiotically joined with body and nature (Prakriti) in the journey of life. Soul desires freedom, meaning and liberation, and this it can achieve through contemplation and abstraction.[59]
These verses present a peculiar form of dualism, states Gerald Larson, because they assert unconscious primordial "stuff" on one hand, and pure consciousness on the other.[58] This contrasts with dualism presented in other schools of Hindu philosophy where dualism focuses on the nature of individual soul and Brahman (universal reality).[58][60]
The theory of emergence of principles: verses 22 to 38
These verses, states Larson, provide a detailed discussion of the theory of emergence, that is what emerges, how and the functioning of the different emergents.[61] The discussion includes the emergence of buddhi (intelligence), the ahamkara (ego), the manas (mind), the five buddhindriyas (sensory organs), the five karmendriyas (action organs), the five tanmantras (subtle elements), the five mahabhutas (gross elements), and thereafter the text proceeds to detailing its theory of knowledge process.[61]
The Karika's verse 22 asserts that Mahat (the Great Principle, intellect) is the first evolute of nature (Prakriti, human body), from it emerges ego (Ahamkara, I-principle), from which interface the "set of sixteen" (discussed in later verses).[58][57] Verses 23-25 describes Sattva, as the quality of seeking goodness, wisdom, virtue, non-attachment. The reverse of Sattva, asserts Karika is Tamasa. Sattva is the characteristic of intellect, states the text.[62]
The Karika lists the sensory organs to be the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin, while action organs as those of voice, hands, feet, excretory organs and that of procreation.[63] Mind, states the text, is both a sensory organ in some aspects, and an organ of action in other aspects. Mind ponders, it is cognate, it integrates information and then interacts with the organs of action, it is also modified by the three innate qualities and diverse manifestations of it, asserts the text.[35][64] Ego (Ahamkara), states the text, is self-assertion. Sattva influenced sensory organs and action organs create the Vaikrita form of Ahamkara, while Tamasa influence creates the Bhutadi Ahamkara or the Tanmatras.[65]
Verses 29-30 of the text assert that all the organs depend on prana (breath or life), and that it is prana that connects them to the unseen one, the soul.[63] The three internal emergent faculties (Trayasya), states Karika in verse 29, are mind, ego and the ability to reason.[63][66] The sensory and action organs perform their respective function, by cooperating with each other, fueled by the life-force, while the soul is the independent observer. The organs manifest the object and the purpose of one's soul, not the purpose of anything outside of oneself, states verse 31 of the text.[35][63] Verses 32 through 35 of Karika present its theory how the various sensory organs operate and cooperate to gain information, how action organs apprehend and manifest driven by mind, ego and three innate qualities (Gunas).[35][67] Verses 36 and 37 assert that all sensory organs cooperate to present information to the mind, and it is the mind that presents knowledge and feelings to one's soul (Purusha within).[68][69]
The theory of reality: verses 39 to 59
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The Samkhya-karika in these verses, states Larson, discusses its theory of reality and how one experiences it.[61] The text includes the discussion of impulses and bhavas (dispositions, desires) that produce human experience and determine subjective reality.[61] The Karika asserts that there is twofold emergence of reality, one which is objective, elemental and external; another which is subjective, formulating in mind and internal.[61] It interfaces these with its epistemic theory of knowledge, that is perception, inference and the testimony of reliable person, then presenting its theory of error, theory of complacency, theory of virtue and necessary conditions for suffering, happiness and release.
The theory of understanding and freedom: verses 60 to 69
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The verses 60-69 begin by stating the duality theory of the Samkhya school, which asserts that Prakriti (nature) and Purusha (soul) are absolutely separate.[70]
No soul (Purusha) therefore is bound, no one released, likewise no one transmigrates.;
Only nature (Prakriti) in its various forms transmigrates, is bound and is released.
The state of freedom
By that pure single knowledge,
the soul beholds nature
like a spectator seated at a play beholds an actress.
The Karika, in verse 63, asserts that human nature variously binds itself by a combination of seven means: weakness, vice, ignorance, power, passion, dispassion and virtue. That same nature, once aware of soul's object, liberates by one means: knowledge.[73][35] Verse 64 of the text states that this knowledge is obtained from the study of principles, that there is a difference between inert nature and conscious soul, nature is not consciousness, consciousness is not enslaved to nature and that consciousness is "complete, free from error, pure and kevala (solitary)". Man's deepest selfhood in these verses of Karika, states Larson, is not his empirical ego or his intelligence, rather it is his consciousness, and "this knowledge of the absolute otherness of consciousness frees man from the illusion of bondage and brings man's deepest selfhood into absolute freedom (kaivalya)".[74]
Transmission of Samkhya tradition: verses 70 to 72
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Commentaries
The well known and widely studied medieval era reviews and commentaries on Samkhya-karika include the Gaudapada Samkhya Karika Bhasya (unclear date, certainly before 8th-century),[75] the Paramartha's Chinese translation (6th-century), the Matharavrtti, the Samkhya tattva kaumudi (9th-century), the Jayamangala (likely before 9th-century), and the more recently discovered Yuktidipika.[17]
Vacaspati Mishra's Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī is well studied commentary, in addition to his well-known commentary to Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[13]
Atheism in Samkhyakarika
The Karika is silent about God, states Johannes Bronkhorst, neither denying nor affirming the existence of God.[76] The text discusses existence and consciousness, how the world came into existence and what is the relationship between nature and soul. The numerous Sanskrit commentaries on Samkhya-karika from 1st millennium CE through the 2nd millennium, states Bronkhorst, extensively use the Karika to discuss the question whether or not God is the cause of the world.[76]
Vācaspati Mishra’s Tattvakaumudi , for example, states that the creation could not have been supervised by God, since God is without activity and has no need for activity. Further, citing Karika's verses 56-57 and others, that another reason why God cannot be considered the creator of the world, is that God has no desires and no purpose is served for God by creating the universe.[76] The text asserts that there is suffering and evil experienced by living beings, but God who is considered to be free from the three Gunas (qualities) could not be creating Guna in living beings and the vicissitudes of living beings, therefore God is neither the cause of suffering and evil nor the cause of the world.[76]
The commentary that was translated into Chinese in 6th-century CE by Paramārtha, states in its review and analysis of Samkhya-karika:
You say that God is the cause. This is not correct. Why so? Since He is without genetic constituents (Guna). God does not possess the three genetic constituents, whereas the world does possess the three genetic constituents. The cause and the effect would not resemble each other; therefore God is not the cause.
— Paramārtha translation of Samkhya-karika 61 commentary, Translated from Chinese by Johannes Bronkhorst[76]
The 11th-century Buddhist commentator Jnanasribhadra, frequently cites various Hindu schools of philosophies in his Arya-Lankavatara Vritti, of which Samkhya school and Samkhya-karika is the most common.[77] Jnanasribhadra states, citing Samkhya-karika, that Samkhyans believe in the existence of the soul and the world, in contrast to teachings in the Buddhist text Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, adding that many Samkhyans are atheistic.[77]
Samkhya is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars.[78][79][80]
Liberation and freedom from suffering
Jnanasribhadra, the 11th-century Buddhist scholar, quotes Samkhya-karika, Gaudapada-bhasya, and Mathara-Vritti on the Karika, to summarize Samkhya school's position on the path to liberation:
It is said (in Samkhya) that by the extinction of the evil desires, by understanding the distinction between Prakriti and Purusha, one could attain liberation.
— Jnanasribhadra, Arya-lankavatara-vrtti 15a-b[77]
See also
References
- ^ a b c Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, pages 146-153
- ^ Mircea Eliade, Willard Ropes Trask and David Gordon White (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, page 367
- ^ Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, page 4
- ^ Feuerstein, Georg (2008). Yoga Tradition. Prescott, Arizona: Hohm Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-890772-18-5.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 146-147
- ^ a b c d Albrecht Wezler and Shujun Motegi (1998), Yuktidipika - The Most Significant Commentary on the Såmkhyakårikå, Critically Edited, Vol. I. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-06132-0
- ^ 佛子天空藏經閣T54 No. 2137《金七十論》
- ^ The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Friedrich Max Müller, p.296, 2013, ASIN: B00F1M1B1Y
- ^ a b Swami, Virupakshananada, (1995), vi
- ^ Hajime Nakamura (1989), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120806511, page 334
- ^ Larson, Gerald J. (1979). Classical Samkhya. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 252–3. ISBN 0-915520-27-3.
- ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 42
- ^ a b Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 149
- ^ Larson, 1979, p. 253
- ^ Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 163
- ^ a b c d e Arthur Basham (Original 1954, Reprint 2014), The Wonder That Was India, Picador, ISBN 978-0330439091, pages 511-512
- ^ a b Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 147
- ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 7, 15-21
- ^ Krishna, Ishvara; (translated by: Swami, Virupakshananada) (1995). Samkhya Karika. Sri Vacaspati Misra. Mylapore, Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Matt. pp. iv. ISBN 81-7120-711-1.
- ^ a b c d S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 426-427
- ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 7
- ^ Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;
Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press - ^ a b The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 1-2 (90 of Sutram)
- ^ a b S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 427-428 with footnotes;
Original Sanskrit: दृष्टवदानुश्रविकः स ह्यविशुद्धिक्षयातिशययुक्तः । तद्विपरीतः श्रेयान् व्यक्ताव्यक्तज्ञविज्ञानात् ॥ २ ॥ Source - ^ a b c Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 7-8
- ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore list these 16 as five sense organs, five organs of action, the human mind, and five gross elements
- ^ a b c d Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 9-10, also see Chapter 3
- ^ S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 427-429 with footnotes;
Original Sanskrit: दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनञ्च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धिः प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ Source - ^ S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
Original Sanskrit: प्रतिविषयाध्यवसायो दृष्टं त्रिविधमनुमानमाख्यातम् । तल्लिङ्गलिङ्गिपूर्वकमाप्तश्रुतिराप्तवचनन्तु ॥ ५ ॥ Source - ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 21-25
- ^ S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
Original Sanskrit: सामान्यतस्तु दृष्टादतीन्द्रियाणां प्रतीतिरनुमानात् । तस्मादपि चासिद्धं परोक्षमाप्तागमात्सिद्धम् ॥ ६ ॥ Source - ^ a b c The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: B.D. Basu, pages 6-8
- ^ a b Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 27-32
- ^ S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
Original Sanskrit: सौक्ष्म्यात्तदनुपलब्धिर्नाभावात्कार्यतस्तदुपलब्धिः । महदादि तच्च कार्यं प्रकृतिविरूपं सरूपञ्च ॥ ८ ॥ Source - ^ a b c d e f g h Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 255-277
- ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 10
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-39
- ^ S Radhakrishnan and CA Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
Original Sanskrit: असदकरणादुपादानग्रहणात्सर्वसम्भवाभावात् । शक्तस्य शक्यग्रहणात् कारणभावाच्च सत्कार्यम् ॥ ९ ॥ Source - ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 164-165
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 33-34
- ^ Amita Chatterjee, Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University (2012)
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 39-44
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 45-48
- ^ S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 428-429 with footnotes;
Original Sanskrit: त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषयः सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि । व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥ Source - ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 49-53
- ^ Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237
- ^ Karl H. Potter (2011), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803091, page 112
- ^ Ian Whicher (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791438169, pages 109-110
- ^ a b The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 13-14
- ^ S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 429-430 with footnotes
- ^ a b c Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 10-11
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 60-65
- ^ a b c d Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 11-12
- ^ a b Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 65-73
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 65
- ^ a b c S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 431-432
- ^ a b c d S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 433-434
- ^ a b c d e Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 12-13
- ^ a b c d Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 76-83
- ^ Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86
- ^ a b c d e Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 13-14
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 83-94
- ^ a b c d Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 95-108
- ^ S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore (1967), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019581, pages 435-436
- ^ The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 23-24
- ^ The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, page 27
- ^ The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: BD Basu, pages 23-31
- ^ The Samkhya Karika Nandalal Sinha, Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, Editor: B.D. Basu, pages 31-32
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 116-119
- ^ a b Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 172-173, 274 with footnote 32a
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 175-177
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 181
- ^ Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 178-179
- ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 13
- ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 148
- ^ a b c d e Johannes Bronkhorst (1983), God in Samkhya, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens , Volume 27, pages 149-164
- ^ a b c Koichi Furusaka (1998), Criticism on Samkhya in the Arya-lankavatara-vrtti, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, Vol. 47, No. 1, pages 493-499
- ^ Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39
- ^ Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 38-39
- ^ David Burke (1988), Transcendence in Classical Sāmkhya, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 38, No. 1, pages 19-29
Further reading
- Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875 (Appendix A: Translation of Samkhyakarika)
- Digambarji, Sahai and Gharote (1989), Glossary of Sankhyakarika, Kaivalyadhama Samiti, ISBN 978-8189485108
- Daniel P. Sheridan, Īshvarakrishna, in Great Thinkers of the Eastern World, Ian McGreal, ed., New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 194–197.
- Jens Lauschke (2023). SAMKHYA YOGA: An Interpretation of Iswara Krishna's Samkhya Karika. Taxila Publications ISBN 978-3948459604
External links
Texts
- Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna Henry Colebrook (Translator), Oxford University Press, Oxford
- Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna John Davis (Translator), Trubner, London, University of Toronto Archives
- Samkhya Karika with Gaudapada's commentary (html format), trans. by Dr. Har Dutt Sharma (1933)
- Samkhya Karika (E.A. Welden translation) at the Internet Archive
- Samkhya Karika in PDF
- Samkhya karika with Gaudapada Bhasya, Sanskrit Original
- Yuktidipika - a medieval era text that reviews and comments on Samkhyakarika, Sanskrit Original (one of two editions published)
Papers
- Knut Jacobsen (2006), What similes in Samkhya do: a comparison of the similes in the Samkhya texts in the Mahabharata, the 'Samkhyakarika and the Samkhyasutra, Journal of Indian philosophy, 34(6), pages 587-605
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