In addition to its classical and modern literary form, Malay had various regional dialects established after the rise of the Srivijaya empire in Sumatra, Indonesia. Also, Malay spread through interethnic contact and trade across the south East Asia Archipelago as far as the Philippines. That contact resulted in a lingua franca ("trade language") that was called Bazaar Malay or low Malay and in Malay Melayu Pasar. It is generally believed that Bazaar Malay was a pidgin, influenced by contact among Malay, Hokkien, Portuguese, and Dutch traders.
| Malay trade and creole languages | |
|---|---|
| Bahasa-bahasa Melayu dagang dan kreol بهاس٢ ملايو داݢڠ دان کريول | |
| Native to | Southeast Asia, South Asia and Australia |
| Ethnicity | various |
Creole
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| IETF | crp-035 |
Besides the general simplification that occurs with pidgins, the Malay lingua franca had several distinctive characteristics. One was that possessives were formed with punya 'its owner, to have'; another was that plural pronouns were formed with orang 'person'. The only Malayic affixes that remained productive were tər- and bər-.
Other common features:
- Ada became a progressive particle.
- Reduced forms of ini 'this' and itu 'that' (>ni, tu) before a noun.
- The verb pərgi 'go' was reduced, and became a preposition 'towards'.
- Causative constructions were formed with kasi or bəri 'to give' or bikin or buat 'to make'.
- A single preposition, often sama, was used for multiple functions, including direct and indirect object.[1]
For example,[2]
- Rumahku 'my house' becomes Aku punya rumah (lit. 'I have (that) house')
- Aku pukul dia 'I hit him' becomes Aku kasi pukul dia (lit. 'I give a hit to him')
- Ardi dipukul oleh Dani 'Ardi is hit by Dani' becomes Ardi kena pukul dek Dani
Baba Malay
edit| Baba Malay ملايو بابا | |
|---|---|
| Region | Melaka (in Malaysia) and Singapore |
Native speakers | 2,000 (2014)[3] |
Malay-based creole | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | mbf |
| Glottolog | baba1267 |
| ELP | Baba Malay |
Baba Malay is spoken by the Peranakans in Melaka (in Malaysia) and Singapore. A typical contact language between Hokkien male settlers and local Malay women, it has "more Hokkien grammar and more Malay lexicon".[3] As of 2014, there are 1,000 speakers in Malaysia and another 1,000 in Singapore.[3] It is mostly spoken among the older populations.[4] In 1986, Pakir estimated there were 5,000 speakers in Singapore.[3] A Baba Indonesian variant is also spoken in East Java.
Example (spoken in Melaka-Singapore):[5]
- Dia suka datang sini sembang.: He likes to come here and gossip.
- Keliap-keliap, dia naik angin.: Slightly provoked, he gets angry.
- Gua tunggu dia sampai gua k'ee geram.: I waited for him until I got angry.
- Oo-wa! Kinajeet, dia pasang kuat.: Wow! Today he dresses stylishly!
Baba Indonesian
edit| Baba Indonesian | |
|---|---|
| Peranakan Indonesian | |
| Bahasa Indonesia Peranakan Basa Peranakan بهاس ڤرانقن | |
| Region | East Java, Central Java. West Java, North Sumatra, West Kalimantan, and other pocket communities in Indonesia |
| Ethnicity | |
Native speakers | (20,000 cited 1981)[6] |
Malay-based creole | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | pea |
| Glottolog | pera1256 |
A kind of Baba Malay, locally called Peranakan from the ethnonym, is spoken among Chinese-Indonesians living in various regions of Indonesia, most visibly in Surabaya and Medan. It is a mixture of three languages: Indonesian (national language), a local language and Chinese elements (ancestry/ethnic language, particularly for certain jargon or glossary such as family relations, business and commerce, and culinary fields). The most famous variety is found in East Java, especially in Surabaya and surrounding areas, called Basa Suroboyoan (Surabayan language), with a strong emphasis of low Javanese （ngoko Javanese) and informal tone, which is not only spoken by Chinese-Indonesian in Surabaya, but also by non-Chinese-Indonesians when conversing with the former.
Example (spoken in Surabaya):
- Kamu mbok ojok gitu!: Don't act that way!
- Yak apa kabarnya si Eli?: How's Eli?
- Ntik kamu pigio ambek cecemu ae ya.: Go with your sister, okay?
- Nih, makanen sakadae.: Please have a meal!
- Kamu cariken bukune koko ndhek rumahe Ling Ling.: Search your brother's book in Ling Ling's house.
Apart from East Javan Chinese-Indonesian, other Chinese-Indonesians tend to speak the language varieties of the places in which they live, such as the Central Javan Chinese-Indonesian can speak with formal/high Javanese (krama Javanese) when necessary, while in daily conversation they will use Indonesia-Javanese-Chinese pidgin. West Javan Chinese-Indonesians tend to mix Sundanese in their vocabulary, and Medan (North Sumatran) Chinese-Indonesian have more Hokkien words mixed in.
Betawi Malay
editBetawi, also known as Betawi Malay, Jakartan Malay, or Batavian Malay, is the spoken language of the Betawi people in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is the native language of perhaps 5 million people; a precise number is difficult to determine due to the vague use of the name.
Betawi Malay is a popular informal language in contemporary Indonesia, used as the base of Indonesian slang and commonly spoken in Jakarta TV soap operas and some animated cartoons (e.g. Adit Sopo Jarwo).[7] The name "Betawi" stems from Batavia, the official name of Jakarta during the era of the Dutch East Indies. Colloquial Jakarta Indonesian, a vernacular form of Indonesian that has spread from Jakarta into large areas of Java and replaced existing Malay dialects, has its roots in Betawi Malay. According to Uri Tadmor, there is no clear border distinguishing Colloquial Jakarta Indonesian from Betawi Malay.[8]Thousand Islands Malay
editMalaccan Creole Malay
editSri Lanka Malay
editSingapore Bazaar Malay
editSingapore Bazaar Malay, also known as Bazaar Malay, Pasar Malay, or Market Malay, is a Malay-lexified pidgin, which is spoken in Singapore.[15] Tamil and Hokkien contributed to the development of Bazaar Malay, with Hokkien being the dominant substrate language of Bazaar Malay, with Malay being the lexifier language.[16] However, there are many input languages spoken by immigrants that also contributed to the development of Bazaar Malay, including languages spoken by Malays, Chinese, Indians, Eurasians, and Europeans. Singapore Bazaar Malay emerged along with the opening of Singapore's free trade port in 1819, to overcome barriers in communication and business transactions. Since Singapore has only four official languages (English, Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil), Singapore Bazaar Malay not only is a lingua franca in interethnic communication, it is also used in intra-group communication. Singapore Bazaar Malay is mostly spoken by elders and middle-aged workers today, but its language status is declining due to education policies and language campaigns with less than 10,000 speakers.[15]
Bazaar Malay is used in a limited extent in Singapore and Malaysia, mostly among the older generation or people with no working knowledge of English.[15] The most important reason that contributed to the decline of Bazaar Malay is that pidgin Malay has creolised and created several new languages.[17] Another reason is due to language shift in both formal and informal contexts, Bazaar Malay in Singapore is gradually being replaced by English, with English and its creole Singlish being the lingua franca among the younger generations.[15]
Sabah Malay
edit| Sabah Malay | |
|---|---|
| Region | Sabah, Sulu Archipelago, Labuan, North Kalimantan, south Palawan |
Native speakers | "growing"[18] 3 million L2 speakers (2013)[19] |
Malay–based pidgin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | msi |
| Glottolog | saba1263 |
A pidginised variant of standard Malay, Sabah Malay is a local trade or creole-based mixed language.[20] There are a large number of native speakers in urban areas, mainly children who have it as first or second native language. There are also some speakers in the southernmost parts of the Philippines, particularly in the Sulu Archipelago as a trade language, also spoken in south Palawan. There are loanwords from Dusun, Tausug, Sama-Bajau languages, Chabacano, Brunei Malay, Indonesian, standard Malaysian as well as other ethnic native languages of Sabah & North Kalimantan.
Makassar Malay
edit| Makassar Malay | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Indonesia |
| Region | Makassar, South Sulawesi |
Native speakers | None[21] Second language: 1.9 million (2000) |
Mixed Malay–Makassarese | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | mfp |
| Glottolog | maka1305 |
Makassar Malay is a creole-based mixed language, which is built of Bazaar Malay lexicon, Makassarese inflections, and mixed Malay/Makassarese syntax.[22][23]
It is now widely spoken as the first language in Makassar City and its surrounding areas, especially those who were born after 1980's. It has widely spread to the entire region in southern part of Sulawesi island, including in the provinces of Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tenggara, and Sulawesi Barat as regional lingua franca or as second language due to contact or doing business with people from Makassar City.
Makassar Malay used as a default dialect or neutral language when communicating with people from other tribes or ethnicities whom do not share the same local language to the native local speakers in those three provinces. It appears that Makassar Malay also used as the first language of younger generation who live in the cities or regencies' capital across those three provinces.
Furthermore, apart from those three provinces in the southern part of Sulawesi island, Makassar Malay also used by people in some parts of Sulawesi Tengah Province, especially when communicating with people from those three provinces. It can also be used when communicating with people from other people from other provinces in Eastern Indonesia and in the province of East Kalimantan.[24]
Balinese Malay
edit| Balinese Malay | |
|---|---|
| Loloan Malay | |
| Omong Kampong بهاس ملايو بالي ᬒᬁᬢᬶᬬᬂ | |
| Native to | Indonesia |
| Region | Bali (especially in Jembrana) |
| Ethnicity | Loloan Malays |
Native speakers | 25,000 (2000 census)[25] |
| Latin script Jawi script Balinese script | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | mhp |
| Glottolog | bali1279 |
Balinese Malay or Loloan Malay is a dialect of Malay spoken in the island of Bali. It is also known as Omong Kampong ("village speak") by its speakers. Balinese Malay is the primary language of ethnic Malay who live in the northwestern part of the island, mainly in the districts of Melaya and Negara, Jembrana Regency.[26] The current language status is threatened.[27]
Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin
editBroome Pearling Lugger Pidgin is a pidgin that sprang up in Broome, Western Australia in the early 20th century to facilitate communication between the various groups working in the pearling industry there—Japanese, Malays, Torres Strait Islanders, Koepangers, Hakka Chinese, Filipinos, Sri Lankans of Sinhalese and Tamil descent, a small number of Koreans, and local Indigenous Australians,[28] mainly of the Bardi people but also Nyulnyul, Jabirr Jabirr, Jukun, Yawuru and Karajarri people. The name derives from the boats used for pearling, known as pearling luggers.
| Chirikurok | -kaa | hokurok | -kaa | peke | kriki. |
| English: "three o'clock" | Japanese: "or" | English: "four o'clock" | Japanese: "or" | Malay: "go" | English: "creek" |
| "We will enter the creek at three or four o'clock." | |||||
Eastern Indonesia Malay
editThe creoles of eastern Indonesia[29] appear to have formed as Malays, using lingua franca Malay, established their monopoly on the spice trade before the European colonial era. They have a number of features in common:
- ə becomes a, e, or assimilates to the following vowel
- i, u lowered to e, o in some environments, especially when it is at the end of a syllable
- there is a loss of final plosives p, t, k, and n the neutralisation of final nasals in part of the lexicon
- the perfective marker juga reduces to ju or jo
- the perfective marker lebih reduces to le
- the perfective marker mau reduces to mo
- the perfective marker mana reduces to ma (as this only occur on Kupang Malay).
- the perfective marker dan reduces to deng
- the perfective marker pun reduces to pung
- the perfective marker sudah reduces to su or so[1]
For example:[2]
- makan becomes makang
- pərgi becomes pigi or pi
- tərkəjut becomes takajo
- ləmbut becomes lombo
- dapat becomes dapa
- jangan becomes jang
- pada becomes pa
- lupa becomes lu
There is a loss of diphthongs:
- the diphthong "au" become to "o"
- the diphthong "ai" reduces to "e"
- the letter" u" become "o"
There are many affixes that the pronunciation is simplified:
- The prefix "mə(N)" reduces to "ma"
- The prefix "bə(r)", reduces to "ba"
- The prefix "tə(r)", reduces to "ta"
- The prefix "kə", reduces to "ka"
For example:
The loss of middle "ə" and "h" in the last end of words:
- tərbəlah becomes tabala
- bərtəngkar becomes batengkar
- mənangis becomes manangis
- kəhidupan becomes kaidopan
Alor Malay
editAlor Malay is spoken in the Alor archipelago. Speakers perceive Alor Malay to be a different register of standard Indonesian, but both of these are prestige varieties of the archipelago. Many people are able to understand standard Indonesian, but cannot speak it fluently and choose to use Alor Malay on a daily basis.[30]
Alor Malay is based on Kupang Malay; however, Alor Malay differs significantly from Kupang Malay, especially in its pronouns.[31]
Ambonese Malay
editBanda Malay
edit| Banda Malay | |
|---|---|
| Banda Islands Malay | |
| Native to | Indonesia |
| Region | Banda Islands |
Native speakers | 3,700 (2000)[32] |
Malay-based creole
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | bpq |
| Glottolog | band1353 |
Banda Malay is a distinct variant of Moluccan Malay, spoken in Banda Islands, Maluku. Significantly different from Ambonese Malay and for Ambonese, Banda Malay tends to be perceived as sounding funny due to its unique features.
Example :
- beta : I
- pane : you
- katorang : we
- mir : ants (deviated from Dutch : mier)
Dili Malay
editDili Malay is a variety of trade Malay spoken in Dili, Timor Leste especially in the Kampung Alor area. According to experts, before becoming the mother tongue of a number of its speakers, this language was originally a pidgin language (Bloomfield, 1933; Hall, 1966). Then, in its development, this pidgin language became a creole language which was used in wider social interactions in society (Todd, 1974:50).[33] Due to the long historical presence of the Portuguese in East Timor, several Dili Malay loanwords originate from Portuguese and Tetum, with little influences from other native languages.
Malay Dili/Gorap
edit| ملايو دلي/ ڬوراڤ | |
|---|---|
| Malay Dili/ Gorap | |
| Native to | Indonesia |
| Region | Northern and western regions of Halmahera Island (mainly) |
| Ethnicity | Dili people |
Native speakers | (1,000 cited 1992)[34] |
Malay-based creole
| |
| Official status | |
Recognised minority language in | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | goq |
| Glottolog | gora1261 |
| ELP | Gorap |
 Gorap language classified as Endangered by UNESCO in its Atlas of the World's Languages at Risk of Extinction. | |
Gorap is a Malay-based creole language predominantly spoken by Gorap (Bobaneigo)[35] ethnic group, indigenous to western and northern regions of the Indonesian island of Halmahera.[36] It shares vocabulary with other Papuan languages and some of languages spoken in Sulawesi, such as Buginese and Cia-Cia. Roughly around 60 out of 200 attested words in this language were indicated sharing vocabulary with those languages.[37]
Kupang Malay
editLarantuka Malay
editManado Malay
editSula Malay
edit| Sula Malay | |
|---|---|
| Sula–Taliabu Malay | |
| Melayu Sula | |
| Native to | Indonesia |
| Region | Sula Islands and Taliabu Island |
Native speakers | 170,000 (2023 estimate)[44] |
Malay-based creole
| |
| Latin | |
| Official status | |
Recognised minority language in | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Glottolog | None |
Sula Malay is a variety of Malay-based creole language which is generally used by multiethnic society in Sula Islands and Taliabu Island in the southwest part of North Maluku. The Sula Malay is heavily influenced by other languages, This can be found in loan words originating from Ambonese Malay and Dutch language can be found in Sula Malay. Some contraction vocabulary can also be found in this language, as is the case in North Moluccan Malay (Ternate Malay).[45]
Ternate/North Moluccan Malay
editPapuan Malay
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Darrell T., Tryon, eds. (1996). Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas. p. 673.
- ^ a b Collins, James T. (1989). "Malay dialect research in Malaysia: the issue of perspective" (PDF). Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 145 (2/3): 235–264. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003253.
- ^ a b c d Lee, Nala Huiying (2014). A Grammar of Baba Malay with Sociophonetic Considerations (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. p. 13, 379. hdl:10125/101107. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2015.
- ^ "Malay, Baba". Ethnologue. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
- ^ "BABA / PERANAKAN MALAY". The Peranakan Resource Library. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
- ^ Peranakan Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Bowden, John. Towards an account of information structure in Colloquial Jakarta Indonesian. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Information Structure of Austronesian Languages, 10 April 2014. Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. p. 194.
- ^ Kozok, Uli (2016), Indonesian Native Speakers – Myth and Reality (PDF), p. 15
- ^ Maulana, Ridwan; Tawangsih, Multamia R.M. (2009). "Bahasa-bahasa di Kepulauan Seribu". lib.ui.ac.id (in Indonesian). Gambaran Umum Daerah Kepulauan Seribu. Depok, Indonesia: Universitas Indonesia: 126. Retrieved 5 February 2023.
- ^ Achmad Syalaby (20 January 2016). "Menjaga Warisan Orang Pulo". www.republika.co.id (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
- ^ "Malaccan Malay Creole". Ethnologue. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
- ^ Paulo 2018.
- ^ "APiCS Online - Survey chapter: Sri Lankan Malay". apics-online.info. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ de Silva Jayasuriya, Shihan (2002). "Sri Lankan Malay: A Unique Creole" (PDF). NUSA: Linguistic Studies of Languages in and Around Indonesia. 50: 43–57.
- ^ a b c d "APiCS Online - Survey chapter: Singapore Bazaar Malay". apics-online.info. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
- ^ Platt, John; Weber, Heidi (1980). English in Singapore and Malaysia: Status, features, functions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Vehicular Malay". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ Sabah Malay at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)
- ^ Sabah Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Hoogervorst, Tom G. (2011). "Some introductory notes on the development and characteristics of Sabah Malay". Wacana, Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia. 13 (1): 50–77. doi:10.17510/wjhi.v13i1.9.
- ^ Makassar Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Darrell T., Tryon, eds. (1996). Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas. p. 682.
- ^ "Makassarese Malay". Jakarta Field Station of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
- ^ "Malay, Makassar". Ethnologue. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
- ^ Balinese Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Bagus, I Gusti Ngurah; Denes, I Made; Laksana, I Ketut Darma; Putrini, Nyoman; Ginarsa, I Ketut (1985). Kamus Melayu Bali-Indonesia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa. pp. xi.
- ^ "Malay, Balinese". Ethnologue. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
- ^ "Australian pearling industry". Britannica Kids. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Eastern Indonesia Trade Malay". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ Baird, Louise (2008). A grammar of Klon: a non-Austronesian language of Alor, Indonesia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
- ^ Klamer, Marion (2014). "The Alor-Pantar languages: Linguistic context, history and typology.". In Klamer, Marian (ed.). Alor Pantar languages: History and Typology. Berlin: Language Sciences Press. pp. 5–53. doi:10.17169/FUDOCS_document_000000020993. ISBN 9783944675602.
- ^ Bandanese Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Inyo Yos Fernandez (13 June 2013). "Beberapa Catatan Tentang Bahasa Melayu Dili: Studi Awal Mengenai Bahasa Melayu Di Timor Timur". Humaniora (in Indonesian) (1). Retrieved 18 May 2022.
- ^ ملايو دلي/ ڬوراڤ at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019)
- ^ Sudrajat, Adi (17 September 2022). "Mengungkap Keindahan Alam Kampung Nelayan Bobaneigo Halmahera Barat". www.kompasiana.com (in Indonesian). Kompasiana. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- ^ "Bahasa Gorap". Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa (in Indonesian). Indonesia: Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia.
- ^ Sa'diyah, H. W. F. K. (2020). Sudaryanto (ed.). "Laporan Fonologi Bahasa Gorap". Metode Dan Aneka Teknik. Kantor Bahasa Provinsi Maluku.
- ^ Jacob, June; Grimes, Barbara Dix (2006). "Developing a role for Kupang Malay: the contemporary politics of an eastern Indonesian creole". Paper Presented by June Jacob at the Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics Held in Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines.
- ^ a b Bos (2005), p. 145.
- ^ Steinhauer (1991), p. 180.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Larantuka Malay Ethnologuewas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Paauw (2009), p. 65.
- ^ Stoel 2007, p. 117.
- ^ "Visualisasi Data Kependudukan - Kementerian Dalam Negeri 2023" (Visual). www.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ^ Duwila, Ety; Fernandez, Inyo Yos (2009). Kajian dialektologi diakronis enklave Melayu Bacan, Ternate, dan Sula di Provinsi Maluku Utara. Tesis S2 Linguistik (Thesis) (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Universitas Gadjah Mada.
- ^ Duwila, Ety; Fernandez, Inyo Yos (2009). "Kajian dialektologi diakronis enklave Melayu Bacan, Ternate, dan Sula di Provinsi Maluku Utara". Tesis S2 Linguistik (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Universitas Gadjah Mada.
- ^ Kluge 2014, p. 2.
Works cited
edit- Allen, Robert B. Jr.; Hayami-Allen, Rika (2002). "Orientation in the Spice Islands" (PDF). In Macken, Marlys (ed.). Papers from the Tenth Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Tempe: Program for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University. pp. 21–38. ISBN 1-881044-29-7. OCLC 50506465. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2022.
- Bos, Paula R. (2005). "Nagi music and community: belonging and displacement in Larantuka, eastern Indonesia". In Hae-kyung Um (ed.). Diasporas and Interculturalism in Asian Performing Arts: Translating Traditions. Abingdon–New York: RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 144–158. doi:10.4324/9780203641903. ISBN 0-203-64190-6. OCLC 53215736. ISBN 0-700-71586-X.
- Bowden, John (2005). "Language Contact and Metatypic Restructuring in the Directional System of North Maluku Malay" (PDF). Concentric: Studies in Linguistics. 31 (2): 133–158.
- Henley, David (1996). Nationalism and regionalism in a colonial context: Minahasa in the Dutch East Indies. Leiden: KITLV Press.
- Kluge, Angela Johanna Helene (2014). A Grammar of Papuan Malay (PhD). LOT Dissertation Series 361. Leiden University. hdl:1887/25849.
- Lim, Sonny (1988). "Baba Malay: the language of the 'Straits-born' Chinese". In Steinhauer, H. (ed.). Papers in Western Austronesian Linguistics No. 3. Pacific Linguistics Series A - No.78. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University. pp. 1–61. doi:10.15144/PL-A78. hdl:1885/145107. ISBN 0-85883-382-4.
- Paauw, Scott H. (2009). The Malay contact varieties of eastern Indonesia: A typological comparison (PDF). The State University of New York at Buffalo. OCLC 6002898562. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
- Paulo, Derrick A (21 October 2018). "Meet the Chetti Melaka, or Peranakan Indians, striving to save their vanishing culture". CNA. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
- Steinhauer, Hein (1991). "Malay in east Indonesia: the case of Larantuka (Flores)". Papers in Austronesian Linguistics (PDF). Pacific Linguistics A-81. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. pp. 177–195. doi:10.15144/PL-A81.177. ISBN 0858834022. OCLC 646958819. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
- Stoel, Ruben (2007). "The Intonation of Manado Malay". In van Heuven, Vincent J.; van Zanten, Ellen (eds.). Prosody in Indonesian Languages. LOT Occasional Series, Vol. 9. Utrecht: LOT, Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics. pp. 117–150. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.464.9608. ISBN 978-90-78328-44-5.
