Systema Naturae (originally in Latin written Systema Naturæ with the ligature æ) is one of the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers, Gaspard and Johann,[2] Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, was Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, which appeared in English in 1806 with the title: "A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties, with their Habitations, Manners, Economy, Structure and Peculiarities".[3]
 Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus's Systema Naturæ[1] | |
| Author | Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) |
|---|---|
| Subject | Taxonomy |
| Genre | Biological classification |
Publication date | 1735 |
| Publication place | Netherlands |
| LC Class | QH43 .S21 |
The tenth edition of this book (1758) is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature.[4] In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style titled "Systema Naturae" was published by Johann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 20th century, zoologists have commonly recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series.[5][6][7]
Overview
editLinnaeus (later known as "Carl von Linné", after his ennoblement in 1761)[8] published the first edition of Systema Naturae in the year 1735, during his stay in the Netherlands. As was customary for the scientific literature of its day, the book was published in Latin. In it, he outlined his ideas for the hierarchical classification of the natural world, dividing it into the animal kingdom (regnum animale), the plant kingdom (regnum vegetabile), and the "mineral kingdom" (regnum lapideum).
Linnaeus's Systema Naturae lists only about 10,000 species of organisms, of which about 6,000 are plants and 4,236 are animals.[9] According to the historian of botany William T. Stearn, "Even in 1753 he believed that the number of species of plants in the whole world would hardly reach 10,000; in his whole career he named about 7,700 species of flowering plants."[9]
Linnaeus developed his classification of the plant kingdom in an attempt to describe and understand the natural world as a reflection of the logic of God's creation.[10] His sexual system, where species with the same number of stamens were treated in the same group, was convenient but in his view artificial.[10] Linnaeus believed in God's creation and that there were no deeper relationships to be expressed. He is frequently quoted as saying: "God created, Linnaeus organized" (Latin: Deus creavit, Linnaeus disposuit).[11] The classification of animals was more natural. For instance, humans were for the first time placed together with other primates, as Anthropomorpha. They were also divided into four varieties, as distinguished by skin color and corresponding with the four known continents and temperaments.[12] The tenth edition expanded on these varieties with behavioral and cultural traits that the Linnean Society acknowledges as having cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism.[13]
As a result of the popularity of the work, and the number of new specimens sent to him from around the world, Linnaeus kept publishing new and ever-expanding editions of his work.[14] It grew from eleven very large pages in the first edition (1735) to 2,400 pages in the 12th edition (1766–1768).[15] Also, as the work progressed, he made changes: in the first edition, whales were classified as fishes, following the work of Linnaeus' friend and "father of ichthyology" Peter Artedi; in the 10th edition, published in 1758, whales were moved into the mammal class. In this same edition, he introduced two-part names (see binomen) for animal species, something that he had done for plant species (see binary name) in the 1753 publication of Species Plantarum. The system eventually developed into modern Linnaean taxonomy, a hierarchically organized biological classification.
After Linnaeus' health declined in the early 1770s, publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray issued the Regnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as the Systema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.[16] Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire Systema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793. It was as the Systema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus' work became widely known in England following translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society, as A System of Vegetables (1783–1785).[17]
Taxonomy
editIn his Imperium Naturæ, Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namely Regnum Animale, Regnum Vegetabile and Regnum Lapideum. This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives until today in the popular mind, notably in the form of parlour games: "Is it animal, vegetable or mineral?" The classification was based on five levels: kingdom, class, order, genus, and species. While species and genus was seen as God-given (or "natural"), the three higher levels were seen by Linnaeus as constructs. The concept behind the set ranks being applied to all groups was to make a system that was easy to remember and navigate, a task which most say he succeeded in.
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Linnaeus's work had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation for biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes. Two of his works, the first edition of the Species Plantarum (1753) for plants and the 10th edition of the Systema Naturæ (1758), are accepted to be among the starting points of nomenclature. Most of his names for species and genera were published at very early dates, and thus take priority over those of other, later authors. In zoology there is one exception, which is a monograph on Swedish spiders, Svenska Spindlar,[18] published by Carl Clerck in 1757, so the names established there take priority over the Linnean names.[19] His exceptional importance to science was less in the value of his taxonomy, more his deployment of skilful young students abroad to collect specimens.[20] At the close of the 18th century, his system had effectively become the standard for biological classification.
Animals
editOnly in the animal kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were:
- Mammalia comprised the mammals. In the first edition, whales and the West Indian manatee were classified among the fishes.
- Aves comprised the birds. Linnaeus was the first to remove bats from the birds and classify them under mammals.
- Amphibia comprised amphibians, reptiles, and assorted fishes that are not of Osteichthyes.
- Pisces comprised the bony fishes. These included the spiny-finned fishes (Perciformes) as a separate order.
- Insecta comprised all arthropods. Crustaceans, arachnids and myriapods were included as the order "Aptera".
- Vermes comprised the remaining invertebrates, roughly divided into "worms", molluscs, and hard-shelled organisms like echinoderms.
Humans
editLinnaeus was one of the first scientists to classify humans as primates (originally Anthropomorpha for "manlike"), eliciting some controversy for placing people among animals and thus not ruling over nature.[21] He distinguished humans (Homo sapiens) from Homo troglodytes, a species of human-like creatures with exaggerated or non-human characteristics, despite finding limited evidence.[21] He divided Homo sapiens into four varieties, corresponding with the four known continents and four temperaments (some editions also classify Ferus wild children and Monstrosus monstrous to accommodate adaptations to extreme environments).[22] The first edition included Europæus albescens (whitish Europeans), Americanus rubescens (reddish Americans), Asiaticus fuscus (tawny Asians), and Africanus nigriculus (blackish Africans).[12] The tenth edition solidified these descriptions by removing the "ish" qualifiers (e.g. albus "white" instead of albescens "whitish") and revising the characterization of Asiaticus from fuscus (tawny) to luridus (pale yellow).[12][23] It also incorporates behavioral and cultural traits that the Linnean Society recognizes as having cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism.[13]
Plants
editThe orders and classes of plants, according to his Systema Sexuale, were never intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to his ordines naturales in his Philosophia Botanica) but only for use in identification. They were used in that sense well into the 19th century.
The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were:
- Classis 1. Monandria
- Classis 2. Diandria
- Classis 3. Triandria
- Classis 4. Tetrandria
- Classis 5. Pentandria
- Classis 6. Hexandria
- Classis 7. Heptandria
- Classis 8. Octandria
- Classis 9. Enneandria
- Classis 10. Decandria
- Classis 11. Dodecandria
- Classis 12. Icosandria
- Classis 13. Polyandra
- Classis 14. Didynamia
- Classis 15. Tetradynamia
- Classis 16. Monadelphia
- Classis 17. Diadelphia
- Classis 18. Polyadelphia
- Classis 19. Syngenesia
- Classis 20. Gynandria
- Classis 21. Monoecia
- Classis 22. Dioecia
- Classis 23. Polygamia
- Classis 24. Cryptogamia
Minerals
editLinnaeus's taxonomy of minerals has long since fallen out of use. In the 10th edition, 1758, of the Systema Naturæ, the Linnaean classes were:
Editions
editGmelin's thirteenth (decima tertia) edition of Systema Naturae (1788–1793) should be carefully distinguished from the more limited Systema Vegetabilium first prepared and published by Johan Andreas Murray in 1774 (but labelled as "thirteenth edition").[16]
| Edition | Location | Year | Complete bibliographical citation | Links to online versions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Leiden | 1735 | Linnæus, C. 1735. Systema naturæ, sive regna tria naturæ systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. – pp. [1–12]. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak) | Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 2 | Stockholm | 1740 | Linnæus, C. 1740. Systema naturæ in quo naturæ regna tria, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponuntur. Editio secunda, auctior. – pp. [1–2], 1–80. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter) | Internet Archive |
| 3 | Halle | 1740 | Lange, J. J. 1740. Caroli Linnaei systema natvrae, sive Regna tria natvrae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera et species. Caroli Linnaei Natur-Systema, oder die in ordentlichem Zusammenhange vorgetragene drey Reiche der Natur nach ihren Classen, Ordnungen, Geschlechtern und Arten, in die deutsche Sprache übersetzet und mit einer Vorrede herausgegeben von Johann Joachim Langen. – pp. [1–8], 1–70, [1]. Halle. (Gebauer) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 4 | Paris | 1744 | Linnæus, C. 1744. Systema naturæ in quo proponuntur naturæ regna tria secundum classes, ordines, genera & species. Editio quarta ab auctore emendata & aucta. Accesserunt nomina Gallica. – pp. i–xxvi, [1], 1–108. Parisiis. (David.) | Google Books CSIC Madrid |
| 5 | Halle | 1747 | Agnethler, M. G. 1747. Caroli Linnæi systema natvræ in qvo natvræ regna tria, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponvntvr. Recvsvm et societatis, qvæ impensas contvlit, vsvi accommodatvm. Editio altera avctior et emendatior. – pp. 1–88. Halæ Magdebvrgicæ. | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 6 | Stockholm | 1748 | Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Editio sexta, emendata et aucta. – pp. [1–3], 1–224, [1–18], Tab. I–VIII. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter) | SUB Göttingen |
| 7 | Leipzig | 1748 | Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Secundum sextam Stockholmiensem emendatam & auctam editionem. – pp. [A], [1–5], 1–224, [1–22], Tab. I–VIII. Lipsiae. (Kiesewetter) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 8 | Stockholm | 1753 | Haartman, J. J. 1753. Caroli Linnæi Indelning i Ö̈rt-Riket, efter Systema Naturae, på Swenska öfwersatt af Johan J. Haartman. – pp. [1–12], 1–136, [1–8]. Stockholm. (Salvius) | Umeå UB |
| 9 | Leiden | 1756 | Linnæus, C. 1756. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta, tabulisque æneis illustrata. Accedunt vocabula gallica. Editio multo auctior & emendatior. – pp. [1–7], 1–227, [1–19], Tab. I–VIII. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak) | New York Botanical Garden Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 10, Vol. 1 |
Stockholm | 1758 | Linnæus, C. 1758. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 1–824. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek SUB Göttingen Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 10, Vol. 2 |
Stockholm | 1759 | Linnæus, C. 1759. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus II. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 825–1384. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 11, Vol. 1 |
Halle | 1760 | Linnaeus, C. 1760. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, cvm characteribvs, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomvs I. Praefactvs est Ioannes Ioachimvs Langivs. Ad editionem decimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. [1–8], 1–824. Halae Magdebvrgicae. (Curt). (Linnæus 1758: p. 5 recorded probably this edition as from Leipzig 1762, "nil additum" = nothing added) | New York Botanical Garden (pp. [1–8], 1–338) New York Botanical Garden (pp. 339–824) |
| 12, Vol. 1, part 1 |
Stockholm | 1766 | Linné, C. a 1766. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata. – pp. 1–532. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 12, Vol. 1, part 2 |
Stockholm | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ, Tom. I. Pars II. Editio duodecima reformata. – pp. 533–1327, [1–37]. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 12, Vol. 2 |
Stockholm | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus II. – pp. 1–735, [1–16], 1–142, [1–2]. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | |
| 12, Vol. 3 |
Stockholm | 1768 | Linné, C. a 1768. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus III. – pp. 1–236, [1–20], Tab. I–III. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 1, part. 1 |
Vienna | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. 1–532. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 1, part 2 |
Vienna | 1767 | Linné, C. a [1767]. Systema naturæ. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. [1–2], 1–1327, [1–37]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 2 |
Vienna | 1770 | Linné, C. a 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs II. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – 1–736, [1–6]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden New York Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12a ("13"), Vol. 3 |
Vienna | 1770 | Linnaeus, C. 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs III. – 1–236, [1–19]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries Missouri Botanical Garden Google Books |
| 12b, Vol. 1 |
Göttingen | 1772 | Beckmann, J. 1772. Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus I. Regnum Animale. – pp. [1–5], 1–240, [1–10]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck) | NCSU Libraries |
| 12b, Vol. 2 |
Göttingen | 1772 | Beckmann, J. 1772. Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus II. Regnum Vegetabile. – pp. 1–356, [1–32]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck) | NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 1 |
Leipzig | 1788 | Gmelin, J. F. 1788. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1–12], 1–500. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 2 |
Leipzig | [1789] | Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. 501–1032. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 3 |
Leipzig | [1789] | Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars III. – pp. 1033–1516. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 4 |
Leipzig | [1790] | Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars IV. – pp. 1517–2224. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 5 |
Leipzig | [1790] | Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars V. – pp. 2225–3020. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 6 |
Leipzig | [1791] | Gmelin, J. F. [1791]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VI. – pp. 3021–3910. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries |
| 13, Vol. 1, part 7 |
Leipzig | [1792] | Gmelin, J. F. [1792]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VII. – pp. [1], 3911–4120. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden |
| 13, Vol. 2, part 1 |
Leipzig | 1791 | Gmelin, J. F. 1791. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus II. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1], I–XL, 1–884. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 13, Vol. 2, part 2 |
Leipzig | [1791]? | Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. II. Pars II. – pp. [1], 885–1661, [1]. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
| 13, Vol. 3 |
Leipzig | 1793 | Gmelin, J. F. 1793. Caroli a Linné (...) systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus III. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. 1–476. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden NCSU Libraries Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |
The dates of publication for Gmelin's edition were the following:[25]
- Part 1: pp. [1–12], 1–500 (25 July 1788)
- Part 2: pp. 501–1032 (20 April 1789)
- Part 3: pp. 1033–1516 (20 November 1789)
- Part 4: pp. 1517–2224 (21 May 1790)
- Part 5: pp. 2225–3020 (6 December 1790)
- Part 6: pp. 3021–3910 (14 May 1791)
- Part 7: pp. 3911–4120 (2 July 1792)
See also
edit- Supplementum Plantarum
- Animalia Paradoxa
- 10th edition of Systema Naturae
- 12th edition of Systema Naturae
- Systema Vegetabilium
- English edition by William Turton, translated from Gmelin's last edition. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.37018
References
edit- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin) (10th ed.). Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius.
- ^ Windelspecht, Michael (2002). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 17th century. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-31501-5. p. 28.
- ^ Linné, Carl von (1806). A General System of Nature,: Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into Their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties ... Lackington, Allen, and Company.
- ^ Gordh, Gordon; Beardsley, John W. (1999). "Taxonomy and biological control". In Bellows, T. S.; Fisher, T. W. (eds.). Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and Applications of Biological Control. Academic Press. pp. 45–55. ISBN 978-0-12-257305-7.
- ^ "Sherborn, C. D. 1902". Index Animalium.
- ^ "Neave, S. A. 1939–1940, updated". Nomenclator Zoologicus.
- ^ Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 8: 167–178, also p. 318 in ICZN 1987. Archived 2010-06-25 at the Wayback Machine Official lists and indexes of names and works in zoology. – pp. 1–366. London. (The International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature).
- ^ Stearn, W. T. (1957). "An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Linnaeus". Species Plantarum (1957 Ray Society facsimile ed.). p. 14.
- ^ a b Stearn, William T. (1959). "The background of Linnaeus's contributions to the nomenclature and methods of systematic biology" (PDF). Systematic Zoology. 8 (1): 4–22. doi:10.2307/2411603. JSTOR 2411603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2014.
- ^ a b Quammen, David (June 2007). "A Passion for Order". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
- ^ Warne, K. (May 2007). "Organization Man". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
- ^ a b c Müller-Wille, Staffan (2014). "Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World". The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900: 191–209. doi:10.1057/9781137338211_10. hdl:10871/16833. ISBN 978-1-349-46395-4.
- ^ a b Charmantier, Isabelle (2020). "Linnaeus and Race". The Linnean Society. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
- ^ Everts, Sarah (2016). "Information Overload". Distillations. 2 (2): 26–33. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
- ^ Schiebinger, Londa (April 1993). "Why mammals are called mammals: gender politics in eighteenth-century natural history" (PDF). The American Historical Review. 98 (2): 382–411. doi:10.2307/2166840. JSTOR 2166840. PMID 11623150. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2011.
- ^ a b Linné 1774.
- ^ Linné 1785.
- ^ Clerck, C. (1757). Svenska Spindlar / Aranei Svecici. Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius. pp. [1–8], 1–154, pl. 1–6.
- ^ ICZN Code Art. 3.1
- ^ Sörlin, Sverker; Fagerstedt, Otto (2004). Linné och hans apostlar [Linnaeus and his apostles] (in Swedish). Örebro, Sweden: Natur & Kultur/Fakta. ISBN 978-91-27-35590-3.
- ^ a b Frängsmyr, Tore; Lindroth, Sten; Eriksson, Gunnar; Broberg, Gunnar (1983). Linnaeus, the man and his work. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-7112-1841-3.
- ^ Svensson, Mats (2012). "How Linnaeus classified humans: why red, white, yellow and black people were assigned particular temperaments" (PDF). Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology. 17: 303–315.
- ^ Keevak, Michael (2011). Becoming yellow: a short history of racial thinking. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-691-14031-5.
- ^ "Linnaeus as a mineralogist". Linné on line. Uppsala University. 2008.
- ^ Hopkinson, John (May 1907). "Dates of Publication of the Separate Parts of Gmelin's Edition (13th) of the 'Systema Naturae' of Linnaeus". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 77 (4): 1035–1037. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1907.tb06965.x.
Bibliography
edit- In Latin
- Linné, Carl von (1774). Murray, Johann Andreas (ed.). Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae) (2 vols.). Göttingen: Typis et impensis Jo. Christ. Dieterich. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
- Linné, Carl von (1785) [1774]. Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae) [A System of Vegetables 2 vols.]. Lichfield: Lichfield Botanical Society. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
- In English translation
- A General System of Nature translated by William Turton. Lackington, Allen, and Company, January 1806 (free, registration required)
External links
edit
- Linné online
- Systema Naturae is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive