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{{Short description|Earth's southernmost continent}}
{{About|the continent|the region|Antarctic|other uses}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox continent
| title = Antarctica
| image = Antarctica (orthographic projection).svg <!-- Please see discussion or contribute to discussion if you are considering replacing this image -->
| image_size = 240px
| alt = This map uses an orthographic projection, near-polar aspect. The South Pole is near the center, where longitudinal lines converge.
| flag = True_South_Antarctic_Flag.svg
| area = {{cvt|14200000|km2|disp=br}}<ref name="CIAfactbook-People">{{cite web |title=Antarctica |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/antarctica/ |website=The World Factbook |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=9 May 2022 |archive-date=9 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509192134/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/antarctica/ |date=3 May 2022}}</ref>
| population = 1,300 to 5,100 (seasonal)
| density = 0.00009/km<sup>2</sup> to 0.00036/km<sup>2</sup> (seasonal)
| adjective = [[Antarctic]]
| countries =7 territorial claims
| list_countries =Antarctic Treaty System
| time =All time zones
| internet = [[.aq]]
| iso_code = AQ
| settlements = {{Ubl|[[McMurdo Station]]|[[Research stations in Antarctica|Other research stations]]}}
| m49 = <code>010</code>
}}
[[File:Antarctica 6400px from Blue Marble.jpg|thumb|Composite satellite image of Antarctica (2002)]]
[[File:AS4-1-410HR.jpg|thumb|[[Apollo 4]] photograph with Antarctica at top, 1967]]
'''Antarctica''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Antarctica.ogg|æ|n|ˈ|t|ɑːr|k|t|ᵻ|k|ə}}){{refn|The word was originally pronounced with the first ''c'' silent in English, but the [[spelling pronunciation]] has become common and is often considered more correct. However, the pronunciation with a silent ''c'', and even with the first ''t'' silent as well, is widespread and typical of many similar English words.<ref>[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Antarctica Antarctica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208004718/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Antarctica |date=8 December 2015 }}. ''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]''.</ref> The ''c'' had ceased to be pronounced in [[Medieval Latin]] and was dropped from the spelling in [[Old French]], but it was added back for etymological reasons in English in the 17th century and thereafter began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.<ref>{{harvnb |Crystal|2006|page=172}}</ref> For those who pronounce the first ''t'', there is also variation between the pronunciations ''Ant-ar(c)tica'' and ''An-tar(c)tica''.|group="note"}} is [[Earth]]'s southernmost and least-populated [[continent]]. Situated almost entirely south of the [[Antarctic Circle]] and surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]] (also known as the [[Antarctic Ocean]]), it contains the geographic [[South Pole]]. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than [[Europe]], and has an area of {{convert|14200000|km2|abbr=on}}. Most of Antarctica is covered by the [[Antarctic ice sheet]], with an average thickness of {{convert|1.9|km|mi|abbr=on}}.

Antarctica is, on average, the coldest, driest, and windiest of the continents, and it has the highest average [[elevation]]. It is mainly a [[polar desert]], with annual [[Climate of Antarctica#Precipitation|precipitation]] of over {{convert|200|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} along the coast and far less inland. About 70% of the world's [[freshwater]] reserves are frozen in Antarctica, which, if melted, would raise global [[sea level]]s by almost {{convert|60|m|ft}}. Antarctica holds the record for the [[Lowest temperature recorded on Earth|lowest measured temperature on Earth]], {{cvt|−89.2|C}}. The coastal regions can reach temperatures over {{cvt|10|C}} in the summer. Native [[Wildlife of Antarctica|species of animals]] include [[mite]]s, [[nematode]]s, [[penguin]]s, [[Pinniped|seals]] and [[tardigrade]]s. Where [[Antarctic flora|vegetation]] occurs, it is mostly in the form of [[lichen]] or [[moss]].

The [[Antarctic ice sheet|ice shelves of Antarctica]] were probably first seen in 1820, during [[First Russian Antarctic Expedition|a Russian expedition]] led by [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]] and [[Mikhail Lazarev]]. The decades that followed saw further [[List of Antarctic expeditions|exploration]] by French, American, and British expeditions. The first confirmed landing was by a Norwegian team in 1895. In the early 20th century, there were a few expeditions into the interior of the continent. [[Nimrod Expedition|British explorers]] [[Robert Falcon Scott]] and [[Ernest Shackleton]] were the first to reach the [[South magnetic pole|magnetic South Pole]] in 1909, and the [[Geographic south pole|geographic South Pole]] was first reached in 1911 by [[Amundsen's South Pole expedition|Norwegian explorer]] [[Roald Amundsen]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Cynthia |date=2021-09-21 |title=Reaching the South Pole During the Heroic Age of Exploration {{!}} Worlds Revealed |url=https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2021/09/reaching-the-south-pole-during-the-heroic-age-of-exploration |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=The Library of Congress}}</ref>

Antarctica is [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|governed by about 30 countries]], all of which are parties of the 1959 [[Antarctic Treaty System]]. According to the terms of the treaty, military activity, mining, [[nuclear explosion]]s, and [[nuclear waste disposal]] are all prohibited in Antarctica. [[Tourism in Antarctica|Tourism]], fishing and research are the main human activities in and around Antarctica. During the summer months, about 5,000 people reside at [[Research stations in Antarctica|research stations]], a figure that drops to around 1,000 in the winter. Despite the continent's remoteness, human activity has a significant effect on it via [[pollution]], [[ozone depletion]], and [[Climate change in Antarctica|climate change]]. The melting of the potentially unstable [[West Antarctic ice sheet]] causes the most uncertainty in century-scale projections of [[sea level rise]], and the same melting also affects the [[Southern Ocean overturning circulation]], which can eventually lead to significant impacts on the [[Southern Hemisphere]] climate and Southern Ocean productivity.

== Etymology ==

[[File:1657 map Polus Antarcticus.jpg|thumb|alt=17th century map of the Antarctic region |A speculative representation of Antarctica labelled as '{{lang|la|Terra Australis Incognita}}' on [[Jan Janssonius]]'s ''{{lang|nl|Zeekaart van het Zuidpoolgebied}}'' (1657), {{Lang|nl|[[Het Scheepvaartmuseum]]|italic=no}}]]
The name given to the continent [[Etymology|originates]] from the word ''antarctic'', which comes from [[Middle French]] ''{{lang|frm|antartique}}'' or ''{{lang|frm|antarctique}}'' ('opposite to the [[Arctic]]') and, in turn, the [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|antarcticus}}'' ('opposite to the north'). ''{{lang|la|Antarcticus}}'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἀντι-}} ('anti-') and {{lang|grc|ἀρκτικός}} ('of [[Ursa Major|the Bear]]', 'northern').<ref name="OED">{{Cite OED|Antarctic|access-date=17 January 2022|edition=3rd|date=December 2021}}</ref> The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] wrote in ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'' about an "Antarctic region" in {{circa|350 BCE}}.{{sfn|Lettinck|2021|p=158}} The Greek geographer [[Marinus of Tyre]] reportedly used the name in his world map from the second century CE, now lost. The [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] authors [[Gaius Julius Hyginus]] and [[Apuleius]] used for the South Pole the [[Romanization|romanised]] Greek name {{Lang|el-latn|polus antarcticus}},{{sfn|Hyginus|1992|p=176}} from which derived the [[Old French]] {{Lang|ang|pole antartike}} (modern {{Lang|fr|pôle antarctique}}) attested in 1270, and from there the [[Middle English]] {{Lang|enm|pol antartik}}, found first in a [[treatise]] written by the English author [[Geoffrey Chaucer]].<ref name="OED" />

Belief by Europeans in the existence of a ''{{lang|la|[[Terra Australis]]}}''—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to balance the northern lands of Europe, Asia, and North Africa—had existed as an intellectual concept since [[classical antiquity]]. The belief in such a land lasted until the European [[European maritime exploration of Australia|discovery of Australia]].{{sfn|Scott|Hiatt|McIlroy|2012|pp=2{{ndash}}3}}

During the early 19th century, explorer [[Matthew Flinders]] doubted the existence of a detached continent south of Australia (then called [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]) and thus advocated for the "Terra Australis" name to be used for Australia instead.{{sfn|Cawley|2015|p=130}}{{sfn|McCrone|McPherson|2009|p=75}} In 1824, the colonial authorities in [[Sydney]] officially renamed the continent of New Holland to Australia, leaving the term "Terra Australis" unavailable as a reference to Antarctica. Over the following decades, geographers used phrases such as "the Antarctic Continent". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting names such as ''Ultima'' and ''Antipodea''.{{sfn|Cameron-Ash|2018|p=20}} ''Antarctica'' was adopted in the 1890s, with the first use of the name being attributed to the Scottish [[Cartography|cartographer]] [[John George Bartholomew]].<ref name="NLS">{{cite web |title=Highlights from the Bartholomew Archive: The naming of Antarctica |url=https://digital.nls.uk/bartholomew/highlights/antarctica.html#:~:text=Edinburgh%20geographer%20and%20mapmaker%20John,since%20the%20first%20century%20AD. |website=The Bartholomew Archive |publisher=[[National Library of Scotland]] |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-date=18 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218073511/https://digital.nls.uk/bartholomew/highlights/antarctica.html#:~:text=Edinburgh%20geographer%20and%20mapmaker%20John,since%20the%20first%20century%20AD. |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Antarctica}}
{{See also|Extreme points of Antarctica|List of mountains in Antarctica|List of ultras of Antarctica|List of places in Antarctica}}
[[File:Antarctica.svg|thumb|upright=2|alt=map of Antarctica |[[Eastern Antarctica]] is to the right of the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] and [[Western Antarctica]] is to the left.]]
Positioned&nbsp;asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the [[Antarctic Circle]] (one of the five major [[circle of latitude|circles of latitude]] that mark maps of the world), Antarctica is surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]].{{refn|1=Before the [[Southern Ocean]] was recognised as a separate ocean, it was considered to be surrounded by the southern [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], and [[Indian Ocean]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first1= |title=How many oceans are there? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/howmanyoceans.html |website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |language=EN-US |access-date=11 May 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820210308/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/howmanyoceans.html |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=note}} [[List of rivers in Antarctica|Rivers]] exist in Antarctica; the longest is the [[Onyx River|Onyx]]. Antarctica covers more than {{convert|14.2|e6km2|sqmi|abbr=unit}}, almost double the area of Australia, making it the fifth-largest continent. Its coastline is almost {{convert|18000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} long:<ref name="CIAfactbook-People" /> {{As of|1983|lc=y}}, of the four coastal types, 44% of the coast is floating ice in the form of an [[ice shelf]], 38% consists of ice walls that rest on rock, 13% is [[ice stream]]s or the edge of glaciers, and the remaining 5% is exposed rock.{{sfn|Drewry|1983<!-- |p= -->}}<!-- {{Update inline|reason=Does this still hold after so many years?|?=yes|date=January 2022}} No updated information available, recent sources still quote the 1983 figures-->

The [[lakes]] that lie at the base of the continental [[ice sheet]] occur mainly in the [[McMurdo Dry Valleys]] or various [[Antarctic oasis|oases]].{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=115}} [[Lake Vostok]], discovered beneath Russia's [[Vostok Station]], is the largest [[subglacial lake]] globally and one of the largest lakes in the world. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for millions of years, but scientists now estimate its water is replaced by the slow melting and freezing of ice caps every 13,000 years.{{sfn|Day|2019|loc=Is all of Antarctica snow-covered?}} During the summer, the ice at the edges of the lakes can melt, and liquid moats temporarily form. Antarctica has both [[Salt lake|saline]] and freshwater lakes.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=115}}

Antarctica is divided into [[West Antarctica]] and [[East Antarctica]] by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]], which stretch from [[Victoria Land]] to the [[Ross Sea]].{{sfn|Carroll|Lopes|2019|p=99}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ji |first1=Fei |last2=Gao |first2=Jinyao |last3=Li |first3=Fei |last4=Shen |first4=Zhongyan |last5=Zhang |first5=Qiao |last6=Li |first6=Yongdong |title=Variations of the effective elastic thickness over the Ross Sea and Transantarctic Mountains and implications for their structure and tectonics |journal=Tectonophysics |date=2017 |volume=717 |pages=127–138 |doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2017.07.011 |bibcode=2017Tectp.717..127J |doi-access=free }}</ref> The vast majority of Antarctica is covered by the [[Antarctic ice sheet]], which averages {{convert|1.9|km|mi|abbr=on}} in thickness.<ref name="Bedmap2">{{cite journal |last1=Fretwell |first1=P. |last2=Pritchard |first2=H. D. |last3=Vaughan |first3=D. G. |last4=Bamber |first4=J. L. |last5=Barrand |first5=N. E. |last6=Bell |first6=R. |last7=Bianchi |first7=C. |last8=Bingham |first8=R. G. |last9=Blankenship |first9=D. D. |last10=Casassa |first10=G. |last11=Catania |first11=G. |last12=Callens |first12=D. |last13=Conway |first13=H. |last14=Cook |first14=A. J. |last15=Corr |first15=H. F. J. |last16=Damaske |first16=D. |last17=Damm |first17=V. |last18=Ferraccioli |first18=F. |last19=Forsberg |first19=R. |last20=Fujita |first20=S. |last21=Gim |first21=Y. |last22=Gogineni |first22=P. |last23=Griggs |first23=J. A. |last24=Hindmarsh |first24=R. C. A. |last25=Holmlund |first25=P. |last26=Holt |first26=J. W. |last27=Jacobel |first27=R. W. |last28=Jenkins |first28=A. |last29=Jokat |first29=W. |last30=Jordan |first30=T. |last31=King |first31=E. C. |last32=Kohler |first32=J. |last33=Krabill |first33=W. |last34=Riger-Kusk |first34=M. |last35=Langley |first35=K. A. |last36=Leitchenkov |first36=G. |last37=Leuschen |first37=C. |last38=Luyendyk |first38=B. P. |last39=Matsuoka |first39=K. |last40=Mouginot |first40=J. |last41=Nitsche |first41=F. O. |last42=Nogi |first42=Y. |last43=Nost |first43=O. A. |last44=Popov |first44=S. V. |last45=Rignot |first45=E. |last46=Rippin |first46=D. M. |last47=Rivera |first47=A. |last48=Roberts |first48=J. |last49=Ross |first49=N. |last50=Siegert |first50=M. J. |last51=Smith |first51=A. M. |last52=Steinhage |first52=D. |last53=Studinger |first53=M. |last54=Sun |first54=B. |last55=Tinto |first55=B. K. |last56=Welch |first56=B. C. |last57=Wilson |first57=D. |last58=Young |first58=D. A. |last59=Xiangbin |first59=C. |last60=Zirizzotti |first60=A. |title=Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica |journal=The Cryosphere |date=28 February 2013 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=375–393 |doi=10.5194/tc-7-375-2013 |bibcode=2013TCry....7..375F |s2cid=13129041 |doi-access=free |hdl=1808/18763 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The ice sheet extends to all but a few [[Oasis|oases]], which, with the exception of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, are located in coastal areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://antarcticsun.usap.gov/science/4184/|title=The Lost Dry Valleys of the Polar Plateau|website=The Antarctic Sun|publisher=[[United States Antarctic Program]]|last1=Lucibella|first1=Michael|date=21 October 2015|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=15 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115223943/https://antarcticsun.usap.gov/science/4184/|url-status=live}}</ref> Several Antarctic ice streams flow to one of the many [[Ice shelf#Antarctic ice shelves|Antarctic ice shelves]], a process described by [[ice-sheet dynamics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/ice-sheet-dynamics/|title=Ice Sheet Dynamics|website=Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory|last1=Hallberg|first1=Robert|last2=Sergienko|first2=Olga|year=2019|access-date=7 February 2021|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428015203/https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/ice-sheet-dynamics/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Mount Vinson from NW at Vinson Plateau by Christian Stangl (flickr).jpg|thumb|alt=photograph of Vinson Massif |[[Vinson Massif]] from the northwest, the highest peak in Antarctica]]

East Antarctica comprises [[Coats Land]], [[Queen Maud Land]], [[Enderby Land]], [[Mac. Robertson Land|<abbr title="Macpherson">Mac</abbr>. Robertson Land]], [[Wilkes Land]], and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of the region lies within the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]. East Antarctica is largely covered by the [[East Antarctic Ice Sheet]].{{sfn|Siegert|Florindo|2008|p=532}} There are numerous [[List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands|islands]] surrounding Antarctica, most of which are volcanic and very young by geological standards.<ref name=O&E>{{cite journal |last1=Quilty |first1=Pg |title=Origin and evolution of the sub-Antarctic islands: the foundation |journal=Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania |date=2007 |pages=35–58 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.141.1.35 }}</ref> The most prominent exceptions to this are the islands of the [[Kerguelen Plateau]], the earliest of which formed around 40 [[Year#SI prefix multipliers|Ma]].<ref name=O&E/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olierook |first1=Hugo K.H. |last2=Jourdan |first2=Fred |last3=Merle |first3=Renaud E. |last4=Timms |first4=Nicholas E. |last5=Kusznir |first5=Nick |last6=Muhling |first6=Janet R. |title=Bunbury Basalt: Gondwana breakup products or earliest vestiges of the Kerguelen mantle plume? |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |date=April 2016 |volume=440 |pages=20–32 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2016.02.008 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.440...20O |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11937/13606 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

[[Vinson Massif]], in the [[Ellsworth Mountains]], is the highest peak in Antarctica at {{convert|4892|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Monteath |1997|p=135}} Mount Erebus on [[Ross Island]] is the world's southernmost active [[volcano]] and [[Types of volcanic eruptions|erupts]] around 10 times each day. Ash from eruptions has been found {{convert|300|km}} from the [[volcanic crater]].{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=75}} There is evidence of a large number of volcanoes under the ice, which could pose a risk to the ice sheet if activity levels were to rise.{{Sfn|Carroll|Lopes|2019|p=38}} The ice dome known as [[Dome Argus]] in East Antarctica is the highest Antarctic ice feature, at {{convert|4091|m}}. It is one of the world's coldest and driest places—temperatures there may reach as low as {{convert|-90|C}}, and the annual precipitation is {{cvt|1|-|3|cm}}.{{sfn|Hund|2014|pp=362{{ndash}}363}}

== Geologic history ==
{{Main|Geology of Antarctica}}{{Further|Geology of the Antarctic Peninsula}}
From the end of the [[Neoproterozoic]] era to the [[Cretaceous]], Antarctica was part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]].<ref>{{cite book|page=109|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcTrAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109|title=Antarctic News Clips|year=1995|publisher=National Science Foundation|last1=Browne|first1=Malcolm W.|author-link1=Malcolm Browne|display-authors=et al|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=14 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814152352/https://books.google.com/books?id=HcTrAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109|url-status=live}}</ref> Modern Antarctica was formed as Gondwana gradually broke apart beginning around 183 Ma.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=92}} For a large proportion of the [[Phanerozoic]], Antarctica had a [[Tropical climate|tropical]] or [[temperate climate]], and it was covered in forests.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klages |first1=Johann P. |last2=Salzmann |first2=Ulrich |last3=Bickert |first3=Torsten |last4=Hillenbrand |first4=Claus-Dieter |last5=Gohl |first5=Karsten |last6=Kuhn |first6=Gerhard |last7=Bohaty |first7=Steven M. |last8=Titschack |first8=Jürgen |last9=Müller |first9=Juliane |last10=Frederichs |first10=Thomas |last11=Bauersachs |first11=Thorsten |last12=Ehrmann |first12=Werner |last13=van de Flierdt |first13=Tina |last14=Pereira |first14=Patric Simões |last15=Larter |first15=Robert D. |last16=Lohmann |first16=Gerrit |last17=Niezgodzki |first17=Igor |last18=Uenzelmann-Neben |first18=Gabriele |last19=Zundel |first19=Maximilian |last20=Spiegel |first20=Cornelia |last21=Mark |first21=Chris |last22=Chew |first22=David |last23=Francis |first23=Jane E. |last24=Nehrke |first24=Gernot |last25=Schwarz |first25=Florian |last26=Smith |first26=James A. |last27=Freudenthal |first27=Tim |last28=Esper |first28=Oliver |last29=Pälike |first29=Heiko |last30=Ronge |first30=Thomas A. |last31=Dziadek |first31=Ricarda |author32=PS104 Science Team of Expedition |title=Temperate rainforests near the South Pole during peak Cretaceous warmth |journal=Nature |date=2 April 2020 |volume=580 |issue=7801 |pages=81–86 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2148-5 |pmid=32238944 |bibcode=2020Natur.580...81K |s2cid=214736648 |hdl=10044/1/76835 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Palaeozoic era (540–250 Ma) ===

[[File:Glossopteris sp. (fossil leaf) (Permian; Antarctica) 1 (49063572172) (cropped).jpg|thumb|''[[Glossopteris]]'' sp. leaf from the Permian of Antarctica]]

During the [[Cambrian|Cambrian period]], Gondwana had a mild climate.{{sfn|Cantrill|Poole|2012|p=31}} West Antarctica was partially in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], and during the time, large amounts of [[sandstone]]s, [[limestone]]s, and [[shale]]s were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where seafloor [[invertebrate]]s and [[trilobite]]s flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the [[Devonian|Devonian period]] (416&nbsp;[[annum|Ma]]), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes, and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from then. Sand and [[silt]]s were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, [[Horlick Mountains|Horlick]] and [[Pensacola Mountains]].

Antarctica became glaciated during the [[Late Paleozoic icehouse]] beginning at the end of the Devonian period (360&nbsp;Ma), though glaciation would substantially increase during the late [[Carboniferous]]. It drifted closer to the South Pole, and the climate cooled, though [[Antarctic flora|flora]] remained.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rolland |first1=Yann |last2=Bernet |first2=Matthias |last3=van der Beek |first3=Peter |last4=Gautheron |first4=Cécile |last5=Duclaux |first5=Guillaume |last6=Bascou |first6=Jérôme |last7=Balvay |first7=Mélanie |last8=Héraudet |first8=Laura |last9=Sue |first9=Christian |last10=Ménot |first10=René-Pierre |title=Late Paleozoic Ice Age glaciers shaped East Antarctica landscape |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |date=January 2019 |volume=506 |pages=123–133 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2018.10.044 |bibcode=2019E&PSL.506..123R |s2cid=134360219 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01925658/file/papier_thermochro_Antarctique-EPSL.final.pdf }}</ref> After deglaciation during the latter half of the Early [[Permian]], the land became dominated by [[Glossopteridales|glossopterids]] (an extinct group of seed plants with no close living relatives), most prominently ''[[Glossopteris]]'', a tree interpreted as growing in waterlogged soils, which formed extensive coal deposits. Other plants found in Antarctica during the Permian include [[Cordaitales]], [[sphenopsid]]s, ferns, and [[lycophyte]]s.{{sfn|Cantrill|Poole|2012|pp=57{{ndash}}104 |loc="Collapsing ice sheets and evolving polar forests of the middle to late Paleozoic"|ps=. {{doi|10.1017/cbo9781139024990.003}}}} At the end of the Permian, the climate became drier and hotter over much of Gondwana, and the [[Glossopteridales|glossopterid]] forest ecosystems collapsed, as part of the [[End-Permian mass extinction]].{{sfn|Cantrill|Poole|2012|pp=57–104 |loc="Collapsing ice sheets and evolving polar forests of the middle to late Paleozoic"|ps=. {{doi|10.1017/cbo9781139024990.003}}}}<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Past changes on fauna and flora distribution |last1=Vega |first1=Greta |last2=Ángel Olalla-Tárraga |first2=Miguel |editor1-last=Oliva |editor1-first=Marc |editor2-last=Ruiz Fernandez |editor2-first=Jesus |title=Past Antarctica: paleoclimatology and climate change |date=2020 |location=London |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-817925-3 |page=170}}</ref> There is no evidence of any [[tetrapod]]s having lived in Antarctica during the Paleozoic.<ref name="Collinson-2007">{{cite conference |last1=Collinson |first1=James |last2=William R. |first2=Hammer |date=2007 |title=Migration of Triassic tetrapods to Antarctica |conference=10th International Symposium on Antarctic Earth Sciences |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1047/ea/of2007-1047ea047.pdf }}</ref>

=== Mesozoic era (250–66 Ma) ===

The continued warming dried out much of Gondwana. During the Triassic, Antarctica was dominated by [[seed fern]]s (pteridosperms) belonging to the genus ''[[Dicroidium]]'', which grew as trees. Other associated Triassic flora included [[ginkgophyte]]s, [[cycad]]ophytes, [[conifer]]s, and sphenopsids.{{sfn|Cantrill|Poole|2012|pp=105{{ndash}}160 |loc="Icehouse to hothouse: floral turnover, the Permian–Triassic crisis and Triassic vegetation"|ps=. {{doi|10.1017/cbo9781139024990.004}}}} [[Tetrapod]]s first appeared in Antarctica during the early [[Triassic]], with the earliest known fossils found in the [[Fremouw Formation]] of the Transantarctic Mountains.<ref name="Collinson-2007" /> [[Synapsid]]s (also known as "mammal-like reptiles") included species such as ''[[Lystrosaurus]]'', and were common during the [[Early Triassic]].{{sfn|Jasinoski|2013|p=139}}

The [[Antarctic Peninsula]] began to form during the [[Jurassic]] period ({{Ma|206|146}}).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Birkenmajer |first1=K. |title=Evolution of the Pacific margin of the northern Antarctic Peninsula: an overview |journal=Geologische Rundschau |date=July 1994 |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=309–321 |doi=10.1007/BF00210547 |bibcode=1994GeoRu..83..309B }}</ref> ''[[Ginkgo]]'' trees, conifers, [[Bennettitales]], [[Equisetum|horsetails]], ferns and cycads were plentiful during the time.{{sfn|Cantrill|Poole|2012|pp=9; 35; 56; 71; 185; 314}} In West Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated throughout the [[Cretaceous]] period (146–66&nbsp;Ma), though southern beech trees (''[[Nothofagus]]'') became prominent towards the end of the Cretaceous.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Special Publications|page=90|title=Origins and Evolution of the Antarctic Biota|last1=Crame|first1=James Alistair|year=1989|publisher=[[Geological Society of London]]|volume=47|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.1989.047.01.01|s2cid=131433262}}</ref>{{sfn|Riffenburgh|2007|p=413}} [[Ammonite]]s were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only a few Antarctic dinosaur [[genera]] (''[[Cryolophosaurus]]'' and ''[[Glacialisaurus]]'', from the Early Jurassic [[Hanson Formation]] of the Transantarctic Mountains,<ref name="SmithPol2007">{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Nathan D.|last2=Pol|first2=Diego|date=2007|title=Anatomy of a basal sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Early Jurassic Hanson Formation of Antarctica|journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica|volume=52|issue=4|pages=657–674|url=http://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app52/app52-657.pdf|access-date=12 January 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304195051/http://app.pan.pl/archive/published/app52/app52-657.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''[[Antarctopelta]]'', ''[[Trinisaura]]'', ''[[Morrosaurus]]'' and ''[[Imperobator]]'' from Late Cretaceous of the Antarctic Peninsula) have been described.<ref name="Trinisaura">{{Cite journal|last1=Coria|first1=R. A.|last2=Moly|first2=J. J.|last3=Reguero|first3=M.|last4=Santillana|first4=S.|last5=Marenssi|first5=S.|year=2013|title=A new ornithopod (Dinosauria; Ornithischia) from Antarctica|journal=Cretaceous Research|volume=41|pages=186–193|doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2012.12.004|bibcode=2013CrRes..41..186C |hdl=11336/76749 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Morrosaurus">{{cite journal|last1=Rozadilla|first1=Sebastián|last2=Agnolin|first2=Federico L.|last3=Novas|first3=Novas|last4=Rolando|first4=Alexis M. Aranciaga|display-authors=et al|year=2016|title=A new ornithopod (Dinosauria, Ornithischia) from the Upper Cretaceous of Antarctica and its palaeobiogeographical implications|journal=Cretaceous Research|volume=57|pages=311–324|doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2015.09.009|bibcode=2016CrRes..57..311R }}</ref><ref name="Ely&Case2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Ely|first1=Ricardo C.|last2=Case|first2=Judd A.|date=April 2019|title=Phylogeny of A New Gigantic Paravian (Theropoda; Coelurosauria; Maniraptora) From The Upper Cretaceous Of James Ross Island, Antarctica|journal=Cretaceous Research|language=en|volume=101|pages=1–16|doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2019.04.003|bibcode=2019CrRes.101....1E |s2cid=146325060|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Leslie|first1=Mitch |title=The Strange Lives of Polar Dinosaurs |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/polar-dinosaurs-200712.html |publisher=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] |date=December 2007 |access-date=24 January 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20080130062646/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/polar-dinosaurs-200712.html |archive-date=30 January 2008 }}</ref>

=== Gondwana breakup (160–15 Ma) ===

{{Multiple image
| width             = 150
| image1            = Opening of western Indian Ocean 150 Ma.png
| image2            = Opening of South Atlantic 126 Ma.png
| image3            = Opening of South Atlantic 83 Ma.png
| footer            = Breakup of Gondwana at {{circa|150}}&nbsp;Ma (''left''), c. 126&nbsp;Ma (''centre'') and at c. 83&nbsp;Ma (''right'')<ref group="note">Geographical features, such as ice caps, are shown as they are today for identification purposes, not as how they appeared at these times.</ref>
}}

Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic around 160 Ma, followed by the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the early Cretaceous (about 125&nbsp;Ma).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gaina|first1=Carmen|last2=Müller|first2=R. Dietmar|last3=Brown|first3=Belinda|last4=Ishihara|first4=Takemi|last5=Ivanov|first5=Sergey|date=July 2007|title=Breakup and early seafloor spreading between India and Antarctica|journal=Geophysical Journal International|language=en|volume=170|issue=1|pages=151–169|bibcode=2007GeoJI.170..151G|doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03450.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> During the early [[Paleogene]], Antarctica remained connected to South America as well as to southeastern Australia. Fauna from the [[La Meseta Formation]] in the Antarctic Peninsula, dating to the [[Eocene]], is very similar to equivalent South American faunas; with [[marsupial]]s, [[xenarthra]]ns, [[Litopterna|litoptern]], and [[astrapotheria]]n [[ungulate]]s, as well as [[Gondwanatheria|gondwanatheres]] and possibly [[meridiolestida]]ns.<ref>{{harvnb|Defler|2019|pages=185–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gelfo |first1=Javier Nicolás |last2=Goin |first2=Francisco Javier |last3=Bauzá |first3=Nicolás |last4=Reguero |first4=Marcelo Alfredo |title=The fossil record of Antarctic land mammals: commented review and hypotheses for future research |date=October 2019 |doi=10.13679/j.advps.2019.0021 |hdl=11336/154407 }}</ref> Marsupials are thought to have dispersed into Australia via Antarctica by the early Eocene.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eldridge |first1=Mark D B |last2=Beck |first2=Robin M D |last3=Croft |first3=Darin A |last4=Travouillon |first4=Kenny J |last5=Fox |first5=Barry J |title=An emerging consensus in the evolution, phylogeny, and systematics of marsupials and their fossil relatives (Metatheria) |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |date=23 May 2019 |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=802–837 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyz018 }}</ref>

Around 53 Ma, Australia-[[New Guinea]] separated from Antarctica, opening the [[Tasmanian Passage]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |last2=Eagles |first2=Graeme |last3=Ebinger |first3=Cynthia |last4=McClay |first4=Ken |last5=Totterdell |first5=Jennifer |title=The spatial and temporal evolution of strain during the separation of Australia and Antarctica |journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems |date=August 2013 |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=2771–2799 |doi=10.1002/ggge.20160 |bibcode=2013GGG....14.2771B |url=https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/33230/1/ggge20160.pdf }}</ref> The [[Drake Passage]] opened between Antarctica and South America around 30 Ma, resulting in the creation of the [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]] that completely isolated the continent.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ice–Atmosphere Feedbacks Dominate the Response of the Climate System to Drake Passage Closure|journal=[[Journal of Climate]]|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]|last1=England|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Hutchinson|first2=David K.|last3=Santoso|first3=Agus|last4=Sijp|first4=Willem P.|date=1 August 2017|volume=30|number=15|page=5775|doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0554.1|jstor=26388506|bibcode=2017JCli...30.5775E|s2cid=133542067|doi-access=free}}</ref> Models of Antarctic geography suggest that this current, as well as a [[feedback loop]] caused by lowering [[Carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] levels, caused the creation of small yet permanent polar ice caps. As CO<sub>2</sub> levels declined further the ice began to spread rapidly, replacing the forests that until then had covered Antarctica.<ref name="DeContoPollard2003">{{cite journal |last1=DeConto |first1=Robert M. |last2=Pollard |first2=David |date=16 January 2003 |title=Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> |journal=Nature |volume=421 |issue=6920 |pages=245–249 |bibcode=2003Natur.421..245D |doi=10.1038/nature01290 |pmid=12529638 |s2cid=4326971 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/16546/files/PAL_E3220.pdf }}</ref> [[Tundra]] ecosystems continued to exist on Antarctica until around 14-10 million years ago, when further cooling lead to their extermination.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ashworth |first1=Allan C. |last2=Erwin |first2=Terry L. |date=2016 |title=''Antarctotrechus balli'' sp. n. (Carabidae, Trechini): the first ground beetle from Antarctica |journal=ZooKeys |issue=635 |pages=109–122 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.635.10535 |pmc=5126512 |pmid=27917060 |bibcode=2016ZooK..635..109A |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Present day ===

[[File:The Antarctic tectonic plate.svg|thumb|alt=map of the tectonic plates of the southern hemisphere |upright=1.75 |The [[Antarctic Plate]]]]
The [[geology]] of Antarctica, largely obscured by the continental ice sheet,{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=88}} is being revealed by techniques such as [[remote sensing]], [[ground-penetrating radar]], and [[satellite imagery]].<ref name="Pou">{{cite journal |last1=Pour |first1=Amin Beiranvand |last2=Park |first2=Yongcheol |last3=Park |first3=Tae-Yoon S. |last4=Hong |first4=Jong Kuk |last5=Hashim |first5=Mazlan |last6=Woo |first6=Jusun |last7=Ayoobi |first7=Iman |title=Regional geology mapping using satellite-based remote sensing approach in Northern Victoria Land, Antarctica |journal=Polar Science |date=June 2018 |volume=16 |pages=23–46 |doi=10.1016/j.polar.2018.02.004 |bibcode=2018PolSc..16...23P }}</ref> Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the South American [[Andes]].{{sfn|Stonehouse|2002|p=116}} The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by [[Orogeny|geologic uplift]] and the transformation of sea bed [[sediment]]s into [[metamorphic rock]]s.<ref name="Fel">{{cite journal |editor1-last=Feldmann |editor1-first=Michael O. |editor2-last=Woodburne |editor2-first=Rodney M. |title=Geology and Paleontology of Seymour Island, Antarctic Peninsula |journal=[[Geological Society of America Bulletin]] |date=1988 |issue=169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OznBf9AhHzQC |publisher=[[Geological Society of America]] |location=Boulder, Colorado |issn=0016-7606 |page=551 |isbn=9780813711690 |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814144138/https://books.google.com/books?id=OznBf9AhHzQC |url-status=live }}</ref>

West Antarctica was formed by the merging of several [[continental plates]], which created a number of mountain ranges in the region, the most prominent being the Ellsworth Mountains. The presence of the [[West Antarctic Rift System]] has resulted in [[volcanism]] along the border between West and East Antarctica, as well as the creation of the Transantarctic Mountains.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|pp=144, 197{{ndash}}198}}

East Antarctica is geologically varied. Its formation began during the [[Archean]] Eon (4,000&nbsp;Ma{{ndash}}2,500&nbsp;Ma), and stopped during the Cambrian Period.{{sfn|Anderson|2010|p=28}} It is built on a [[craton]] of rock, which is the basis of the Precambrian [[Shield (geology)|Shield]].{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=71}} On top of the base are [[coal]] and sandstones, limestones, and shales that were laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the Transantarctic Mountains.{{sfn|Campbell|Claridge|1987}} In coastal areas such as the [[Shackleton Range]] and Victoria Land, some [[fault (geology)|faulting]] has occurred.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paxman |first1=Guy J. G. |last2=Jamieson |first2=Stewart S. R. |last3=Ferraccioli |first3=Fausto |last4=Bentley |first4=Michael J. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Rene |last6=Ross |first6=Neil |last7=Watts |first7=Anthony B. |last8=Corr |first8=Hugh F. J. |last9=Jordan |first9=Tom A. |title=Uplift and tilting of the Shackleton Range in East Antarctica driven by glacial erosion and normal faulting |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=March 2017 |volume=122 |issue=3 |pages=2390–2408 |doi=10.1002/2016JB013841 |bibcode=2017JGRB..122.2390P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Cenozoic geodynamics of the Ross Sea region, Antarctica: Crustal extension, intraplate strike-slip faulting, and tectonic inheritance|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|last1=Salvini|first1=Francesco|date=10 November 1997|doi=10.1029/97JB01643|display-authors=et al|volume=102|issue=B11|pages=24669–24696|bibcode=1997JGR...10224669S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Coal was first recorded in Antarctica near the [[Beardmore Glacier]] by [[Frank Wild]] on the [[Nimrod Expedition|''Nimrod'' Expedition]] in 1907, and low-grade coal is known to exist across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=124}} The [[Prince Charles Mountains]] contain deposits of [[iron ore]].<ref name="Sul">{{cite news |last1=Sullivan |first1=Walter |title=Soviet Team Finds a 'Mountain of Iron' in Antarctica |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/12/19/archives/soviet-team-finds-a-mountain-of-iron-in-antarctica.html |access-date=14 March 2022 |work=[[New York Times]] |date=19 December 1976 |archive-date=14 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314143021/https://www.nytimes.com/1976/12/19/archives/soviet-team-finds-a-mountain-of-iron-in-antarctica.html |url-status=live }}</ref> There are [[oil field|oil]] and [[natural gas field]]s in the Ross Sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1991/0597/report.pdf|title=The Undiscovered Oil and Gas of Antarctica|website=[[United States Geographical Survey]]|publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior]]|last1=Kingston|first1=John|date=1991|location=Santa Barbara, California|page=12|access-date=5 March 2022|archive-date=7 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107091439/https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1991/0597/report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Climate ==
{{Main|Climate of Antarctica}}
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 300
| header            = 
| footer            = 
| image1            = Fryxellsee Opt.jpg
| alt1              = Photograph of blue ice on water in the foreground, with a snowy mountain in the background
| caption1          = [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]
| image2            = AntarcticaSummer.jpg
| alt2              = Two men looking at a penguin on a sunny day
| caption2          = Temperate conditions near the coast in December
}}

Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, and driest of Earth's continents.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People"/> 
Near the coast, the temperature can exceed 10&nbsp;°C in summer and fall to below −40&nbsp;°C in winter. Over the elevated inland, it can rise to about −30&nbsp;°C in summer but fall below −80&nbsp;°C in winter.

The lowest natural air temperature ever recorded on Earth was {{convert|−89.2|C|F|1|abbr=on}} at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=John|display-authors=et al|year=2009|title=Record low surface air temperature at Vostok station, Antarctica|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=114|issue=D24|pages=D24102|doi=10.1029/2009JD012104|bibcode=2009JGRD..11424102T|issn=2156-2202|doi-access=free}}</ref> A lower air temperature of {{convert|−94.7|C|F|1|abbr=on}} was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may have been influenced by ground temperatures and was not recorded at a height of {{convert|2|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} above the surface as required for official air temperature records.<ref name="Ric">{{cite news |last1=Rice |first1=Doyle |title=Antarctica records unofficial coldest temperature ever |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/weather/2013/12/10/antarctica-cold-record/3950019/ |access-date=20 February 2022 |work=[[USA Today]] |publisher=[[Gannett]] |date=10 December 2013 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207142824/https://www.usatoday.com/story/weather/2013/12/10/antarctica-cold-record/3950019/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/weather/|title=Antarctic Weather|website=[[Australian Antarctic Program]]|publisher=[[Government of Australia]]|date=18 February 2019|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=13 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113130703/https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/weather/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Antarctica is a [[polar desert]] with little [[precipitation]]; the continent receives an average equivalent to about {{convert|150|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} of water per year, mostly in the form of snow. The interior is dryer and receives less than {{convert|50|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} per year, whereas the coastal regions typically receive more than {{convert|200|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2019 |title=Antarctic weather |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/weather/ |access-date=2 April 2022 |website=Australian Antarctic Program |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113130703/https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/weather/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a few [[blue-ice area]]s, the wind and [[sublimation (phase transition)|sublimation]] remove more snow than is accumulated by precipitation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hui |first1=Fengming |last2=Ci |first2=Tianyu |last3=Cheng |first3=Xiao |last4=Scambo |first4=Ted A. |last5=Liu |first5=Yan |last6=Zhang |first6=Yanmei |last7=Chi |first7=Zhaohui |last8=Huang |first8=Huabing |last9=Wang |first9=Xianwei |last10=Wang |first10=Fang |last11=Zhao |first11=Chen |date=2014 |title=Mapping blue-ice areas in Antarctica using ETM+ and MODIS data |journal=Annals of Glaciology |language=en |volume=55 |issue=66 |pages=129–137 |doi=10.3189/2014AoG66A069 |bibcode=2014AnGla..55..129H |s2cid=22195720 |issn=0260-3055 |doi-access=free |hdl=1969.1/180875 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In the dry valleys, the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a barren and [[desiccation|desiccated]] landscape.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fountain |first1=Andrew G. |last2=Nylen |first2=Thomas H. |last3=Monaghan |first3=Andrew |last4=Basagic |first4=Hassan J. |last5=Bromwich |first5=David |title=Snow in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica |journal=International Journal of Climatology |date=April 2010 |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=633–642 |doi=10.1002/joc.1933 |bibcode=2010IJCli..30..633F }}</ref> Antarctica is colder than the [[Arctic]] region, as much of Antarctica is over {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level, where air temperatures are colder. The relative warmth of the [[Arctic Ocean]] is transferred through the [[Arctic sea ice]] and moderates temperatures in the Arctic region.{{Sfn|Rohli|Vega|2018|p=241}}

=== Regional differences ===

East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. [[Weather front]]s rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the centre cold and dry, with moderate wind speeds. Heavy snowfalls are common on the coastal portion of Antarctica, where snowfalls of up to {{cvt|1.22|m|in|0}} in 48 hours have been recorded. At the continent's edge, strong [[katabatic wind]]s off of the [[polar plateau]] often blow at [[Storm#Classification|storm force]]. During the summer, more [[solar radiation]] reaches the surface at the South Pole than at the [[equator]] because of the 24 hours of sunlight received there each day.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People"/>

== Climate change ==
[[File:20201210 Antarctica ice mass variation - NASA GRACE-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5| Antarctica's average ice mass loss since 2002 has been on the order of 100 billion metric tons per year.<ref name=NASA_AntarcticaIceSheets_202012>{{cite web |title=Facts / Vital signs / Ice Sheets / Antarctica Mass Variation Since 2002 |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/ice-sheets/ |website=climate.NASA.gov |publisher=NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209114245/https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/ice-sheets/ |archive-date=9 December 2020 |date=2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> (Time between NASA's [[GRACE and GRACE-FO|GRACE and GRACE Follow-On]] satellite projects caused gap in data.)]]

{{excerpt|Climate change in Antarctica}}

== Ozone depletion ==
{{Main|Ozone hole}}
[[File:NASA and NOAA Announce Ozone Hole is a Double Record Breaker.png|thumb|alt=Image of the ozone hole spanning almost all of Antarctica|Image of the largest [[Ozone depletion|hole in the ozone layer]] recorded, in September 2006]]
Scientists have studied the [[ozone layer]] in the [[atmosphere]] above Antarctica since the 1970s. In 1985, British scientists, working on data they had gathered at [[Halley Research Station]] on the [[Brunt Ice Shelf]], discovered a large area of low [[ozone]] concentration over Antarctica.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Douglass |first1=Anne R. |last2=Newman |first2=Paul A. |last3=Solomon |first3=Susan |date=1 July 2014 |title=The Antarctic ozone hole: An update |journal=[[Physics Today]] |publisher=[[American Institute of Physics]] |volume=67 |issue=7 |pages=42–48 |bibcode=2014PhT....67g..42D |doi=10.1063/PT.3.2449 |hdl=1721.1/99159 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="schiermeier2009">{{Cite journal|last1=Schiermeier|first1=Quirin|date=12 August 2009|title=Atmospheric science: Fixing the sky|journal=Nature|volume=460|issue=7257|pages=792–795|doi=10.1038/460792a|pmid=19675624|doi-access=free}}</ref> The 'ozone hole' covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2006;<ref name="Bates-2020">{{Cite web |last=Bates |first=Sofie |date=30 October 2020 |title=Large, Deep Antarctic Ozone Hole Persisting into November |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/large-deep-antarctic-ozone-hole-persisting-into-november |access-date=6 February 2021 |website=[[NASA]] |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031115924/http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/large-deep-antarctic-ozone-hole-persisting-into-november |url-status=dead }}</ref> the longest-lasting event occurred in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2021 |title=Record-breaking 2020 ozone hole closes |url=https://wmo.int/media/news/record-breaking-2020-ozone-hole-closes |access-date=6 February 2021 |website=[[World Meteorological Organization]] |language=en }}</ref> The depletion is caused by the [[atmospheric emissions|emission]] of [[chlorofluorocarbon]]s and halons into the atmosphere, which causes ozone to break down into other gases.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2017 |title=The Ozone Hole |url=https://www.bas.ac.uk/data/our-data/publication/the-ozone-layer/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304065222/https://www.bas.ac.uk/data/our-data/publication/the-ozone-layer/ |archive-date=4 March 2022 |access-date=7 May 2022 |website=British Antarctic Survey |language=en-GB}}</ref> The extreme cold conditions of Antarctica allow [[polar stratospheric cloud]]s to form. The clouds act as [[Catalysis|catalysts]] for chemical reactions, which eventually lead to the destruction of ozone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://csl.noaa.gov/assessments/ozone/2010/twentyquestions/Q10.pdf|publisher=NOAA|date=2010|access-date=2 April 2022|website=20 Questions: 2010 Update|title=Q10: Why has an "ozone hole" appeared over Antarctica when ozone-depleting substances are present throughout the stratosphere?|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423203609/https://csl.noaa.gov/assessments/ozone/2010/twentyquestions/Q10.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The 1987 [[Montreal Protocol]] has restricted the emissions of ozone-depleting substances. The ozone hole above Antarctica is predicted to slowly disappear; by the 2060s, levels of ozone are expected to have returned to values last recorded in the 1980s.<ref name="WMO">{{cite web |title=World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project—Report No. 58: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2018 |url=https://ozone.unep.org/sites/default/files/2019-05/SAP-2018-Assessment-report.pdf |access-date=20 February 2022 |website=Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP) |publisher=[[World Meteorological Organization]] |at=ES.3 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209040718/https://ozone.unep.org/sites/default/files/2019-05/SAP-2018-Assessment-report.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ozone depletion can cause a cooling of around {{convert|6|C-change}} in the [[stratosphere]]. The cooling strengthens the [[polar vortex]] and so prevents the outflow of the cold air near the South Pole, which in turn cools the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet. The peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are then subjected to higher temperatures, which accelerate the melting of the ice.<ref name="schiermeier2009"/> Models suggest that ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex effect may also account for the period of increasing sea ice extent, lasting from when observation started in the late 1970s until 2014. Since then, the coverage of Antarctic sea ice has decreased rapidly.<ref name="40Year">{{Cite journal |last1=Parkinson |first1=Claire L. |date=2019 |editor2= |title=A 40-y record reveals gradual Antarctic sea ice increases followed by decreases at rates far exceeding the rates seen in the Arctic |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=116 |issue=29 |pages=14414–14423 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11614414P |doi=10.1073/pnas.1906556116 |pmc=6642375 |pmid=31262810 |doi-access=free |editor1=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Eui-Seok |last2=Kim |first2=Seong-Joong |last3=Timmermann |first3=Axel |last4=Ha |first4=Kyung-Ja |last5=Lee |first5=Sang-Ki |last6=Stuecker |first6=Malte F. |last7=Rodgers |first7=Keith B. |last8=Lee |first8=Sun-Seon |last9=Huang |first9=Lei |title=Antarctic sea-ice expansion and Southern Ocean cooling linked to tropical variability |journal=Nature Climate Change |date=May 2022 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=461–468 |doi=10.1038/s41558-022-01339-z |bibcode=2022NatCC..12..461C |s2cid=248151959 |url=https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/40960 }}</ref>

== Biodiversity ==
{{See also|Antarctic realm|Antarctic microorganism|Wildlife of Antarctica}}
Most species in Antarctica seem to be the descendants of species that lived there millions of years ago. As such, they must have survived multiple [[glacial cycle]]s. The species survived the periods of extremely cold climate in [[Refugium (population biology)|isolated warmer areas]], such as those with [[Geothermal energy|geothermal heat]] or areas that remained ice-free throughout the colder climate.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Refuges of Antarctic diversity |last1=Convey |first1=Peter |last2=Biersma |first2=Elisabeth |last3=Casanova-Katny |first3=Angelica |last4=Maturana |first4=Claudia S. |editor1-last=Oliva |editor1-first=Marc |editor2-last=Ruiz Fernandez |editor2-first=Jesus |title=Past Antarctica: paleoclimatology and climate change |date=2020 |location=London |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-817925-3 |pages=182, 187–188}}</ref>

=== Animals ===

[[File:Kaiserpinguine mit Jungen.jpg|thumb|left|alt=penguins with young |[[Emperor penguin]]s with juveniles]]
Invertebrate life of Antarctica includes species of microscopic [[mite]]s such as ''[[Alaskozetes antarcticus]]'', [[lice]], [[Roundworm|nematodes]], [[tardigrade]]s, [[rotifer]]s, [[krill]] and [[springtail]]s. The few terrestrial invertebrates are limited to the sub-Antarctic islands.<ref>{{cite web |title=Land Animals of Antarctica |url=http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_antarctica/wildlife/land-animals/index.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007225336/http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_antarctica/wildlife/land_animals/index.php |archive-date=7 October 2008 |access-date=25 April 2017 |work=British Antarctic Survey |publisher=[[Natural Environment Research Council]]}}</ref> The flightless [[midge]] ''[[Belgica antarctica]]'', the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica, reaches {{convert|6|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in size.<ref>{{cite web|title=Antarctic Bestiary – Terrestrial Animals |url=http://www.units.muohio.edu/cryolab/education/antarcticbestiary_terrestrial.htm#Belgica|work=Laboratory for Ecophysiological Cryobiology |publisher=[[Miami University]]|access-date=22 October 2011|last1=Sandro|first1=Luke|last2=Constible|first2=Juanita|archive-date=4 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504002908/http://www.units.miamioh.edu/cryolab/education/antarcticbestiary_terrestrial.htm#Belgica |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Antarctic krill]], which congregates in large [[Shoaling and schooling|schools]], is the [[keystone species]] of the [[ecosystem]] of the Southern Ocean, being an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, [[squid]], [[Notothenioidei|icefish]], and many bird species, such as penguins and [[albatross]]es.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=114}} Some species of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on [[phytoplankton]]. Antarctic sea life includes [[penguin]]s, [[blue whale]]s, [[orca]]s, [[colossal squid]]s and [[fur seal]]s.<ref name="Anc" /> The [[Antarctic fur seal]] was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its [[Fur|pelt]] by [[Seal hunting|seal hunter]]s from the United States and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Stromberg|1991|page=247}}</ref> Leopard seals are [[apex predator]]s in the Antarctic ecosystem and migrate across the Southern Ocean in search of food.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Staniland |first1=Iain J. |last2=Ratcliffe |first2=Norman |last3=Trathan |first3=Philip N. |last4=Forcada |first4=Jaume |date=2018 |title=Long term movements and activity patterns of an Antarctic marine apex predator: The leopard seal |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=e0197767 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1397767S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0197767 |pmc=5988266 |pmid=29870541 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

There are approximately 40 bird species that breed on or close to Antarctica, including species of [[petrel]]s, [[penguins]], [[cormorants]], and [[gulls]]. Various other bird species visit the ocean around Antarctica, including some that normally reside in the Arctic.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Woods |first1=R. |last2=Jones |first2=H. I. |last3=Watts |first3=J. |last4=Miller |first4=G. D. |last5=Shellam |first5=G. R. |title=Health of Antarctic Wildlife |chapter=Diseases of Antarctic Seabirds |date=2009 |pages=35–55 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-93923-8_3 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-93922-1 |language=en}}</ref> The [[emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica; it and the [[Adélie penguin]] breed farther south than any other penguin.<ref name="Anc">{{cite journal |last1=Ancel |first1=André |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Michaël |last3=Gilbert |first3=Caroline |title=The different breeding strategies of penguins: A review |journal=Comptes Rendus Biologies |date=January 2013 |volume=336 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2013.02.002 |pmid=23537764 |url=https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/biologies/articles/10.1016/j.crvi.2013.02.002/ }}</ref>

A [[Census of Marine Life]] by some 500 researchers during the [[International Polar Year]] was released in 2010. The research found that more than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of {{convert|12000|km|0|abbr=on}}. Large animals such as some [[cetacean]]s and birds make the round trip annually. Smaller forms of life, such as [[sea cucumbers]] and [[Pteropoda|free-swimming snails]], are also found in both polar oceans. Factors that may aid in their distribution include temperature differences between the deep ocean at the poles and the equator of no more than {{convert|5|C-change|0}} and the major current systems or marine conveyor belts which are able to transport eggs and [[larva]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kinver |first=Mark |date=15 February 2009 |title=Ice oceans 'are not poles apart' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7888558.stm |access-date=22 October 2011|archive-date=16 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416235703/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7888558.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Fungi ===

[[File:Islas Yalour 7, líquen.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=lichen photographed in Antarctica |An orange lichen (perhaps ''[[Caloplaca]]'') growing on the [[Yalour Islands]], [[Wilhelm Archipelago]]]]
About 1,150 species of [[Fungus|fungi]] have been recorded in the Antarctic region, of which about 750 are non-[[lichen]]-forming.<ref name="basplants">{{cite web |title=Plants of Antarctica |url=http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_antarctica/wildlife/plants/index.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607115623/http://www.antarctica.ac.uk//about_antarctica/wildlife/plants/index.php |archive-date=7 June 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011 |website=British Antarctic Survey |publisher=Natural Environment Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bridge|first1=Paul D.|last2=Spooner|first2=Brian M.|author-link2=Brian Spooner (mycologist)|author3=Roberts, Peter J. |date=2008|title=Non-lichenized fungi from the Antarctic region|journal=Mycotaxon|volume=106|pages=485–490 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0106/0485.htm|access-date=22 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811210358/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0106/0485.htm|archive-date=11 August 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some of the species, having evolved under extreme conditions, have [[endolith|colonised structural cavities within porous rocks]] and have contributed to shaping the rock formations of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and surrounding mountain ridges.<ref name="Selbmann" />

The simplified [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] of such fungi, along with their similar [[Structure#Biological|biological structures]], [[metabolism system]]s capable of remaining active at very low temperatures, and reduced life cycles, make them well suited to such environments. Their thick-walled and strongly [[Melanin|melanised]] cells make them resistant to [[Ultraviolet|UV]] radiation.<ref name="Selbmann" /> An Antarctic [[endemism|endemic]] species, the [[crustose lichen|crust-like]] lichen ''[[Buellia frigida]]'', has been used as a [[model organism]] in [[astrobiology]] research.<ref name="Backhaus, Meeßen et al. 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Backhaus |first1=Theresa |last2=Meeßen |first2=Joachim |last3=Demets |first3=René |last4=de Vera |first4=Jean-Pierre |last5=Ott |first5=Sieglinde |title=Characterization of viability of the lichen ''Buellia frigida'' after 1.5 years in space on the International Space Station |journal=Astrobiology |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=2019 |doi=10.1089/ast.2018.1894 |pages=233–241|pmid=30742495 |bibcode=2019AsBio..19..233B |s2cid=73420634 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The same features can be observed in algae and [[cyanobacteria]], suggesting that they are [[adaptation]]s to the conditions prevailing in Antarctica. This has led to speculation that [[life on Mars]] might have been similar to Antarctic fungi, such as ''[[Cryomyces antarcticus]]'' and ''[[Cryomyces minteri]]''.<ref name="Selbmann">{{Cite journal |author1=Selbmann, L |author2=de Hoog, G S |author3=Mazzaglia, A |last4=Friedmann |first4=E. I. |author-link4=Imre Friedmann |author5=Onofri, S |year=2005 |title=Fungi at the edge of life: cryptoendolithic black fungi from Antarctic desert |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=51 |pages=1–32 |url=https://wi.knaw.nl/images/ResearchGroups/Publications/2005Selbmann0001.pdf |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429172010/https://wi.knaw.nl/images/ResearchGroups/Publications/2005Selbmann0001.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some of the species of fungi, which are apparently endemic to Antarctica, live in bird dung, and have evolved so they can grow inside extremely cold dung, but can also pass through the intestines of warm-blooded animals.{{sfn|de Hoog|2005|p=vii}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Diversity and bioprospecting of fungal communities associated with endemic and cold-adapted macroalgae in Antarctica|journal=[[The ISME Journal]]|last1=Godinho|first1=Valeria M.|date=July 2013|volume=7|issue=7|pages=1434–1451|publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]]|doi=10.1038/ismej.2013.77|pmid=23702515|pmc=3695302|bibcode=2013ISMEJ...7.1434G }}</ref>

=== Plants ===
{{Main|Flora of Antarctica}}
{{further|Flora Antarctica}}

Throughout its history, Antarctica has seen a wide variety of plant life. In the [[Cretaceous]], it was dominated by a fern-[[conifer]] ecosystem, which changed into a temperate [[rainforest]] by the end of that period. During the colder [[Neogene]] (17–2.5&nbsp;Ma), a [[tundra]] ecosystem replaced the rainforests. The climate of present-day Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rees-Owen |first1=Rhian L. |last2=Gill |first2=Fiona L. |last3=Newton |first3=Robert J. |last4=Ivanović |first4=Ruza F. |last5=Francis |first5=Jane E. |last6=Riding |first6=James B. |last7=Vane |first7=Christopher H. |last8=Lopes dos Santos |first8=Raquel A. |date=2018 |title=The last forests on Antarctica: Reconstructing flora and temperature from the Neogene Sirius Group, Transantarctic Mountains |journal=Organic Geochemistry |language=en |volume=118 |pages=4–14 |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2018.01.001 |bibcode=2018OrGeo.118....4R |s2cid=46651929 |issn=0146-6380 |doi-access=free |hdl=10023/12701 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A combination of freezing temperatures, poor [[soil quality]], and a lack of moisture and sunlight inhibit plant growth, causing low [[species diversity]] and limited distribution. The [[flora]] largely consists of [[bryophyte]]s (25 species of [[Marchantiophyta|liverworts]] and 100 species of [[moss]]es). There are three species of [[flowering plant]]s, all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula: ''[[Deschampsia antarctica]]'' (Antarctic hair grass), ''[[Colobanthus quitensis]]'' (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native ''[[Poa annua]]'' (annual bluegrass).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chwedorzewska |first1=K.J. |last2=Giełwanowska |first2=I. |last3=Olech |first3=M. |last4=Molina-Montenegro |first4=M.A. |last5=Wódkiewicz |first5=M. |last6=Galera |first6=H. |title=Poa annua L. in the maritime Antarctic: an overview |journal=Polar Record |date=November 2015 |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=637–643 |doi=10.1017/S0032247414000916 |bibcode=2015PoRec..51..637C |s2cid=84747627 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Other organisms ===

Of the 700 species of algae in Antarctica, around half are marine [[phytoplankton]]. Multicoloured [[snow algae]] are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Algae |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/plants/algae/ |access-date=24 April 2022 |website=[[Australian Antarctic Program]] |publisher=[[Government of Australia]] |language=en |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819181845/https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/plants/algae/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Even [[sea ice]] can harbour unique ecological communities, as it expels all salt from the water when it freezes, which accumulates into pockets of [[brine]] that also harbour dormant microorganisms. When the ice begins to melt, brine pockets expand and can combine to form brine channels, and the [[algae]] inside the pockets can reawaken and thrive until the next freeze.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morawetz |first1=Klaus |last2=Thoms |first2=Silke |last3=Kutschan |first3=Bernd |date=3 March 2017 |title=Formation of brine channels in sea ice |journal=The European Physical Journal E |language=en |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=25 |doi=10.1140/epje/i2017-11512-x |pmid=28255919 |arxiv=1406.5031 |s2cid=3759495 |issn=1292-895X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=kazilek |date=15 July 2014 |title=Brine Channels |url=https://askabiologist.asu.edu/brine-channels |access-date=25 June 2022 |website=askabiologist.asu.edu |language=en}}</ref>  Bacteria have also been found as deep as {{convert|800|m|mi|abbr=on}} under the ice.<ref name="NYT-20130206">{{cite news |last=Gorman |first=James |title=Bacteria Found Deep Under Antarctic Ice, Scientists Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/07/science/living-bacteria-found-deep-under-antarctic-ice-scientists-say.html |date=6 February 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=6 February 2013 |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/07/science/living-bacteria-found-deep-under-antarctic-ice-scientists-say.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is thought to be likely that there exists a native bacterial community within the subterranean water body of [[Lake Vostok]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Microbiology of the subglacial Lake Vostok: first results of borehole-frozen lake water analysis and prospects for searching for lake inhabitants|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|publisher=[[The Royal Society]]|date=28 January 2016|last1=Bulat|first1=Sergey A. |doi=10.1098/rsta.2014.0292 |volume=374 |issue=2059 |at=Abstract |pmid=26667905 |bibcode=2016RSPTA.37440292B |s2cid=8399775 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The existence of life there is thought to strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on [[Jupiter]]'s moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], which may have water beneath its water-ice crust.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raha |first1=Bipasa |title=The Search for Earth-Like Habitable Planet: Antarctica Lake Vostok May be Jupiter's Europa |journal=Science and Culture |date=2013 |issue=79 |pages=120–122 |issn=0036-8156 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260246127 |access-date=20 February 2022 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402184107/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260246127_The_Search_for_Earth-Like_Habitable_Planet_Antarctica_Lake_Vostok_May_be_Jupiter%27s_Europa |url-status=live }}</ref> There exists a community of [[extremophile]] bacteria in the highly [[alkali]]ne waters of [[Lake Untersee]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Source Environments of the Microbiome in Perennially Ice-Covered Lake Untersee, Antarctica|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|date=10 May 2019|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2019.01019|editor=Pierre Amato |last1=Weisleitner|first1=Klemens|volume=10|page=1019|pmid=31134036|pmc=6524460|display-authors=et al|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |pages=25–26|title=Psychrophilic and Psychrotolerant Microbial Extremophiles in Polar Environments |section=5.4: Microbial Extremophiles from Lake Untersee |last1=Hoover |first1=Richard Brice |last2=Pikuta |first2=Elena V. |date=January 2010 |access-date=30 January 2022 |publisher=[[NASA]] |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100002095/downloads/20100002095.pdf |archive-date=30 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130082402/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100002095/downloads/20100002095.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The prevalence of highly resilient creatures in such inhospitable areas could further bolster the argument for [[extraterrestrial life]] in cold, [[methane]]-rich environments.<ref name="NASA-CloroxLake">{{cite web |last1=Coulter |first1=Dana |editor=Tony Phillips |title=Extremophile Hunt Begins |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/07feb_cloroxlake.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323002712/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/07feb_cloroxlake.htm |archive-date=23 March 2010 |access-date=22 October 2011 |work=Science News |publisher=NASA}}</ref>

=== Conservation and environmental protection ===

[[File:Antarctica, pollution, environment, Russia, Bellingshausen 1.JPG|thumb|left|alt=photograph of refuse on an island in Antarctica |Refuse littering the shoreline at [[Bellingshausen Station]] on [[King George Island (South Shetland Islands)|King George]] Island, photographed in 1992]]
The [[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora|first international agreement to protect Antarctica's biodiversity]] was adopted in 1964.<ref name="Wauchope-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Wauchope |first1=Hannah S. |last2=Shaw |first2=Justine D. |last3=Terauds |first3=Aleks |date=2019 |title=A snapshot of biodiversity protection in Antarctica |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=946 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-08915-6 |pmid=30808907 |pmc=6391489 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10..946W |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> The [[overfishing]] of [[krill]] (an animal that plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem) led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]], an international treaty that came into force in 1980, regulates fisheries, aiming to preserve ecological relationships.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People" /> Despite these regulations, [[illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing|illegal fishing]]—particularly of the highly prized [[Patagonian toothfish]] which is marketed as Chilean sea bass in the U.S.—remains a problem.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ccamlr.org/en/fisheries/toothfish-fisheries |website=[[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]]|title=Toothfish fisheries|date=2 July 2021 |access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=24 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224111026/https://www.ccamlr.org/en/fisheries/toothfish-fisheries|url-status=live}}</ref>

In analogy to the 1980 treaty on [[Sustainable fishery|sustainable fishing]], countries led by New Zealand and the United States negotiated a treaty on mining. This [[Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources|Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities]] was adopted in 1988. After a strong campaign from environmental organisations, first Australia and then France decided not to ratify the treaty.{{Sfn|Day|2019|loc=The Antarctic Treaty of 1959}} Instead, countries adopted the [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] (the Madrid Protocol), which entered into force in 1998.<ref name="AUgovAntartica-Madrid">{{cite web |title=The Madrid Protocol |date=17 May 2019 |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/law-and-treaty/the-madrid-protocol/ |access-date=20 February 2022 |publisher=Australian Antarctic Division |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815120424/https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/law-and-treaty/the-madrid-protocol/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Madrid Protocol bans all mining, designating the continent as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science".<ref>{{cite web |date=17 May 2019 |title=Protocol on Environmental Protection To The Antarctic Treaty (The Madrid Protocol) |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/law-and-treaty/the-madrid-protocol/ |access-date=8 February 2021 |website=Australian Antarctic Programme |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815120424/https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/law-and-treaty/the-madrid-protocol/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Wilhelmina Bay Antarctica Humpback Whale 6 (46421727295).jpg|thumb|left|alt=photograph of a whale in the Southern Ocean |A whale in the [[Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary]]]]
The pressure group [[Greenpeace]] established [[World Park Base|a base on Ross Island]] from 1987 to 1992 as part of its attempt to establish the continent as a [[Transboundary protected area|World Park]].<ref>{{cite news |date=November 1992 |title=Now you see it now you don't! |volume=82 |page=5 |work=ECO |issue=3 |location= |url=https://www.asoc.org/storage/documents/ECOs/1992/lxxxii.3_atcm.pdf |access-date=20 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220201352/https://www.asoc.org/storage/documents/ECOs/1992/lxxxii.3_atcm.pdf|archive-date=20 February 2022}}</ref> The [[Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary]] was established in 1994 by the [[International Whaling Commission]]. It covers {{convert|50|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} and completely surrounds the Antarctic continent. All [[commercial whaling]] is banned in the zone, though Japan has continued to hunt whales in the area, ostensibly for research purposes.<ref name="ASOC">{{cite web |title=Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary |url=https://www.asoc.org/advocacy/wildlife-conservation/southern-ocean-whale-sanctuary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113124807/https://www.asoc.org/advocacy/wildlife-conservation/southern-ocean-whale-sanctuary |archive-date=13 January 2022 |access-date=13 January 2022 |website=Antarctic and Southern Coalition}}</ref>

Despite these protections, the biodiversity in Antarctica is still at risk from human activities. [[Antarctic Specially Protected Area|Specially protected areas]] cover less than 2% of the area and provide better protection for [[Charismatic species|animals with popular appeal]] than for less visible animals.<ref name="Wauchope-2019" /> There are more terrestrial protected areas than [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Coetzee |first1=Bernard W.T. |last2=Convey |first2=Peter |last3=Chown |first3=Steven L. |date=2017 |title=Expanding the Protected Area Network in Antarctica is Urgent and Readily Achievable: Expanding Antarctica's protected areas |journal=Conservation Letters |language=en |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=670–680 |doi=10.1111/conl.12342 |s2cid=89943276 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Ecosystems are impacted by local and global threats, notably [[pollution]], the [[Invasive species|invasion of non-native species]], and the various [[Climate change in Antarctica|effects of climate change]].<ref name="Wauchope-2019" />

== History of exploration ==
{{Main|History of Antarctica|Colonization of Antarctica}}
{{See also|List of Antarctic expeditions|Women in Antarctica|List of polar explorers}}
Early world maps, like the [[Piri Reis map|1513 Piri Reis map]], feature the hypothetical continent ''[[Terra Australis]]''. Much larger than and unrelated to Antarctica, ''Terra Australis'' was a landmass that [[Classical antiquity|classical]] scholars presumed necessary to balance the known lands in the northern hemisphere.<ref>{{cite book |last=McIntosh |first=Gregory C. |title=The Piri Reis Map of 1513 |year=2000 |publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]] |location=[[Athens, Georgia|Athens]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] |isbn=9780820343594 |url=https://archive.org/details/gregory-c.-mc-intosh-the-piri-reis-map-of-1513}}</ref>

[[James Cook|Captain James Cook]]'s ships, {{HMS|Resolution|1771|6}} and {{HMS|Adventure|1771|2}}, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773, and again in January 1774.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|2007|p=296}} Cook came within about {{convert|75|mi|km|order=flip|-1|abbr=on}} of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of [[field ice]] in January 1773.{{sfn|Edwards|1999|p=250}} In 1775, he called the existence of a polar continent "probable," and in another copy of his [[General journal|journal]] he wrote: "[I] firmly believe it and it's more than probable that we have seen a part of it".{{sfn|Beaglehole|1968|p=643}}

=== 19th century ===

[[File:Atlas pittoresque pl 169.jpg|thumb|alt=picture of Adélie Land in 1840 |[[Adélie Land]], depicted by [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]] in his ''Voyage au Pôle Sud'' (1846)]]
[[Seal hunting|Sealers]] were among the earliest to go closer to the Antarctic landmass, perhaps in the earlier part of the 19th century. The oldest known human remains in the Antarctic region was a skull, dated from 1819 to 1825, that belonged to a young woman on [[Yamana Beach]] at the [[South Shetland Islands]]. The woman, who was likely to have been part of a [[Seal hunting|sealing]] expedition, was found in 1985.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Henriques |first1=Martha |date=22 October 2018 |title=The bones that could shape Antarctica's fate |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20181019-the-bones-that-could-shape-antarcticas-future |website=BBC Future |access-date=22 July 2021 |archive-date=22 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722120344/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20181019-the-bones-that-could-shape-antarcticas-future |url-status=live }}</ref>

The first person to see Antarctica or its ice shelf was long thought to have been the British sailor [[Edward Bransfield]], a captain in the [[Royal Navy]], who discovered the tip of the Antarctic peninsula on 30 January 1820. However, a captain in the [[Imperial Russian Navy]], [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]], recorded seeing an ice shelf on 27 January.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=39}} The American sealer [[Nathaniel Palmer]], whose sealing ship was in the region at this time, may also have been the first to sight the Antarctic Peninsula.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=139}}

The [[First Russian Antarctic Expedition]], led by Bellingshausen and [[Mikhail Lazarev]] on the 985-ton [[sloop-of-war]] [[Vostok (sloop-of-war)|''Vostok'']] and the 530-ton support vessel [[Mirny (sloop-of-war)|''Mirny'']], reached a point within {{convert|32|km|mi|abbr=on}} of [[Queen Maud's Land|Queen Maud Land]] and recorded sighting an ice shelf at {{coord|69|21|28|S|2|14|50|W|}},<ref name="Tam">{{cite news |last1=Tammiksaar |first1=Erki |title=Punane Bellingshausen |trans-title=Red Bellingshausen |url=https://leht.postimees.ee/2631146/punane-bellingshausen |work=[[Postimees]] |date=14 December 2013 |page= |url-access=subscription |language=et |access-date=13 February 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213153336/https://leht.postimees.ee/2631146/punane-bellingshausen |url-status=live }}</ref> on 27 January 1820.<ref>{{cite journal | date= September 1971 | title= Bellingshausen and the discovery of Antarctica| journal= Polar Record | volume= 15 | issue= 99 | pages= 887–889 | doi= 10.1017/S0032247400062112 | last1= Armstrong | first1= Terence E.| bibcode= 1971PoRec..15..887A| s2cid= 129664580|author-link1=Terence Edward Armstrong}}</ref>{{refn|1=The feature discovered by the Russians was the [[Fimbul Ice Shelf|Fimbul ice shelf]].|group=note}} The sighting happened three days before Bransfield sighted the land of the [[Trinity Peninsula]] of Antarctica, as opposed to the ice of an ice shelf, and 10 months before Palmer did so in November 1820. The first documented landing on Antarctica was by the English-born American sealer [[John Davis (sealer)|John Davis]], apparently at [[Hughes Bay]] on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim, as there is no evidence Davis landed on the Antarctic continent rather than an offshore island.<ref>{{harvnb|p=133|Baughmann|1994}}</ref>{{sfn|Joyner|1992|p=5}}

On 22 January 1840, two days after the discovery of the coast west of the [[Balleny Islands]], some members of the crew of the 1837{{ndash}}1840 expedition of the French explorer [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]] disembarked on the [[Dumoulin Islands]], off the coast of Adélie Land, where they took some mineral, algae, and animal samples, erected the French flag, and claimed French [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|sovereignty over the territory]].{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=67}} The American captain [[Charles Wilkes]] led an expedition in 1838–1839 and was the first to claim he had discovered the continent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tammiksaar |first1=E. |title=The Russian Antarctic Expedition under the command of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and its reception in Russia and the world |journal=Polar Record |date=September 2016 |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=578–600 |doi=10.1017/S0032247416000449 |bibcode=2016PoRec..52..578T |s2cid=132425113 }}</ref> The British naval officer [[James Clark Ross]] failed to realise that what he referred to as "the various patches of land recently discovered by the American, French and English navigators on the verge of the Antarctic Circle" were connected to form a single continent.{{sfn|Cawley|2015|p=131}}{{sfn|Ainsworth|1847 || p=479}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hobbs |first=William H. |date=October 1932 |title=Wilkes Land Rediscovered |journal=Geographical Review |volume=22 |issue=4 |page=640 |doi=10.2307/208819 |jstor=208819 |bibcode=1932GeoRv..22..632H }}</ref>{{refn|1=Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named after him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the [[Ross Ice Shelf]].{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=154}} [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] are named after two ships from his expedition: {{HMS|Erebus|1826|6}} and {{HMS|Terror|1813|2}}.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|pp=154, 185}}|group=note}} The American explorer [[Mercator Cooper]] landed on East Antarctica on 26 January 1853.{{sfn|Day|2013|p=88}}

The first confirmed landing on the continental mass of Antarctica occurred in 1895 when the Norwegian-Swedish [[whaling]] ship [[Antarctic (ship)|''Antarctic'']] reached [[Cape Adare]].<ref>{{harvnb|p=85|Pyne|2017}}</ref>

=== 20th century ===

[[File:TheSouthernParty (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Shackleton and other explorers in Antarctica| The [[Nimrod Expedition|''Nimrod'' Expedition]] of 1907–1909 (''left to right''): [[Frank Wild]], [[Ernest Shackleton]], [[Eric Marshall]] and [[Jameson Adams]]]]
During the ''Nimrod'' Expedition led by the British explorer [[Ernest Shackleton]] in 1907, parties led by [[Edgeworth David]] became the first to climb [[Mount Erebus]] and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole|south magnetic pole]]. [[Douglas Mawson]], who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party on their perilous return, retired in 1931.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tannatt William Edgeworth David |publisher=Australian Antarctic Division |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/history/people/tannatt-edgeworth-david/ |access-date=27 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929041848/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/history/people-of-antarctic-history/tannatt-edgeworth-david |archive-date=29 September 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Between December 1908 and February 1909: Shackleton and three members of his expedition became the first humans to traverse the [[Ross Ice Shelf]], the first to cross the Transantarctic Mountains (via the Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the [[south Polar Plateau]]. On 14 December 1911, [[Amundsen's South Pole expedition|an expedition]] led by Norwegian explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''[[Fram (ship)|Fram]]'' became the first to reach the geographic South Pole, using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] and up the [[Axel Heiberg Glacier]].{{sfn|Riffenburgh|2007|pp=30{{ndash}}32}} One month later, the doomed [[Terra Nova Expedition|''Terra Nova'' Expedition]] reached the pole.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=159}}

The American explorer [[Richard E. Byrd]] led four expeditions to Antarctica during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, using the first mechanised [[Transport in Antarctica|tractors]]. His expeditions conducted extensive geographical and scientific research, and he is credited with surveying a larger region of the continent than any other explorer.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=44}} In 1937, [[Ingrid Christensen]] became the first woman to step onto the Antarctic mainland.<ref name="Bla">{{cite web |last1=Blackadder |first1=Jesse |author1-link=Jesse Blackadder |title=The first woman in Antarctica |url=http://www.antarctica.gov.au/magazine/2011-2015/issue-23-december-2012/antarctic-arts-fellowship/the-first-woman-in-antarctica |website=Australian Antarctic Program |publisher=[[Australian Antarctic Division]] |access-date=27 June 2016 |date=December 2012 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413074855/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/magazine/2011-2015/issue-23-december-2012/antarctic-arts-fellowship/the-first-woman-in-antarctica |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Caroline Mikkelsen]] had landed on an island of Antarctica, earlier in 1935.<ref name="Cam">{{cite journal |last1=Norman |first1=F. I. |last2=Gibson |first2=J. A. E. |last3=Burgess |first3=J. S. |title=Klarius Mikkelsen's 1935 landing in the Vestfold Hills, East Antarctica: some fiction and some facts |journal=Polar Record |date=October 1998 |volume=34 |issue=191 |pages=293–304 |doi=10.1017/S0032247400025985 |bibcode=1998PoRec..34..293N |s2cid=131433193 }}</ref>

The South Pole was next reached on 31 October 1956, when a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral [[George J. Dufek]] successfully landed an aircraft there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm |title=Dates in American Naval History: October |work=Naval History and Heritage Command |publisher=United States Navy |access-date=12 February 2006 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20040626080052/http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm |archive-date=26 June 2004 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Six women were flown to the South Pole as a publicity stunt in 1969.<ref name="Roy" />{{refn|1=The women were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, [[Lois Jones (scientist)|Lois Jones]], [[Eileen McSaveney]], [[Kay Lindsay]] and [[Terry Tickhill]].<ref name="Roy">{{cite web |title=Pamela Young |url=https://www.royalsociety.org.nz/150th-anniversary/150-women-in-150-words/1968-2017/pamela-young/ |publisher=[[Royal Society Te Apārangi]] |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221124451/https://www.royalsociety.org.nz/150th-anniversary/150-women-in-150-words/1968-2017/pamela-young/ |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=note}} In the summer of 1996{{ndash}}1997, Norwegian explorer [[Børge Ousland]] became the first person to cross Antarctica alone from coast to coast, helped by a kite on parts of the journey.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2013/dec/13/borge-ousland-how-i-crossed-antarctica|title=Børge Ousland: How I crossed Antarctica alone|last=Ousland|first=Børge|author-link1=Børge Ousland|date=13 December 2013|work=The Guardian|access-date=30 December 2018|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010224616/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2013/dec/13/borge-ousland-how-i-crossed-antarctica|url-status=live}}</ref> Ousland holds the record for the fastest unsupported journey to the South Pole, taking 34 days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-unsupported-%28kite-assisted%29-journey-to-the-south-pole|title=Fastest unsupported (kite assisted) journey to the South Pole taking just 34 days|website=Guinness World Records|access-date=30 December 2018|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225021710/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-unsupported-(kite-assisted)-journey-to-the-south-pole|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Population ==
{{main|Demographics of Antarctica|Religion in Antarctica}}
The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the [[Antarctic Convergence]]) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]], from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of the island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion from Britain.{{sfn|Headland|1984|p=238}}{{refn|1=The first settlements included [[Grytviken]], [[Leith Harbour]], [[King Edward Point]], [[Stromness, South Georgia|Stromness]], [[Husvik]], [[Prince Olav Harbour]], [[Ocean Harbour]] and [[Godthul]]. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain [[Carl Anton Larsen]], a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910.{{sfn|Headland|1984|p=238}}|group=note}}

[[File:AmundsenScottSuedpolStation.jpg|thumb|alt=photograph of the South Pole research station |left|The "ceremonial" [[South Pole#Ceremonial South Pole|South Pole]], at [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station|Amundsen–Scott Station]]]]
Antarctica's population consists mostly of the staff of [[Research stations in Antarctica|research stations]] in Antarctica (which are continuously maintained despite the population decline in the winter), although there are 2 all-civilian bases in Antarctica: the [[Esperanza Base]] and the [[Villa Las Estrellas|Villa Las Estrellas base]].<ref name="Nat">{{cite web |title=Antarctica |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/antarctica/ |website=Resource Library |publisher=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=31 August 2020 |date=4 January 2012 |archive-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302011100/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/antarctica/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,200 in winter to about 4,800 in the summer, with an additional 136 people in the winter to 266 people in the summer from the 2 civilian bases (as of 2017). Some of the [[research station]]s are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. The [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] [[Trinity Church (Antarctica)|Holy Trinity Church]] at the [[Bellingshausen Station]] on [[King George Island (South Shetland Islands)|King George Island]] opened in 2004; it is manned year-round by one or two [[priest]]s, who are similarly rotated every year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spc.rs/eng/flock_antarcticas_orthodox_temple_celebrates_holy_trinity_day|title=Flock of Antarctica's Orthodox temple celebrates Holy Trinity Day|publisher=Serbian Orthodox Church|date=24 May 2004|access-date=7 February 2009|archive-date=26 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826083133/http://www.spc.rs/eng/flock_antarcticas_orthodox_temple_celebrates_holy_trinity_day|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pravoslavye.org.ua/index.php?action=fullinfo&r_type=&id=22495|script-title=ru:Владимир Петраков: 'Антарктика – это особая атмосфера, где живут очень интересные люди'|language=ru|trans-title=Vladimir Petrakov: "Antarctic is a special world, full of very interesting people"|website=Pravoslavye|date=28 April 2021|access-date=28 February 2009|archive-date=16 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716052654/http://pravoslavye.org.ua/index.php?action=fullinfo&r_type=&id=22495|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first child born in the southern polar region was a Norwegian girl, [[Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen]], born in [[Grytviken]] on 8 October 1913.{{sfn|Headland |1984|pp=12, 130}} [[Emilio Marcos Palma]] was the first person born south of the [[60th parallel south]] and the first to be born on the Antarctic mainland at the Esperanza Base of the Argentine Army.<ref>{{harvnb|Russell|1986|p=17}}</ref>

The [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] prohibits any [[Military activity in the Antarctic|military activity in Antarctica]], including the establishment of military bases and fortifications, military manoeuvres, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scar.org/treaty/|title=''Antarctic Treaty''|publisher=[[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research]]|access-date=9 February 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060206193457/http://www.scar.org/treaty/|archive-date=6 February 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Operación 90|Operation 90]] by the [[Military of Argentina|Argentine military]] in 1965 was conducted to strengthen Argentina's claim in Antarctica.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM |title=Argentina in Antarctica |publisher=[[Antarctica Institute of Argentina]] |access-date=9 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060306211514/http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM |archive-date=6 March 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2023}}

== Politics ==
[[File:Senate 1960-img1.jpg|thumb|alt=photograph of the US signing the Antarctic Treaty |The U.S. delegate [[Herman Phleger]] signs the [[Antarctic Treaty]] in December 1959.]]

Antarctica's status is regulated by the 1959 [[Antarctic Treaty]] and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People" /> The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the [[Soviet Union]], the United Kingdom, Argentina, [[Chile]], Australia, and the United States. Since 1959, a further 42 countries have [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties#Signature, ratification and accession|acceded]] to the treaty. Countries can participate in decision-making if they can demonstrate that they do significant research on Antarctica; {{As of|2022|lc=y}}, 29 countries have this 'consultative status'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parties |url=https://www.ats.aq/devAS/Parties?lang=e |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223060031/https://www.ats.aq/devAS/Parties?lang=e |archive-date=23 February 2022 |access-date=2 April 2022 |website=Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty}}</ref> Decisions are based on [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]], instead of a [[Voting|vote]]. The treaty set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yermakova |first=Yelena |date=3 July 2021 |title=Legitimacy of the Antarctic Treaty System: is it time for a reform? |journal=The Polar Journal |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=342–359 |doi=10.1080/2154896X.2021.1977048 |s2cid=239218549 |doi-access=free |hdl=10852/93248 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>M. Wright, Note, "The Ownership of Antarctica, its Living and Mineral Resources", ''Journal of Law and the Environment'' Vol. 4, 1987.</ref>

=== Territorial claims ===
{{Main|Territorial claims in Antarctica}}
[[File:Governorate of Terra Australis (1539-1555), Spain.svg|thumb|Map of the Spanish [[Governorate of Terra Australis]] (1539–1555), the first territorial claim over the lands near the South Pole; later it was incorporated into the [[Governorate of Chile]].]]
In 1539, the [[Monarchy of Spain|King of Spain]], [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], created the [[Governorate of Terra Australis]], which encompassed lands south of the [[Strait of Magellan]] and thus theoretically Antarctica, the existence of which was only hypothesized at the time,<ref name=Oscar>{{cite book |author1=Pinochet de la Barra, Óscar |title=La Antártica Chilena |date=November 1944 |publisher=Editorial Andrés Bello}}</ref> granting this Governorate to [[Pedro Sancho de la Hoz]],<ref>{{cite web |author1=Calamari, Andrea |title=El conjurado que gobernó la Antártida |url=https://www.jotdown.es/2022/06/el-conjurado-que-goberno-la-antartida/ |publisher=Jot Down |language=es |date=June 2022 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171548/https://www.jotdown.es/2022/06/el-conjurado-que-goberno-la-antartida/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pedro Sancho de la Hoz |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/7380/pedro-sancho-de-la-hoz |publisher=Real Academia de la Historia |access-date=25 August 2022 |language=es |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171823/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/7380/pedro-sancho-de-la-hoz |url-status=live }}</ref> who in 1540 transferred the title to the conquistador [[Pedro de Valdivia]].<ref>{{cite web |title=1544 |url=http://www.biografiadechile.cl/detalle.php?IdContenido=827&IdCategoria=40&IdArea=191&status=S&TituloPagina=Historia%20de%20Chile&pos=30 |publisher=Biografía de Chile |language=es |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819190503/http://www.biografiadechile.cl/detalle.php?IdContenido=827&IdCategoria=40&IdArea=191&status=S&TituloPagina=Historia%20de%20Chile&pos=30 |url-status=live }}</ref> Spain claimed all the territories to the south of the Strait of Magellan until the [[South Pole]], with eastern and western borders to these claims specified in the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] and [[Treaty of Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] respectively. In 1555 the claim was incorporated to [[Kingdom of Chile|Chile]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Francisco Orrego Vicuña |author2=Augusto Salinas Araya |title=Desarrollo de la Antártica |date=1977 |publisher=Instituto de Estudios Internacionales, Universidad de Chile; Editorial Universitaria. |location=[[Santiago de Chile]] |url=https://libros.uchile.cl/files/presses/1/monographs/328/submission/proof/38/ |language=es |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819190501/https://libros.uchile.cl/files/presses/1/monographs/328/submission/proof/38/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the present, sovereignty over regions of Antarctica is claimed by seven countries.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People" /> While a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims,{{sfn|Von Tigerstrom|Leane|2005|p=204}} the validity of the claims is not recognised universally.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People" /> New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959, although in 2015, Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rapp |first1=Ole Magnus |date=21 September 2015 |title=Norge utvider Dronning Maud Land helt frem til Sydpolen |language=no |journal=[[Aftenposten]] |location=Oslo |url=https://www.aftenposten.no/norge/i/dw1q/norge-utvider-dronning-maud-land-helt-frem-til-sydpolen |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221161018/https://www.aftenposten.no/norge/i/dw1q/norge-utvider-dronning-maud-land-helt-frem-til-sydpolen |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Argentine, British, and Chilean claims overlap and have caused friction. In 2012, after the British [[Foreign & Commonwealth Office]] designated a previously unnamed area [[Queen Elizabeth Land]] in tribute to [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]]'s [[Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Diamond Jubilee]],<ref name="Foreign & Commonwealth Office Press Release">{{cite web|title=The Foreign Secretary has announced that the southern part of British Antarctic Territory has been named Queen Elizabeth Land|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/queen-elizabeth-land|work=Foreign & Commonwealth Office|publisher=HM Government|access-date=22 December 2012|date=18 December 2012|archive-date=7 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707184550/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/queen-elizabeth-land|url-status=live}}</ref> the Argentine government protested against the claim.<ref name="BBC News: Argentine Protest Against Queen Elizabeth Land">{{cite web|title=Argentina angry after Antarctic territory named after Queen|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20822582|work=BBC News|access-date=22 December 2012|date=22 December 2012|archive-date=15 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115192632/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-20822582|url-status=live}}</ref> The UK passed some of the areas it claimed to Australia and New Zealand after they achieved independence. The claims by Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, and Norway do not overlap and are recognised by each other.{{sfn|Von Tigerstrom|Leane|2005|p=204}} Other member nations of the Antarctic Treaty do not recognise any claim, yet have shown some form of territorial interest in the past.<ref name="peecug2">{{cite web|url=http://www.afese.com/img/revistas/revista40/laantartida.pdf|date=1988|website=AFESE|title=La Antartida|last1=Ribadeneira|first1=Diego|language=Spanish|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707092226/http://www.afese.com/img/revistas/revista40/laantartida.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2011|access-date=19 July 2011}}</ref>

* {{flagu|Brazil}} has a designated "[[Brazilian Antarctica|zone of interest]]" that is not an actual claim.<ref name="Morris1988">{{harvnb |Morris|1988|page=219}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Peru}} formally reserved its right to make a claim.<ref name="peecug2"/>
* {{flagu|Russia}} inherited the Soviet Union's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty.<ref name="CIAfactbook-US-RusClaim">{{cite web|title=Disputes – international|date=2011|work=The World Factbook|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2070.html|access-date=22 October 2011|quote=... the US and Russia reserve the right to make claims ...|archive-date=15 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915211616/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2070.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flagu|South Africa}} formally reserved its right to make a claim.<ref name="peecug2"/>
* {{flagu|United States|name=The United States}} reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty.<ref name="CIAfactbook-US-RusClaim"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Date
! scope="col" | Claimant
! scope="col" | Territory
! scope="col" | Claim limits
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Map
|-
| 1840
| {{flag|France}}
| {{flag|Adélie Land}}
| data-sort-value="+136.11" | Originally undefined; later specified to be 142°2′E to 136°11′E
| [[File:Antarctica, France territorial claim.svg|90px]]
|-
| 1908
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} United Kingdom
| {{flag|British Antarctic Territory}}
| data-sort-value="-080.00" | 80°0′W to 20°0′W

* 80°0′W to 74°0′W claimed by Chile (1940)
* 74°0′W to 53°0′W claimed by Chile (1940) and Argentina (1943)
* 53°0′W to 25°0′W claimed by Argentina (1943)

| [[File:Antarctica, United Kingdom territorial claim.svg|90px]]
|-
| 1923
| {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Realm of New Zealand|New Zealand]]
| [[File:Flag of the Ross Dependency (unofficial).svg|23px]] [[Ross Dependency]]
| data-sort-value="+160.00" | 160°0′E to 150°0′W
| [[File:Antarctica, New Zealand territorial claim.svg|90px]]
|-
| 1931
| {{flag|Norway}}
| {{flag|Peter I Island}}
| data-sort-value="-090.35" | {{Coord|68|50|S|90|35|W|type:isle|name=Peter I Island}}
| [[File:Antarctica, Norway territorial claim (Peter I Island).svg|90px]]
|-
| 1933
| {{flag|Australia}}
| {{flag|Australian Antarctic Territory}}
| data-sort-value="+044.38" | 44°38′E to 136°11′E, and 142°2′E to 160°00′E
| [[File:Antarctica, Australia territorial claim.svg|90px]]
|-
| 1939
| {{flag|Norway}}
| {{flag|Queen Maud Land}}
| data-sort-value="-020.00" | 20°00′W to 44°38′E
| [[File:Antarctica, Norway territorial claim (Queen Maud Land, 2015).svg|90px]]
|-
| 1940
| {{flag|Chile}}
| {{flag|Chilean Antarctic Territory}}
| data-sort-value="-090.00" | 90°0′W to 53°0′W

* 80°00′W to 74°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908)
* 74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Argentina (1943)

| [[File:Antarctica, Chile territorial claim.svg|90px]]
|-
| 1943
| {{flag|Argentina}}
| {{flag|Argentine Antarctica}}
| data-sort-value="-074.00" | 74°0′W to 25°0′W

* 74°0′W to 53°0′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Chile (1940)
* 53°0′W to 25°0′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908)

| [[File:Antarctica, Argentina territorial claim.svg|90px]]
|-
| –
| ''[[Terra nullius|(Unclaimed territory)]]''
| {{flagdeco|Antarctica}} [[Marie Byrd Land]]
| data-sort-value="-150.00" | 150°0′W to 90°0′W<br /> (except [[Peter I Island]])
| [[File:Antarctica, unclaimed.svg|90px]]
|}

== Human activity ==
{{Main|Tourism in Antarctica|Research stations in Antarctica|Transport in Antarctica|Crime in Antarctica}}
{{See also|Telecommunications in Antarctica}}

=== Economic activity and tourism===
[[File:Silversea Silver Cloud Wilhelmina Bay Antarctica 2 (47284124562).jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a cruise ship off the Antarctic coast|The [[cruise ship]] ''[[Silver Cloud (ship)|Silver Cloud]]'' in [[Wilhelmina Bay]]]]
Deposits of coal, [[hydrocarbon]]s, iron ore, [[platinum]], [[copper]], [[chromium]], [[nickel]], [[gold]], and other minerals have been found in Antarctica, but not in large enough quantities to extract.<ref>{{cite web|title=Natural Resources |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-resources/ |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=7 May 2022 |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403171729/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-resources/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which came into effect in 1998 and is due to be reviewed in 2048, restricts the exploitation of Antarctic resources, including minerals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/antarctica-the-montreal-protocol-25-years-on/|title=Antarctica: The Madrid Protocol 25 Years On|website=[[Australian Institute of International Affairs]]|last1=Press|first1=Tony|date=5 October 2016|access-date=19 January 2022|archive-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118232426/https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/antarctica-the-montreal-protocol-25-years-on/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Tourism|Tourists]] have been [[Tourism in Antarctica|visiting Antarctica]] since 1957.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|pp=187{{ndash}}188}} Tourism is subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol;<ref name="IAATOTou">{{cite web |title=During Your Visit |url=https://iaato.org/visiting-antarctica/during-your-visit/ |publisher=[[International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators]] |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=7 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607133821/https://iaato.org/visiting-antarctica/during-your-visit/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the self-regulatory body for the industry is the [[International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators]].{{sfn|Trewby|2002|p=107}} Tourists arrive by small or medium ship at specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife.{{sfn|Trewby|2002|pp=187{{ndash}}188}} Over 74,000 tourists visited the region during the 2019–2020 season, of which 18,500 travelled on cruise ships but did not leave them to explore on land.<ref name="IAATOTou2">{{cite web |title=IAATO Antarctic visitor figures 2019–2020 |url=https://iaato.org/information-resources/data-statistics/ |website=Data & Statistics |publisher=[[International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators]] |access-date=14 February 2022 |date=July 2020 |archive-date=9 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609114607/https://iaato.org/information-resources/data-statistics/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The numbers of tourists fell rapidly after the start of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Some nature conservation groups have expressed concern over the potential adverse effects caused by the influx of visitors and have called for limits on the size of visiting [[cruise ship]]s and a tourism quota.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rowe |first1=Mark |title=Tourism threatens the Antarctic |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/734551/Tourism-%27threatens-Antarctic%27.html |access-date=5 February 2006 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=11 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224214327/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/734551/Tourism-%27threatens-Antarctic%27.html |archive-date=24 February 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The primary response by Antarctic Treaty parties has been to develop guidelines that set landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites.<ref name="Secr">{{cite web |title=Tourism and Non-Governmental Activities |url=https://www.ats.aq/e/tourism.html |publisher=Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=30 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930150027/https://www.ats.aq/e/tourism.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Overland sightseeing flights operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the [[Mount Erebus disaster]] in 1979, when an [[Air New Zealand]] plane crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all of the 257 people on board. [[Qantas]] resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s.{{sfn|Day|2013|pp=507{{ndash}}509}} There are many [[List of airports in Antarctica|airports]] in Antarctica.

=== Research ===
[[File:McMurdo-Station aus der Vogelperspektive (16481391425).jpg|thumb|alt=aerial photograph of McMurdo station | An aerial view of [[McMurdo Station]], the largest [[Research stations in Antarctica|research station in Antarctica]]]]
In 2017, there were more than 4,400 scientists undertaking research in Antarctica, a number that fell to just over 1,100 in the winter.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People"/> There are over 70 permanent and seasonal research stations on the continent; the largest, United States' [[McMurdo Station]], is capable of housing more than 1,000 people.{{sfn|Hund|2014|p=41}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=Georgina|date=30 January 2017|title=A history of McMurdo Station through its architecture|journal=Polar Record|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=53|issue=2|pages=167–185|doi=10.1017/S0032247416000747|bibcode=2017PoRec..53..167D |s2cid=132258248|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[British Antarctic Survey]] has five major research stations on Antarctica, one of which is completely portable. The Belgian [[Princess Elisabeth Antarctica|Princess Elisabeth station]] is one of the most modern stations and the first to be [[Carbon neutrality|carbon-neutral]].{{Sfn|Carroll|Lopes|2019|p=160}} Argentina, Australia, Chile, and Russia also have a large scientific presence on Antarctica.<ref name="CIAfactbook-People" />

[[Geologist]]s primarily study [[plate tectonics]], [[meteorite]]s, and the breakup of Gondwana. [[Glaciologist]]s study the history and dynamics of floating ice, [[snow|seasonal snow]], glaciers, and ice sheets. [[Biologist]]s, in addition to researching wildlife, are interested in how low temperatures and the presence of humans affect adaptation and survival strategies in organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stoddart |first1=Michael |title='Antarctic biology in the 21st century – Advances in, and beyond the international polar year 2007–2008' |journal=Polar Science |date=August 2010 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=97–101 |doi=10.1016/j.polar.2010.04.004 |bibcode=2010PolSc...4...97S }}</ref> [[Biomedical scientist]]s have made discoveries concerning the spreading of [[virus]]es and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/science/technology-innovation/human-biology-and-medicine/|title=Human Biology and Medicine|website=Australian Antarctic Programme|date=16 September 2020|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=22 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822181126/https://www.antarctica.gov.au/science/technology-innovation/human-biology-and-medicine/|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:ALH84001 meteorite Smithsonian.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a meteorite found in Antarctica|An Antarctic [[meteorite]], [[Allan Hills 84001]] on display at the [[Smithsonian Museum of Natural History]]]]
The high elevation of the interior, the low temperatures, and the length of polar nights during the winter months all allow for better [[Observational astronomy|astronomical observations]] at Antarctica than anywhere else on Earth. The view of space from Earth is improved by a thinner atmosphere at higher elevations and a lack of water vapour in the atmosphere caused by freezing temperatures.<ref name="Bur">{{cite journal |last1=Burton |first1=Michael G. |author1-link=Michael G. Burton |title=Astronomy in Antarctica |journal=[[The Astronomy & Astrophysics Review]] |date=2010 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=417{{ndash}}469 |doi=10.1007/s00159-010-0032-2 |arxiv=1007.2225 |bibcode=2010A&ARv..18..417B |s2cid=16843819 }}</ref> [[Astrophysics|Astrophysicists]] at the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]] study [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] and [[neutrino]]s from space,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/livingsouthpole/sciencegoals.jsp|title=Science Goals: Celebrating a Century of Science and Exploration|website=National Science Foundation|date=2011|access-date=19 January 2022|archive-date=29 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229073352/https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/livingsouthpole/sciencegoals.jsp|url-status=live}}</ref> which are more focused at the poles, with Antarctica having general radiation levels of 0.052 to 0.193 µSvh.<ref name="k910">{{cite journal | last=Długosz-Lisiecka | first=Magdalena | last2=Krystek | first2=Marcin | last3=Koper | first3=Mariusz | last4=Grala | first4=Tomasz | last5=Leniec-Koper | first5=Hanna | last6=Barasiński | first6=Michał | last7=Talar | first7=Magdalena | last8=Kamiński | first8=Ireneusz | last9=Kibart | first9=Robert | last10=Małecki | first10=Wojciech | last11=Kukliński | first11=Piotr | title=Natural gamma radiation at the sea level around the Antarctic continent recorded south of the 62° parallel | journal=Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Geographica Physica | issue=20 | date=December 30, 2021 | issn=2353-6063 | doi=10.18778/1427-9711.20.01 | pages=7–12}}</ref> The largest [[neutrino detector]] in the world, the [[IceCube Neutrino Observatory]], is at the Amundsen-Scott Station. It consists of around 5,500 [[Optical module|digital optical modules]], some of which reach a depth of {{cvt|2450|m}}, that are held in {{convert|1|km3|abbr=unit}} of ice.<ref name="icecube">{{cite news |title=IceCube Quick Facts |url=https://icecube.wisc.edu/about-us/facts/ |website=[[IceCube Neutrino Observatory]] |access-date=6 February 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213095824/https://icecube.wisc.edu/about-us/facts/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Antarctica provides a unique environment for the study of meteorites: the dry polar desert preserves them well, and meteorites older than a million years have been found. They are relatively easy to find, as the dark stone meteorites stand out in a landscape of ice and snow, and the flow of ice accumulates them in certain areas. The [[Adelie Land meteorite]], discovered in 1912, was the first to be found. Meteorites contain clues about the composition of the [[Solar System]] and its early development.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2022 |title=Finding Meteorite Hotspots in Antarctica |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/149554/finding-meteorite-hotspots-in-antarctica |access-date=2 April 2022 |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |language=en |archive-date=9 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309063851/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/149554/finding-meteorite-hotspots-in-antarctica |url-status=live }}</ref> Most meteorites come from asteroids, but a few meteorites found in Antarctica came from the Moon and Mars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Talbert |first=Tricia |date=14 November 2016 |title=Science from the Sky: NASA Renews Search for Antarctic Meteorites |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/science-from-the-sky-nasa-renews-search-for-antarctic-meteorites |access-date=2 April 2022 |website=NASA |archive-date=19 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119174401/http://www.nasa.gov/feature/science-from-the-sky-nasa-renews-search-for-antarctic-meteorites |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{refn|1=Antarctician meteorites, particularly [[ALH84001]] discovered by [[ANSMET]], were at the centre of the controversy about possible evidence of [[Life on Mars#Meteorites|life on Mars]]. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be calculated.<ref name="meteorite">{{cite web|url=http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm|title=Meteorites from Antarctica|publisher=NASA|access-date=9 February 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060306122117/http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm|archive-date=6 March 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>|group=note}}

Major scientific organizations in Antarctica have released strategy and action plans focused on advancing national interests and objectives in Antarctica, supporting cutting-edge research to understand the interactions between the Antarctic region and climate systems. The [[British Antarctic Survey]] (BAS) released a 10-year (2023–2033) strategy report to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to focus on creating sustainable living on [[Earth]].<ref>{{cite web |title=British Antarctic Survey |url=https://www.bas.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/2239182604BAS-Strategy-2024-2034-1.pdf |website=bas.ac.uk |publisher=British Antarctic Survey |access-date=March 27, 2024}}</ref> Environmental sustainability is named as one of the top focus areas by the BAS strategy, highlighting the main challenge and priority to embed environmental sustainability into everything.<ref>{{cite web |title=British Antarctic Survey |url=https://www.bas.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/2239182604BAS-Strategy-2024-2034-1.pdf |website=bas.ac.uk |publisher=British Antarctic Survey |access-date=March 27, 2024}}</ref> In 2022, the [[Australian Antarctic Program]] (AAP) released a new Strategy and 20-year Action Plan (2022–2036) to modernize its Antarctic program. The global climate system was highlighted as one of the main priorities that will be supported and studied through the AAP Strategy Plan. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the vital role of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean in climate and weather to improve current knowledge and inform management responses.<ref>{{cite web |title=Australian Antarctic Science Strategic Plan |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/site/assets/files/53908/australian-antarctic-science-strategic-plan.pdf |publisher=Australian Antarctic Science Council |access-date=March 27, 2024}}
</ref> In 2021, the [[United States Antarctic Program]] (USAP) released a Midterm Assessment on the 2015 Strategic Vision for Antarctic and Southern Ocean Research, stressing the prominent role of the Southern Ocean in the global carbon cycle and sea level rise.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mid-Term Assessment of Progress on the 2015 Strategic Vision for Antarctic and Southern Ocean Research |date=2021 |publisher=The National Academies Press |doi=10.17226/26338 |isbn=978-0-309-26818-9 |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26338/mid-term-assessment-of-progress-on-the-2015-strategic-vision-for-antarctic-and-southern-ocean-research |access-date=March 27, 2024}}</ref> The USAP outlines the Changing Antarctic Ice Sheets Initiative as a top priority to enhance understanding of why ice sheets are changing now, and how they will change in the future.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mid-Term Assessment of Progress on the 2015 Strategic Vision for Antarctic and Southern Ocean Research |date=2021 |publisher=The National Academies Press |doi=10.17226/26338 |isbn=978-0-309-26818-9 |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26338/mid-term-assessment-of-progress-on-the-2015-strategic-vision-for-antarctic-and-southern-ocean-research |access-date=March 27, 2024}}</ref>

[[File:The Antarctic Ice Sheet's Changing Height.jpg|thumb|The Antarctic ice sheet's changing height]]
[[Antarctic ice sheets]] are a central focus of contemporary climate research due to urgent questions about their stability and reaction to global warming. [[Satellite]] technology enables researchers to study the ice sheets both through on-site fieldwork and [[remote sensing]], facilitating detailed analyses of ice dynamics to predict future changes in a warming world. The INStabilities & Thresholds in ANTarctica (INSTANT) Scientific Research Programme proposes three research themes, investigating the complex interactions between the [[atmosphere]], [[ocean]], and solid [[Earth]] in Antarctica. Its aims include improving the understanding and predictions of these processes to aid decision makers in risk assessment, management, and mitigation related to Antarctic climate change. The Australian-led ICECAP project utilized advanced aerogeophysical techniques to map deep subglacial basins and [[Channel (geography)|channels]] that connect the ice sheet to the ocean.<ref name="ICE SHEETS AND SEA-LEVEL RISE">{{cite web |title=ICE SHEETS AND SEA-LEVEL RISE |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/climate-change/ice-sheets-and-sea-level-rise/ |website=antarctica.gov.au |date=2 February 2014 |publisher=Australian Antarctic Program |access-date=March 27, 2024}}</ref> This mapping improves predictions of ice sheet stability, the impacts of [[climate change]] on the ice sheets, and their potential contributions to global [[sea level rise]].<ref name="ICE SHEETS AND SEA-LEVEL RISE"/>

== See also ==
* [[Index of Antarctica-related articles]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group="note"}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{main|Bibliography of Antarctica}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ainsworth |editor1-first=William Harrison |author-link=William Harrison Ainsworth |title=The New Monthly Magazine and Humourist |date=1847 |publisher=[[Chapman & Hall]] |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTUaAQAAIAAJ |chapter=The Antarctic Voyage of Discovery}}
* {{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=John B. |title=Antarctic Marine Geology |date=2010 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-05211-3-168-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9YqF73oe4IC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baughmann |first1=T. H. |author1-link=T. H. Baughman |title=Before the Heroes Came |date=1994 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |isbn=978-0-8032-1228-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/beforeheroescame0000baug/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Beaglehole |first1=John C. |author1-link=John Beaglehole |title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery |date=1968 |publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-4724-5324-2 |edition=|volume=2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cameron-Ash |first1=Margaret |title=Lying for the Admiralty |date=2018 |publisher=Rosenberg Publishing |location=Sydney |isbn=978-06480-4-396-6 }}
* {{cite book |last1=|chapter=Chapter 2 the Geology and Geomorphology of Antarctica |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166248108701508 |editor1-last=Campbell |editor1-first=I.B. |editor2-last=Claridge |editor2-first=G.G.C. |title=Antarctica: Soils, Weathering Processes and Environment |date=1987 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-444-42784-7 |volume=16 |language=|doi=10.1016/S0166-2481(08)70150-8 |issn=0166-2481 |format=|series=Developments in Soil Science |pages=7–42 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Cantrill |first1=David J. |last2=Poole |first2=Imogen |title=The Vegetation of Antarctica through Geological Time |date=2012 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-139-56028-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sOGH4xaioRUC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carroll |first1=Michael |last2=Lopes|first2=Rosaly|title=Antarctica : Earth's Own Ice World |date=2019 |publisher=Springer Praxis Books|location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-319-74623-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cawley |first1=Charles |title=Colonies in Conflict: The History of the British Overseas Territories |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] |location=Newcastle |isbn=978-14438-8-128-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TXnWCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Crystal |first1=David |author1-link=David Crystal |title=The Fight for English |date=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-920764-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Day |first1=David |author-link=David Day (historian) |title=Antarctica: A Biography |date=2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-967055-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maNBDJD2OfQC}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1093/wentk/9780190641320.001.0001 |title=Antarctica |date=2019 |last1=Day |first1=David |isbn=978-0-19-064132-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Defler |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Defler |date=2019 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HWADwAAQBAJ |title=History of Terrestrial Mammals in South America |series=Topics in Geobiology |place=Cham |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |isbn=978-3-319-98448-3}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Drewry |editor1-first=D.J. |editor1-link=David Drewry |title=Antarctica: Glaciological and Geophysical Folio |date=1983 |publisher=[[Scott Polar Research Institute|Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-901021-04-5}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Edwards |editor1-first=Philip |editor1-link=Philip Edwards (academic) |title=The Journals of James Cook |date=1999 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-192808-1 |edition=|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/journalsofcaptai00jame/page/n3/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last1=Headland |first1=Robert |title=The Island of South Georgia |date=1984 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-25274-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ04AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA238}}
* {{cite journal|last1=de Hoog|first1=G.S.|date=2005|title=Fungi of the Antarctic: evolution under extreme conditions|url=https://www.studiesinmycology.org/sim/Sim51/SIM_51_Preface.pdf|journal=[[Studies in Mycology]]|isbn=9789070351557|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|volume=51|page=}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Hund |editor1-first=Andrew J. |title=Antarctica And The Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the Earth's Polar Regions |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC |isbn=978-1-61069-392-9 |page=|volume=1 |url=https://archive.org/details/antarctica-and-the-arctic-circle-2-volumes-a-geographic-encyclopedia-of-the-earths-polar-regions/page/n3/mode/2up?q=}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hyginus |first1=Caius Julius |author1-link=Gaius Julius Hyginus |editor1-last=Viré |editor1-first=Ghislaine |orig-year=1482|title=Hygini de astronomia |date=1992 |publisher=[[Bibliotheca Teubneriana]] |location=Stuttgart |isbn=978-35190-1-438-6 |url= |language=Latin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jasinoski |first1=Sandra C.|display-authors=et al |editor1-last=Kammerer |editor1-first=Christian F. |editor2-last=Frobisch |editor2-first=Jörg |editor3-last=Angielczyk |editor3-first=Kenneth D. |title=Early Evolutionary History of the Synapsida |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]] |isbn=978-94-007-6841-3 |chapter=Anatomical Plasticity in the Snout of ''Lystrosaurus'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RDHBAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Joyner |first=Christopher C. |author-link1=Christopher C. Joyner |date=1992 |title=Antarctica and the Law of the Sea |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-0-7923-1823-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6JAr747H60C}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lettinck |first1=Paul |title=Aristotle's Meteorology and Its Reception in the Arab World |date=2021 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=Leiden; Boston (Massachusetts) |isbn=978-90-04-44917-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lB0QKKodRzYC}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=McCrone |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=McPherson |editor2-first=Gayle |title=National Days: Constructing and Mobilising National Identity |date=2009 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=Basingstoke, UK |isbn=978-02302-5-117-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/nationaldayscons0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up | url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Monteath |first1=Colin |title=Hall & Ball Kiwi Mountaineers: from Mount Cook to Everest |date=1997 |publisher=Cloudcap |location=Christchurch |isbn=978-0-938567-42-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Michael |title=The Strait of Magellan |date=1988 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers#Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |location=Dordrecht; London |isbn=978-0-7923-0181-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OS-3VdihoooC}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WnwzDAAAQBAJ |title=The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica |last1=Pyne|first1=Stephen J. |author-link=Stephen J. Pyne |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-80523-8 |date=2017}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Riffenburgh |editor1-first=Beau |editor1-link=Beau Riffenburgh |title=Encyclopedia of the Antarctic |volume=1 |date=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |isbn=978-1-1358-7866-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mUPEAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rohli |first1=Robert V. |last2=Vega |first2=Anthony J. |title=Climatology |date=2018 |publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett Learning]] |location=Burlington, Massachusetts |isbn=978-1-284-12656-3 |edition=4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umokDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=Alan |editor1-last=McWhirter |editor1-first=Norris |editor1-link=Norris McWhirter |title=1986 Guinness Book of Records |date=1986 |publisher=[[Sterling Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8069-4768-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/1986guinnessbook00mcwh/page/n3/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Scott |editor1-first=Anne W. |editor2-last=Hiatt |editor2-first=Alfred |editor3-last=McIlroy |editor3-first=Claire |title=European Perceptions of Terra Australis |date=2012 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |location=Farnham, UK |isbn=978-1-4094-3941-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4Qe9vX4nbUC}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Siegert |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Florindo |editor2-first=Fabio |editor1-link=Martin Siegert |title=Antarctic Climate Evolution |date=2008 |publisher=[[Elsevier Science]] |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-093161-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yUu-x70CZEcC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stromberg |first1=O. |display-authors=et al |editor1-last=Nemoto |editor1-first=Takahisa |editor2-last=Mauchline |editor2-first=John |title=Marine Biology: Its Accomplishment and Future Prospect |date=1991 |publisher=[[Elsevier Science]] |isbn=978-0-444-98696-2}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Stonehouse |editor1-first=Bernard |editor1-link=Bernard Stonehouse |title=Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans |date=2002 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=Chichester |isbn=978-0-471-98665-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=David Neville |title=Surviving Antarctica |date=2007 |publisher=[[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-565-09217-7 |edition=|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/survivingantarct0000thom/page/n1/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Von Tigerstrom |editor1-first=Barbara |editor2-last=Leane |editor2-first=Geoffrey W. G. |title=International Law Issues in the South Pacific |date=2005 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |location=Aldershot, UK; Burlington, Vermont |isbn=978-0-7546-4419-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_dADwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Trewby |editor1-first=Mary |title=Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton |date=2002 |publisher=Firefly Books |location=Buffalo, New York |isbn=978-1-55297-590-9 |edition=|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116404808481/page/n5/mode/2up}}
* {{cite web |title=British Antarctic Survey |url=https://www.bas.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/2239182604BAS-Strategy-2024-2034-1.pdf |website=bas.ac.uk |publisher=British Antarctic Survey |access-date=March 27, 2024}}
* {{cite web |title=Australian Antarctic Science Strategic Plan |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/site/assets/files/53908/australian-antarctic-science-strategic-plan.pdf |publisher=Australian Antarctic Science Council |access-date=March 27, 2024}}
* {{cite book |title=Mid-Term Assessment of Progress on the 2015 Strategic Vision for Antarctic and Southern Ocean Research |date=2021 |publisher=The National Academies Press |doi=10.17226/26338 |isbn=978-0-309-26818-9 |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26338/mid-term-assessment-of-progress-on-the-2015-strategic-vision-for-antarctic-and-southern-ocean-research |access-date=March 27, 2024}}
* {{cite web |title=ICE SHEETS AND SEA-LEVEL RISE |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/weather-and-climate/climate-change/ice-sheets-and-sea-level-rise/ |website=antarctica.gov.au |date=2 February 2014 |publisher=Australian Antarctic Program |access-date=March 27, 2024}}

== Further reading ==

* De Pomereu, Jean; and McCahey, Daniella. ''Antarctica: A History in 100 Objects'' (Conway, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58558 online book review]
* {{cite book |last= Kleinschmidt |first= Georg |date=2021 |url= https://www.schweizerbart.de/publications/detail/isbn/9783443110345/Kleinschmidt_ed_The_Geology_of_the_A|title=The geology of the Antarctic continent |place=Stuttgart |publisher=Bornträger Science Publisher|isbn=978-3-443-11034-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lucas |first1=Mike |title=Antarctica |date=1996 |publisher=[[New Holland Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-85368-743-3|url=https://archive.org/details/antarctica0000luca/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mardon |first1=Austin Albert |last2=Mardon |first2=Catherine |author1-link=Austin Mardon |author2-link=Catherine Mardon |title=The use of geographic remote sensing, mapping and aerial photography to aid in the recovery of blue ice surficial meteorites in Antarctica |date=2009 |publisher=Golden Meteorite Press |location=Edmonton |isbn=978-18974-7-235-4 |page=|via=[[Internet Archive]] |pages=|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/useofgeographicr0000mard/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater |ref=none}}
* {{cite book|first1=John|last1=Stewart|url=https://epdf.tips/antarctica-an-encyclopedia-2-volume-set-second-edition.html|title=Antarctica: An Encyclopedia|location=Jefferson, N.C. and London|publisher=McFarland|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7864-3590-6|ref=none}}
* Ivanov, Lyubomir; Ivanova, Nusha (2022). ''The World of Antarctica''. Generis Publishing. 241 pp. {{ISBN|979-8-88676-403-1}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2023-12-16|En-Antarctica-article.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|auto=1|wikt=n|s=y|v=y|b=n|collapsible=collapsed}}
* High resolution map (2022) – [https://rema.apps.pgc.umn.edu/ Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica] ([[Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica|REMA]])
* {{In Our Time|Antarctica.|b00ss2th|Antarctica.}}
* {{official website|http://www.ats.aq/}} of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat (''de facto'' government)
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/ British Antarctic Survey (BAS)]
* [http://www.usap.gov/ U.S. Antarctic Program Portal]

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