The genetic history of the African diaspora is composed of the overall genetic history of the African diaspora, within regions outside of Africa, such as North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia; this includes the genetic histories of African Americans, Afro-Canadians, Afro-Caribbeans, Afro-Latinos, Afro-Europeans, Afro-Asians, and African Australians.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Map_of_the_African_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/450px-Map_of_the_African_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png)
Overview
editPrehistoric
editThe Sahara served as a trans-regional passageway and place of dwelling for people in Africa during various humid phases[1][2][3] and periods throughout the history of Africa.[4][5] As early as 11,000 years ago, Sub-Saharan West Africans, bearing macrohaplogroup L (e.g., L1b1a11, L1b1a6a, L1b1a8, L1b1a9a1, L2a1k, L3d1b1a), may have migrated through North Africa and into Europe, mostly into southern Europe (e.g., Iberia).[6]
Amid the Green Sahara in Africa, the mutation for sickle cell originated in the Sahara[7] or in the northwest forest region of western Central Africa (e.g., Cameroon)[7][8] by at least 7,300 years ago,[7][8] though possibly as early as 22,000 years ago.[9][8] The ancestral sickle cell haplotype to modern haplotypes (e.g., Cameroon/Central African Republic and Benin/Senegal haplotypes) may have first arose in the ancestors of modern West Africans, bearing haplogroups E1b1a1-L485 and E1b1a1-U175 or their ancestral haplogroup E1b1a1-M4732.[7] West Africans (e.g., Yoruba and Esan of Nigeria), bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated through the northeastern region of Africa into the western region of Arabia.[7] West Africans (e.g., Mende of Sierra Leone), bearing the Senegal sickle cell haplotype,[10][7] may have migrated into Mauritania (77% modern rate of occurrence) and Senegal (100%); they may also have migrated across the Sahara, into North Africa, and from North Africa, into Southern Europe, Turkey, and a region near northern Iraq and southern Turkey.[10] Some may have migrated and introduced the Senegal and Benin sickle cell haplotypes into Basra, Iraq, where both occur equally.[10] West Africans, bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into the northern region of Iraq (69.5%), Jordan (80%), Lebanon (73%), Oman (52.1%), and Egypt (80.8%).[10]
During the early period of the Holocene, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe, mostly in Iberia.[11] West Africans probably migrated, across Sahelian Africa, North Africa, and the Strait of Gibraltar, into Europe, and introduced 63% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA.[11] Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Southwest Asia by East Africans, largely in the region of Arabia, which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[11]
In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed from Africa (e.g., West Africa or West-Central Africa), through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Iberian peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern Portugal, of southern Spain) occurred.[12]
Historic
editAn African individual, who has been dated between 1st century CE and 3rd century CE as well as carried haplogroup H1, may have forcibly (via enslavement) or voluntarily migrated from the central Sahara or the Nile Valley (e.g., Sudan) to Rome.[13]
During the modern period, West Africans introduced more than 75% of Sub-Saharan mitochondrial DNA into North America and Southern Africans introduced almost 15%.[11] West Africans also introduced ~45% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into South America, whereas, Southern Africans, largely indigenous Angolans, introduced ~55%.[11] During the modern period, West Africans introduced 75% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into Iberia and other parts of Europe, possibly by sea voyage.[11] During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA than East Africans.[11] In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced by West Africans, which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[11]
International Trade of Enslaved Africans
editRegarding the Indian Ocean slave trade, Romuald (2017) states: "From the 8th to the 19th centuries, about four million people were captured from the shores of eastern Africa by Arab Muslim and Swahili traders. It has been suggested that slaves transported before the 16th century originated from the Horn of Africa, i.e., Nilotic or Afro-Asiatic speakers from present-day Ethiopia, whereas most Africans enslaved from the 18th century onward were Zanj, i.e., Bantu speakers of southeastern Africa."[14] Regarding the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, Fortes-Lima (2021) states:
Between the 15th and the 19th century, around twelve million Africans were forcibly displaced from their countries to be enslaved (that means around 30,000 captives a year over three and a half centuries). Enslaved Africans were taken from African slaving coasts that stretched thousands of miles, from Senegal to Angola, and even round the Cape and on to Mozambique. The largest number (around 95%) of slaves arrived in Latin America, with ~43% disembarked in South America, ~52% in the Caribbean, while the remaining 5% arrived in what has become today the United States. This forced and massive migration of people radically changed the genetic landscape of present-day populations in the Americas...According to historical resources, from 1501 to 1867 enslaved Africans were embarked from eight major historical coastal regions in sub-Saharan Africa: 5.7% of the captives were from Senegambia, 3.2% from Sierra Leone, 2.7% from Windward Coast, 9.6% from Gold Coast, 16.1% from Bight of Benin, 12.3% from the Bight of Biafra, 46.3% from West Central Africa, and 4.1% from Southeast Africa. West Central Africa region (coastal region from present-day Gabon to Angola) was always the largest regional point for captives throughout most of the TAST [Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade] period, and much of the trade there was focused in present-day Angola. As the TAST expanded after 1641, slaving regions such as Gold Coast, the Bights of Benin and Biafra, and West Central Africa became more prominent than they had been before.[15]
International Emigration of Modern Africans
editEurope
editIn Lisbon, Portugal, 87% of Angolans, who were sampled in 2014, carried various haplogroups of Macro-haplogroup L (e.g., L0a, L0d, L1b, L1c, L2a, L2b, L2c, L3a, L3b, L3d, L3f, L4), whereas, other sampled Angolans carried different haplogroups (e.g., H, T, R0, K, U, J, M).[16] In Lisbon, Portugal, out of 80 Guinea-Bissauns, who were sampled in 2017, 73 carried Macro-haplogroup L, 5 carried haplogroup U, one carried haplogroup M, and one carried haplogroup V.[17] In Lisbon, Portugal, 81% of Mozambicans, who were sampled in 2017, carried various haplogroups of Macro-haplogroup L, whereas, 19% of the sampled Mozambicans carried different haplogroups (e.g., H, U, K, J1, M4, R0, T2).[18]
Americas
editOut of 642 individuals from 15 populations among the African diaspora in the Americas sampled in 2016, some of which included individuals who self-identified as being of African descent, the ancestry of 328 African Americans were found to be 80% African, the ancestry of Afro-Jamaicans were found to be 89% African, and the ancestry of Puerto Ricans were found to be 27% African.[15]
Due to their relative isolation from Europeans and Native Americans, Maroons retained and adapted their cultures from Africa.[15] European colonial forces relinquished and recognized the territorial sovereignty of areas occupied by Maroons, such as Colombia, Jamaica, French Guiana, and Suriname.[15] Alukus,Kwinti, Matawai, Ndjukas, Paramakas, and Saramakas, who are Maroons of Noir Marron, are the largest, autonomous group of Maroons in the Americas.[15] Though Noir Marron groups and other groups among the African diaspora have been in the Americas for 400 years, the ancestry of Noir Marron individuals sampled in 2017 has shown that Maroons are 98% African, which is the highest degree of retained African ancestry among the African diaspora.[15] Noir Marron Maroons were found to be genetically linked with Africans in the region of the Bight of Benin; in particular, there are strong genetic connections with Africans in Benin and a linguistic connection with Gbe speakers, such as the Fon people.[15]
During the Holocene, 3% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA is indicated to have been introduced into South America and 6% is indicated to have been introduced into North America.[11] However, Sá et al. (2022) provided the following rationale: “This could be explained by statistical residuals from the recent lineages, but also from a couple of lineages whose founders in Africa were likely not detected, or due to minor errors in the sequences leading to overestimates of the age estimate of specific lineages.”[11] During the modern period, West Africans introduced more than 75% of Sub-Saharan mitochondrial DNA into North America and Southern Africans introduced almost 15%.[11] West Africans also introduced ~45% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into South America, whereas, Southern Africans, largely indigenous Angolans, introduced ~55%.[11]
North America
editUnited States of America
editAncient DNA
editAt Avery’s Rest in Delaware, 3 out of 11 individuals were African Americans, who were dated between 1675 CE and 1725 CE; one was of West African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS2447 and L3e3b, another was of western Central African Bantu-speaking ancestry and carried E1b1a-Z5974 and L0a1a2, and another was of West African and East African ancestry and carried E1b1a-Z5974 and L3d2.[19]
At a burial site in Delaware, enslaved African Americans, who were dated to the 17th century CE as well as had West African and Bantu ancestry from Central Africa and East Africa, carried haplogroups L3e3, L0a1a, and L3i2.[20]
At Catoctin Furnace African American Cemetery, in Catoctin Furnace, Maryland, there were 27 African Americans found who were dated between 1774 CE and 1850 CE.[21][22] One female individual, who was of 95.17% Sub-Saharan African and 1.69% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L3e1.[23] One male individual, who was of 98.14% Sub-Saharan African ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c2c and L2a1+143+@16309.[23] One male individual, who was of 83.73% Sub-Saharan African and 7.74% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1b1 and L3e2a1b1.[23] One male individual, who was of 88.47% Sub-Saharan African and 7.92% European ancestry, carried haplogroups R1b1a1b1a1a2c1 and L3e1.[23] One male individual, who was of 84.94% Sub-Saharan African and 9.45% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a and L2a1+143+16189 (16192)+@16309.[23] One female individual, who was of 97.02% Sub-Saharan African and 1.06% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L3f1b1a.[23] One male individual, who was of 87.83% Sub-Saharan African and 8.23% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3a1d1 and L3d1b3.[23] One male individual, who was of 98.14% Sub-Saharan African ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1a and L3e2a1b1.[23] One male individual, who was of 53.75% Sub-Saharan African and 42.11% European ancestry, carried haplogroups R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1h2a~ and L3f1b3.[23] One female individual, who was of 98.12% Sub-Saharan African ancestry, carried haplogroup L2b1a3.[23] One female individual, who was of 97.94% Sub-Saharan African ancestry, carried haplogroup L3e1a1a.[23] One male individual, who was of 93.87% Sub-Saharan African and 2.58% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1 and L3e1.[23] One male individual, who was of 98.70% Sub-Saharan African ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1b2a and L2a1a1.[23] One male individual, who was of 97.01% Sub-Saharan African ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1 and L3e2a1b1.[23] One female individual, who was of 87.17% Sub-Saharan African and 6.93% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L2a1+143+16189 (16192)+@16309.[23] One male individual, who was of 82.31% Sub-Saharan African and 10.24% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1b and L3e2a1b1.[23] One male individual, who was of 91.82% Sub-Saharan African and 5.31% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1 and L3e2.[23] One female individual, who was of 75.81% Sub-Saharan African and 21.44% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L4b2b1.[23] One female individual, who was of 91.95% Sub-Saharan African and 4.47% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L3e2.[23] One male individual, who was of 87.70% Sub-Saharan African and 4.93% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E2b and L2b1a3.[23] One female individual, who was of 97.53% Sub-Saharan African and 0.21% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L2b1a3.[23] One female individual, who was of 83.28% Sub-Saharan African and 10.72% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L3e2a1b1.[23] One male individual, who was of 41.31% Sub-Saharan African and 53.59% European ancestry, carried haplogroups R1a1a1 and J1b1a1a.[23] One male individual, who was of 92.70% Sub-Saharan African and 3.57% European ancestry, carried haplogroups A1b1 and L0a1b1a.[23] One male individual, who was of 81.18% Sub-Saharan African and 14.86% European ancestry, carried haplogroups E1b1a1~ and L2c.[23] One female individual, who was of 88.09% Sub-Saharan African and 5.44% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L2a1+143+16189 (16192)+@16309.[23] One female individual, who was of 92.32% Sub-Saharan African and 4.05% European ancestry, carried haplogroup L2b1a3.[23]
At a burial site in Schuyler Flatts, New York, 6 out of 14 individuals were African Americans, who were dated to the 18th century CE as well as of West African, western Central African, and Malagasy ancestry, carried various haplogroups; two carried haplogroup L2 (e.g., L2a1, L2b1), two carried haplogroup L3 (e.g., L3e2, L3e2b), one carried haplogroup M, and one carried haplogroup M7.[24]
At an African American cemetery dated to the 18th century CE, in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, enslaved African Americans carried haplogroups U5 and U6.[25]
At an Anson Street burial site dated to the 18th century CE, in Charleston, South Carolina, 29 enslaved African Americans carried the following haplogroups: one carried haplogroup L0 (e.g., L0a1), six carried haplogroup L1 (e.g., L1b, L1c), nine carried L2 (e.g., L2a, L2b, L2c), twelve carried L3 (e.g., L3e, L3b, L3d, L3f), and one carried U6 (e.g., U6a5).[26]
At an Anson Street burial site, in Charleston, South Carolina, there were 18 African Americans found who were dated to the 18th century CE.[27] Banza was of western Central African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS668 and L3e3b1.[27] Lima was of West African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-M4671 and L3b3.[27] Kuto was of western Central African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS2198 and L2a1a2.[27] Anika was of Sub-Saharan African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS6126 and L2b1.[27] Nana was of West African ancestry and carried haplogroup L2b3a.[27] Zimbu was of western Central African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS5497 and L3e1e.[27] Wuta was of Sub-Saharan African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS7305 and L3e2b+152.[27] Daba was of West African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-M4273 and L2c.[27] Fumu was of Sub-Saharan African ancestry and carried haplogroups B2a1a-Y12201 and L3e2b+152.[27] Lisa was of West African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-Z6020 and H100.[27] Ganda was of West African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS5612 and L1c1c.[27] Coosaw was of West African and Native American ancestry and carried haplogroups E2b1a-CTS2400 and A2.[27] Kidzera was of western Central African ancestry and carried haplogroup L2a1a2c.[27] Pita was of Sub-Saharan African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-M4287 and L3e2b.[27] Tima was of western Central African ancestry and carried haplogroup L3e1e.[27] Jode was of Sub-Saharan African ancestry and carried haplogroups E1b1a-CTS4975 and L2a1a2c.[27] Ajana was of western Central African ancestry and carried haplogroup L2a1I.[27] Isi was of western Central African ancestry and carried haplogroup L3e2a.[27]
In Maryland, a tobacco pipe dated to the 19th century CE was determined to have been used by an enslaved African American woman, who was of Mende ancestry, and carried haplogroup L3e.[28] She may have lived for a period of time between 1736 CE and 1864 CE.[15]
At Avondale Burial Place, in Bibb County, Georgia, utilized between 1820 CE and 1950 CE, 18 out of 20 individuals were determined to be African American, as they carried the following haplogroups: one L0, two with L1, seven with L2, seven with L3, and one with U6.[29]
In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, an individual of West African ancestry, who died of cholera during a cholera pandemic in 1849 CE, carried haplogroup L3d1b3.[30]
Y-Chromosomal DNA
edit60% of African Americans, who were sampled in 2007, were of haplogroup E1b1a, within which 22.9% were particularly of haplogroup E-M2; they also possessed numerous SNPs (e.g., U175, U209, U181, U290, U174, U186, and U247).[31]
An African American man, who was sampled in 2013, carried haplogroup A00, which likely dates back to 338,000 BP, and is a haplogroup shared with the Mbo people.[32]
Torres et al. (2012) states: "One African American population, those from South Carolina, cluster with the African populations. Notably, the South Carolina population falls nearest to the Grain Coast populations. Ethnohistorical records indicate a relationship between African Americans within this region of the United States and West Africans from Senegal, Gambia, and Sierra Leone. Based on such records it has been suggested that many African Americans within South Carolina originate from the Grain Coast region of West Africa. Furthermore, Africans from this region were sought-after and imported to the Americas for their knowledge of rice cultivation."[33]
X-Chromosomal DNA
editDue to the X-chromosomes in African Americans having high concentrations of ancestry from Africa, this coheres with the understanding of there being an asymmetric flow of genes from European males to African females;[34][35] consequently, this can be understood as being the result of enslaved African American females being raped by European males.[36]
Mitochondrial DNA
editAfrican Americans, who were sampled in 2015, carried various haplogroups of macro-haplogroup L (e.g., L0, L1, L1b, L1c, L2, L2a, L2b, L2c, L2e, L3, L3b, L3d, L3e, L3f, L3h, L3x, L4).[37] 10.2% of African Americans carried haplogroup L1b and 19.8% of African Americans carried haplogroup L2a.[37]
Stefflova et al. (2011) states: "Ancestry from Guinea Bissau-Mali-Senegal-Sierra Leone predominates in other United States African American populations compared to Philadelphia alone (43% vs. 22%). Despite the differences in coverage and sampling, this pattern may be attributed to a significant contribution of slaves from British colonies in Africa to the British-controlled Philadelphia region compared to a more diverse contribution to other parts of the United States from French, Spanish, and Dutch colonies. Additional possible contributing factors include the different periods of the slave trade influencing the Philadelphian population compared to the other parts of the United States. However, these remain tentative conclusions since we cannot rule out a contribution from sampling bias. Another example of these differences is the Gullah/Geechee populations from South Carolina/Georgia that have >78% of their source from the Guinea Bissau-Mali-Senegal-Sierra Leone region (data not shown), corresponding to the “Rice coast” around Sierra Leone that was the major source of slaves drawn by the United States in the later period of the slave trade."[38] The plurality of the African component of African Americans was found to be from West African populations from Senegambia and the Rice Coast (Guinea Bissau-Mali-Senegal-Sierra Leone), followed by Central Africans from the Congo and Angola, and lastly West-Central Africans (Nigeria-Niger-Cameroon).[38]
Autosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 2.6% (±2.1%) Native American and 10.6% (±2.3%) European ancestry, African-Americans who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 86.8% (±2.1%) West African.[39] In addition to being found to have 8% Asian (as a proxy for Native American ancestry) and 19.6% European ancestry, African-Americans, who were sampled in 2010, were found to be 72.5% African.[40] African Americans were found to be more closely genetically related to Yoruba people than East Africans (e.g., Luhya, Maasai).[40] Murray et al. (2010) also states: "In the analysis of AIMs [Ancestry Informative Markers], African Americans were most distant from Yorubans, followed by the Luhya, and then the Maasai and were closest to Barbadians."[40] Out of 5,244 African Americans sampled in 2017, their ancestry was found to range between 73% and 78% African; in particular, they were found to be of West African and western Central African ancestry.[15] Approximately 7% of their ancestry derives from Windward Coast, 13% from Senegambia, 30% from Angola, and nearly 50% from Benin, western Nigeria, and Togo.[15] Additionally, 4.8% of their ancestry derives from Bantu peoples and 16% derives from African rainforest hunter-gatherers.[15]
Tishkoff et al. (2009) via "Supervised STRUCTURE analysis [inferred] African American ancestry from global training populations, including both Bantu (Lemande) and non-Bantu (Mandinka) Niger-Kordofanian–speaking populations. These results were generally consistent with the unsupervised STRUCTURE analysis (table S6) and demonstrate that most African Americans have high proportions of both Bantu (~0.45 mean) and non-Bantu (~0.22 mean) Niger-Kordofanian ancestry, concordant with diasporas originating as far west as Senegambia and as far south as Angola and South Africa."[41] Moderate to modest amounts of Chadic, Fulani, Nilo-Saharan, Cushitic, and Sandawe ancestry were also inferred; this is consistent with the phylogenetic analysis of Tishkoff et al. (2009), wherein African-Americans were found to share more recent common ancestry with a clade including Hausa and Fulani from Cameroon, in addition to Chadic and Central Sudanic speakers such as the Mada, Sara, and Laka.[41]
Medical DNA
editThe African ancestry in African Americans have often been connected to the risk alleles and genetic components of diseases predominant among African Americans, such as blood disorders, hypertension, progressive kidney failure, and type 2 diabetes.[42]
African Americans, who have a high rate of occurrence of type 2 diabetes, have a few gene variants (e.g., several SNPs in IGF2 and HLA-B genes; the SNP, rs7903146, within the TCF7L2 gene; the intergenic SNP, rs7560163, located between the RBM43 gene and RND3 gene) that are strongly associated with type 2 diabetes.[42]
The rate of occurrence for hypertension in African Americans is 39%.[42] Several genes (e.g., EVX1-HOXA, PLEKHG1, RSPO3, SOX6, ULK4), which contributes to the signaling pathway for nitric oxide – a pathway connected with multiple functions (e.g., endothelian function, heart contraction, vasodilatation) relating to hypertension – and thus, are associated with hypertension.[42] Hypertension is also associated with the NPR3 gene.[42] These genes have all been connected with hypertension in African Americans.[42]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42] The Sickle Hemoglobin S trait occurs in 8% of African Americans, and, generally, sickle cell anemia occurs in 0.02% of African Americans.[42]
African Americans have as much as 65% of the Duffy-null genotype.[43] The cancer medicine, azathioprine, regarding its safety and when it should be discontinued, was found to be unsuitable and possibly damaging to African Americans, as the standard range was based on “normal” ranges for Europeans; the distinct genetic data from African Americans (e.g., Duffy-null phenotype) might provide a different explanation for neutropenia.[43]
Caribbean
editA majority of Afro-Caribbean people descend from peoples in the regions of West Africa and western Central Africa.[44] In particular, their genetic ancestry, to some extent, derives from peoples in the region of Angola, but more so, from peoples in regions, such as the Bight of Benin, Bight of Biafra, Cameroon, and Ghana.[44] Additionally, between the late 19th century CE and early 20th century CE, some Haitians migrated into Cuba, thereby, resulting in the addition of ancestry from Africa.[44]
Barbados
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 0.2% (±2.0%) Native American and 10.2% (±2.2%) European ancestry, Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 89.6% (±2.0%) West African.[39] In addition to being found to have 6.7% Asian and 15.9% European ancestry, Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2010, were found to be 77.4% African.[40] Afro-Barbadians were found to be more closely genetically related to Yoruba people than East Africans.[40] In addition to being found to have 6% Asian and 16% European ancestry, Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 77% African; most of the African ancestry of Afro-Barbadians were found to derive from the Yoruba people.[45] In addition to being found to have 0% Native American and 16% European (e.g., Northern/Western) ancestry, Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 84% African (e.g., Yoruba).[46][47] The ancestry of Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2017, were found to be 88% African.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Dominica
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 16.2% (±10.4%) Native American and 28.1% (±12.3%) European ancestry, Afro-Dominicans, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 55.6% (±16.1%) West African.[48]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Dominican Republic
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 9% Native American and 52% European (e.g., Northern/Western) ancestry, Afro-Dominicans, who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 38% African (e.g., Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Grenada
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 6.8% (±4.6%) Native American and 12.1% (±11.2%) European ancestry, Afro-Grenadians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 81.1% (±11.3%) West African.[48]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Haiti
editY-Chromosomal DNA
editAfro-Haitians, who were sampled in 2012, were found to have carried haplogroup E1b1a-M2 (63.4%), within which were more specific sub-haplogroups, such as haplogroups E1b1a7-M191 (26.8%) and E1b1a8-U175 (26%), and subgroups within those sub-haplogroups, such as E1b1a7a-U174 (26.8%) and E1b1a8a-P278 (13%); there were also various sub-haplogroups of haplogroup R1b (e.g., R1b1b1-M269, R1b1b1a1b2-M529, R1b1b1a1b*-S116, R-M306, R1b2*-V88) as well as haplogroup R1a-M198.[49]
Autosomal DNA
editThe ancestry of Afro-Haitians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 84% African.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Jamaica
editY-Chromosomal DNA
editAfro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2012, were found to have carried haplogroup E1b1a-M2 (60.4%), within which were more specific sub-haplogroups, such as E1b1a7-M191 (27.7%) and E1b1a8-U175 (23.3%), and subgroups within those sub-haplogroups, such as E1b1a7a-U174 (25.8%) and E1b1a8a-P278 (11.3%); there were also various sub-haplogroups of haplogroup R1b (e.g., R1b1b1-M269, R1b1b1a1b2-M529, R1b1b1a1b*-S116, R-M306, R1b2*-V88) as well as haplogroup R1a-M198.[49]
Mitochondrial DNA
editAfro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2012, were found to have mostly (97.5%) carried various forms of macro-haplogroup L as well as various other haplogroups (e.g., U6, A2, B2, D4, H, J, U2, M).[50]
Autosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 3.2% (±3.1%) Native American and 12.4% (±3.5%) European ancestry, Afro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 84.4% (±3.1%) West African.[39] In addition to being found to have 8.3% (±13.5%) Native American and 10.3% (±8.4%) European ancestry, Afro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 81.4% (±15.9%) West African.[48] The ancestry of Afro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2016, were found to be 89% African.[15] In addition to being found to have 1% Native American and 11% European (e.g., Northern/Western) ancestry, Afro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 89% African (e.g., Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Puerto Rico
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 12% Native American and 61% European (e.g., Northern/Western) ancestry, Afro-Puerto Ricans, who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 27% African (e.g., Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Kitts and Nevis
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 5.8% (±2.9%) Native American and 8.2% (±5.4%) European ancestry, Afro-Kittitians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 85.9% (±5.7%) West African.[48]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Lucia
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 7.5% (±7.3%) Native American and 17.9% (±12.5%) European ancestry, Afro-Saint Lucians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 74.5% (±15.3%) West African.[48]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Martin
editAncient DNA
editIn Zoutsteeg, Philipsburg, Saint Martin, three enslaved Africans of West African (e.g., Nigeria, Ghana) and western Central African (e.g., Bantu peoples of northern Cameroon) ancestry, who are estimated to date between 1660 CE and 1688 CE, were found; one carried haplogroups R1b1c-V88 and L3b1a, another carried haplogroup L3d1b, and the last carried haplogroup L2a1f.[51] A man and woman may have been from Ghana or Nigeria, and a man may have been from among the Bantu peoples of Cameroon, Republic of the Congo, and Democratic Republic of the Congo.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Vincent
editAutosomal DNA
editThe ancestry of the Garifuna in Saint Vincent, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 70% African.[15] The ancestry of the Garifuna of Saint Vincent, who were sampled in 2019, were found to be 70% African.[15] In addition to being found to have 6.5% (±6.4%) Native American and 12.8% (±12.9%) European ancestry, Afro-Vincentians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 80.6% (±16.4%) West African.[48]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Trinidad and Tobago
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 9.2% (±8.7%) Native American and 15.8% (±11.5%) European ancestry, Afro-Trinidadians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 75.0% (±16.6%) West African.[48]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Virgin Islands
editSaint Thomas
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 2.6% (±2.1%) Native American and 10.6% (±2.3%) European ancestry, Afro-Virgin Islanders from Saint Thomas, who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 86.8% (±2.2%) West African.[39] In addition to being found to have 5.6% (±4.9%) Native American and 16.9% (±21.1%) European ancestry, Afro-Virgin Islanders from Saint Thomas, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 77.4% (±21.9%) West African.[48]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Central America
editBelize
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 29.0% Native American and 1.0% European ancestry, some Afro-Belizeans from Livingston, who were sampled in 1981, were found to be 70.0% African.[52] In addition to being found to have 17.4% Native American and 2.7% European ancestry, some Afro-Belizeans from Stann Creek, who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 79.9% African.[52] In addition to being found to have 24.1% Native American and 4.9% European ancestry, some Afro-Belizeans from Punta Gorda, who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 71.0% African.[52] In addition to being found to have 23.9% Native American and 0.5% European ancestry, some Afro-Belizeans from Hopkins, who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 75.6% African.[52] In addition to being found to have 7.4% Native American and 17.1% European ancestry, some Afro-Belizeans from Stann Creek, who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 75.5% African.[52] In addition to being found to have 5.2% Native American and 42.8% European ancestry, some Afro-Belizeans from Punta Gorda, who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 52.0% African.[52] In addition to being found to have 8.6% Native American and 16.7% European ancestry, some Afro-Belizeans from Belize City, who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 74.7% African.[52]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Guatemala
editAutosomal DNA
editMedical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Honduras
editAutosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 17% Native American and 2% European (e.g., Northern/Western) ancestry, Afro-Hondurans, who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 81% African (e.g., Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Mexico
editAncient DNA
editAt a San Jose de los Naturales Royal Hospital burial site, in Mexico City, Mexico, three enslaved West Africans of West African and Southern African ancestry, dated between 1453 CE and 1626 CE, 1450 CE and 1620 CE, and 1436 CE and 1472 CE, were found; one carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1c1b/E-M263.2 and L1b2a, another carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1d1/E-P278.1/E-M425 and L3d1a1a, and the last carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1c1a1c/E-CTS8030 and L3e1a1a.[53] Human leukocyte antigen alleles further confirm that the individuals were of Sub-Saharan African origin.[15]
At the 11–1 burial site, in Campeche, Mexico, a West African woman, who was in her early twenties and dated to the late 17th century CE, carried haplogroup L3.[54]
Medical DNA
editAt La Concepción chapel and Hospital Real de San José de los Naturales, in Mexico City, Mexico, enslaved Africans, who carried haplogroup L, were sampled for viral genomes.[55] From among the sampled individuals, who may have died between 1472–1625 CE and 1442–1608 CE, the ancient DNA of the viruses were able to be were able to be reconstructed.[55] Due to the brutality of the Middle Passage and enslavement of the first generation of Africans, the transmission of the Hepatitis B virus and human parvovirus B19 from Africa to the Americas was facilitated by Spanish slavers and colonists; while this has not been established as causally connected, it is at least associated with the Cocoliztli epidemics.[55]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Nicaragua
editAutosomal DNA
editMedical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
South America
editBolivia
editAutosomal DNA
editThe ancestry of Afro-Bolivians from the Yungas Valley, who were sampled in 2016, were found to be 80% African.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Brazil
editAncient DNA
editAt Pretos Novos Cemetery, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 4 out 16 carried M. tuberculosis and 3 out of 16 carried haplogroups L3e2, L3d1, and L1c2; thus, indicating that the individuals, who were buried in the cemetery between the 18th century CE and the 19th century CE, were born in West Africa and/or western Central Africa, and soon died after reaching Rio de Janeiro.[56]
Autosomal DNA
editThe average ancestry of Afro-Brazilians were found to be 70.8% African.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Colombia
editY-Chromosomal DNA
editAt Palenque, in addition to haplogroup R1b being found, including haplogroup R1b-V88, haplogroup E1b1a-M2 was found, which includes its sub-lineages (e.g., U175, U181, U290).[57] While 37.9% was unable to be identified, the following African paternal haplogroups were able to be identified at Palenque: E1b1a-M2* (xM154, M191) (22.4% rate of occurrence) likely originates near Bight of Benin, E1b1a-M2* (xM154, M191) (12.1%) likely originates near Loango/Angola, B2a-M150* (xM109) (5.2%) likely originates in Loango, R1b-V88 (6.9%) likely originates near Bight of Benin/Loango, E1b1b-M35* (xM78, M81, M123, V6, M293) (5.2%) likely originates near Senegambia/Bight of Benin, Y-MRCA* (xM13,SRY10831.1) (3.4%) likely originates in Upper Guinea, E1a-M33 (1.7%) likely originates in Upper Guinea, E1a-M33 (1.7%) likely originates near Bight of Benin/Bight of Biafra, E1b1a-M191 (1.7%) likely originates near Loango/Angola, and E1b1a-M191 (1.7%) likely originates in Loango.[58]
Mitochondrial DNA
editWhile 67.1% was unable to be identified, the following African maternal haplogroups were able to be identified at Palenque: L1b1a1’4 (8.9% rate of occurrence) likely originates near Senegambia/Upper Guinea, L1c3a1b (6.3%) likely originates near Gold Coast/Angola, L0a1a+200 (1.3%) likely originates near Upper Guinea/Bight of Benin, L2b1a (1.3%) likely originates near Bight of Benin/Angola, L2d+16129 (1.3%) likely originates in Angola, L3e1d (12.7%) likely originates in Angola, and L3f1b+16365 (1.3%) likely originates in Gold Coast.[58]
Autosomal DNA
editIn 2016, linguistic evidence (e.g., Kikongo influence and remnants from the early history of Palenque found in Palenquero), which was also compatible with a diverse origin for African Y-chromosome, supported Bakongo people being the founding population of Palenque; in 2020, the Yombe people of the Republic of the Congo were found to be genetically closest with the people of Palenque.[57]
In addition to being found to have 28% Native American and 39% European (e.g., Northern/Western) ancestry, Afro-Colombians, who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 33% African (e.g., Yoruba).[46][47] The average ancestry of Afro-Colombians were found to be 76.8% African.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Based on 30 genetic markers, African ancestry was shown to provide statistically significant protection against Dengue Fever in Colombians.[42]
Peru
editAutosomal DNA
editThe ancestry of Afro-Peruvians, who were sampled in 2018, were found to be 78% African.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Suriname
editAncient DNA
editIn Batavia, Suriname, an enslaved West African (e.g., Mali) with some Middle Eastern ancestry, who died more than a century ago, carried a strain of M. leprae and haplogroup L3.[59]
Autosomal DNA
editDue to their relative isolation from Europeans and Native Americans, Maroons retained and adapted their cultures from Africa.[15] European colonial forces relinquished and recognized the territorial sovereignty of areas occupied by Maroons, such as Colombia, Jamaica, French Guiana, and Suriname.[15] Alukus,Kwinti, Matawai, Ndjukas, Paramakas, and Saramakas, who are Maroons of Noir Marron, are the largest, autonomous group of Maroons in the Americas.[15] Though Noir Marron groups and other groups among the African diaspora have been in the Americas for 400 years, the ancestry of Noir Marron individuals sampled in 2017 has shown that Maroons are 98% African, which is the highest degree of retained African ancestry among the African diaspora.[15] Noir Marron Maroons were found to be genetically linked with Africans in the region of the Bight of Benin; in particular, there are strong genetic connections with Africans in Benin and a linguistic connection with Gbe speakers, such as the Fon people.[15]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Atlantic Ocean
editNorth Atlantic Ocean
editMacaronesia
editCanary Islands
editAncient DNA
editAt Finca Clavijo, in Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, nine individuals, dated between 15th century CE and 17th century CE, who were of Sub-Saharan African and North African/Moorish origin, were enslaved and forcibly brought from Africa (e.g., Morocco, Senegal River); the Sub-Saharan African individuals carried haplogroups L1b, L1c, and L2a1, and the Moorish individuals carried haplogroups H, HV/R, R0, I, and U6b1.[60]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
South Atlantic Ocean
editSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
editSaint Helena
editAncient DNA
editIn Saint Helena, 20 freed Africans,[61][62] who were dated to the 19th century CE,[61] were also of western Central African[61][63][64] (e.g., Bantu peoples of Gabon and Angola) ancestry.[61] One female individual carried haplogroup L1b1a10b.[65] One female individual carried haplogroup L2a1f.[65] One female individual carried haplogroup L2a1a3c.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d and L1c3a.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1a and L0a1b2a.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1a2a2 and L0a1e.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1 and L2a1f1.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1 and L3.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d and L3e1e.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1d and L3e3b2.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3 and L3e1a3a.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1a2a2 and L2b1a.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1 and L3f1b1a.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c1a and L3d3a1.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups B2a1a1a1 and L3e2b1.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c1a and L2a1f.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3a1c1 and L3e1d1a.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1d and L1b1a10.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3a1c and L2a1f1.[65] One male individual carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c1a1 and L2b1a.[65] An enslaved African American man and woman, from the 18th century CE Anson Street burial site in Charleston, South Carolina, who carried haplogroup L3e1e, shared this haplogroup with freed Africans in Saint Helena.[26] Based on those who were present among enlaved Africans, the ratio of males-to-females supports the conclusion of there being a strong selection bias for males in the latter period of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.[61][66][67] Consequently, due to this study on the freed Africans of Saint Helena, among other studies, greater genetic insights have been made into the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and its effects on the demographics of Africa.[68]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Eurasia
editAmid the Green Sahara in Africa, the mutation for sickle cell originated in the Sahara[7] or in the northwest forest region of western Central Africa (e.g., Cameroon)[7][8] by at least 7,300 years ago,[7][8] though possibly as early as 22,000 years ago.[9][8] The ancestral sickle cell haplotype to modern haplotypes (e.g., Cameroon/Central African Republic and Benin/Senegal haplotypes) may have first arose in the ancestors of modern West Africans, bearing haplogroups E1b1a1-L485 and E1b1a1-U175 or their ancestral haplogroup E1b1a1-M4732.[7] West Africans (e.g., Yoruba and Esan of Nigeria), bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated through the northeastern region of Africa into the western region of Arabia.[7] West Africans (e.g., Mende of Sierra Leone), bearing the Senegal sickle cell haplotype,[10][7] may have migrated into Mauritania (77% modern rate of occurrence) and Senegal (100%); they may also have migrated across the Sahara, into North Africa, and from North Africa, into Southern Europe, Turkey, and a region near northern Iraq and southern Turkey.[10] Some may have migrated and introduced the Senegal and Benin sickle cell haplotypes into Basra, Iraq, where both occur equally.[10] West Africans, bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into the northern region of Iraq (69.5%), Jordan (80%), Lebanon (73%), Oman (52.1%), and Egypt (80.8%).[10]
Europe
editAs early as 11,000 years ago, Sub-Saharan West Africans, bearing macrohaplogroup L (e.g., L1b1a11, L1b1a6a, L1b1a8, L1b1a9a1, L2a1k, L3d1b1a), may have migrated through North Africa and into Europe, mostly into southern Europe (e.g., Iberia).[6]
During the early period of the Holocene, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe, mostly in Iberia.[11] West Africans probably migrated, across Sahelian Africa, North Africa, and the Strait of Gibraltar, into Europe, and introduced 63% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA.[11] During the modern period, West Africans introduced 75% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into Iberia and other parts of Europe, possibly by sea voyage.[11]
France
editAncient DNA
editAt Pont-sur-Seine, in France, a male individual, dated to the Middle Neolithic, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a1c2c and U5b1-16189-@16192.[69]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Greece
editMedical DNA
editAccording to some studies, Greeks share some Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) alleles with East Africans (e.g., Amhara, Nuba, Oromo) and West Africans (e.g., Fulani, Mossi, Rimaibe) from Burkina Faso,[70][71][72] who are viewed as having a possible earlier origin in Ethiopia.[71][73] In particular, West Africans (e.g., Fulani, Mossi, Rimaibe) and Ethiopians (e.g., Amhara, Oromo) are viewed as sharing the most HLA-DRB1 alleles with Greeks.[74][72] Greeks, West Africans, and Ethiopians are viewed as viewed as sharing chromosome 7 markers.[70] During the desertification of the Green Sahara in 5000 BCE, or during the time of ancient Egypt, admixture between Greeks and black Africans are viewed as having occurred.[70] Following the aridification of the Green Sahara, Africans are viewed as possibly having migrated from the southern region of the Sahara to the region of Athens and the islands in the Aegean.[71][73] If the migration of black Africans into Greece occurred following the drying of the Green Sahara, it is viewed that this may indicate that Pelasgians derive from black Africans.[70] More likely, if the migration of black Africans into Greece occurred during the time of ancient Egypt, then it is viewed that it may have been when black African dynasties in ancient Egypt and that those who followed them were expelled.[70][71] Alternatively, during the existence of ancient Egypt, it is viewed that groups from Ethiopia may have migrated to Greece and West Africa, thereby, resulting in the possible admixture of modern Greeks and modern West African ethnic groups (e.g., Fulani, Mossi, Rimaibe).[74] Greeks are viewed as sharing some alleles with West Africans (e.g., Fulani, Mossi, and Rimaibe) and East Africans (e.g., Oromo, Amhara, Nubians),[75][72] the latter of which are viewed as also interrelated.[75] Following the expulsion of what are characterized as black African Egyptian dynasties and groups who followed the dynasties toward Greece, it is viewed that there may have been subsequent admixture between the incoming groups and Greeks.[75] Another migration of West Africans may have occurred thereafter.[75] Additionally, following desertification of the Green Sahara around 5000 BCE, it is viewed that there may have been another migration of black Africans into Greece.[75] A shared autosomal marker, relating to cystic fibrosis (3120 + 1 G), was viewed as having been found between some Africans and Greeks; as a possible historic explanation for the presence of this marker, the Danaids, who are identified as Africans, are viewed as possibly having migrated toward the north, into ancient Egypt, being repelled in ancient Egypt, and subsequently having migrated into Peloponnesus.[72]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Italy
editAncient DNA
editAn African individual, who has been dated between 1st century CE and 3rd century CE as well as carried haplogroup H1, may have forcibly (via enslavement) or voluntarily migrated from the central Sahara or the Nile Valley (e.g., Sudan) to Rome.[13]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Portugal
editAncient DNA
editIn 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed from Africa (e.g., West Africa or West-Central Africa), through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Iberian Peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern Portugal, of southern Spain) occurred.[12]
At Valle da Gafaria, in Lagos, Portugal, seven enslaved Africans, five of which had a combination of African and European admixture, and two of which had West African and Bantu ancestry, all of who were estimated to date between the 15th century CE and the 17th century CE; while one of their haplogroups went undetermined, it was determined that the others carried haplogroups H2a2, L1b1, L3i1b, L3'4'6, L2b1, and L3d.[76][77]
At Cabeço da Amoreira, in Portugal, an enslaved West African man, who may have been from the Senegambian coastal region of Gambia, Mauritania, or Senegal, and carried haplogroups E1b1a and L3b1a, was buried among shell middens between the 16th century CE and the 18th century CE.[78]
Mitochondrial DNA
editIn Lisbon, Portugal, 87% of Angolans, who were sampled in 2014, carried various haplogroups of Macro-haplogroup L (e.g., L0a, L0d, L1b, L1c, L2a, L2b, L2c, L3a, L3b, L3d, L3f, L4), whereas, other sampled Angolans carried different haplogroups (e.g., H, T, R0, K, U, J, M).[16]
In Lisbon, Portugal, out of 80 Guinea-Bissauns, who were sampled in 2017, 73 carried Macro-haplogroup L, 5 carried haplogroup U, one carried haplogroup M, and one carried haplogroup V.[17]
In Lisbon, Portugal, 81% of Mozambicans, who were sampled in 2017, carried various haplogroups of Macro-haplogroup L, whereas, 19% of the sampled Mozambicans carried different haplogroups (e.g., H, U, K, J1, M4, R0, T2).[18]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Spain
editAncient DNA
editIn 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed from Africa (e.g., West Africa or West-Central Africa), through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Iberian peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern Portugal, of southern Spain) occurred.[12]
In Granada, Spain, a Muslim (Moor) of the Cordoba Caliphate,[79] who was of haplogroups E1b1a1 and H1+16189,[80] as well as estimated to date between 900 CE and 1000 CE, and a Morisco,[79] who was of haplogroup L2e1,[80] as well as estimated to date between 1500 CE and 1600 CE, were both found to be of West African (i.e., Gambian) and Iberian descent.[79]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Asia
editBetween 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Southwest Asia by East Africans, largely in the region of Arabia, which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[11] During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA than East Africans.[11] In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced by West Africans, which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[11]
Arabia
editMitochondrial DNA
editFrom as early as 2500 BP, East African females migrated, as well as some who may have later been enslaved and forcibly transported, into Arabia.[81] Consequently, Arabs, who were sampled in 2003, have been shown to carry Sub-Saharan African haplogroups (e.g., L1, L2, L3b, L3d, L3e); specifically, 35% of Yemenese from the Hadramawt region, and between 10% and 15% among other Arabs (e.g., Bedouin, Iraqis, Jordanians, Palestinians, Syrians).[81]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Georgia
editAncient DNA
editIn Abkhazia, Georgia, an African woman, Zana, who carried haplogroup L2b1b, was 34% West African and 66% East African, and lived during the 19th century CE.[82] Between the 16th century CE and the 19th century CE, the ancestors of Zana, who were of West African and East African ancestry, may have arrived in Abkhazia, Georgia as a result of enslavement during the Ottoman Empire.[82] Khwit, who was the son of Zana and carried haplogroups R1b1a1b1 and L2b1b, was of African and European admixture.[82]
Medical DNA
editLocal myth about Zana of Abkhazia, Georgia being an Almasty was refuted by genetic evidence from ancient DNA, which confirmed that Zana was neither closely related to chimpanzees nor closely related to archaic humans, but closely related to other modern humans.[82] Margaryan et al. (2021) speculate that Zana may have had congenital generalized hypertrichosis, which may have resulted in the development of the local myth.[82]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
India
editY-Chromosomal DNA
editOut of the total amount of haplogroups carried, Siddis, who were sampled in 2011, 70% of their paternal haplogroups were found to be African; their paternal haplogroups were found to be common among Bantu-speaking peoples.[14]
Mitochondrial DNA
editOut of the total amount of haplogroups carried, Siddis, who were sampled in 2011, 24% of their maternal haplogroups were found to be African.[14]
Autosomal DNA
editIn addition to being found to have 30.74% (±10.98%) South Indian and 7.05% (±10.15%) European ancestry, Siddis, who were sampled in 2011, were found to be 62.21% (±9.68%) East African.[83] Siddis, who were sampled twice in 2011, were found to be 60%-75% Sub-Saharan African.[14]
Medical DNA
editRisk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Israel
editMedical DNA
editDuring the Copper Age and early Islamic era of ancient Israel, West Africans may have migrated into ancient Israel and introduced head louse from West Africa.[84]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Pakistan
editY-Chromosomal DNA
editOut of the total amount of haplogroups carried, Makranis, who were sampled in 2002 and 2004, 12% (±7%) of their paternal haplogroups were African.[14]
Mitochondrial DNA
editOut of the total amount of haplogroups carried, Makranis, who were sampled in 2002 and 2004, 40% (±9%) of their maternal haplogroups were African.[14]
Autosomal DNA
editWhile the orature among Makranis narrates an origin from Abyssinia, the genetic results from 2017 show that much of the ancestry of Makranis derives from Bantu-speaking peoples (Zanj), specifically from the southeast African Swahili coast.[14] In addition to being found to have 74.5% Pakistani ancestry, Makranis, who were sampled in 2017, were found to be 25.5% Sub-Saharan African.[14] Due to the African ancestry in Makranis being genetically similar to southeastern Bantu (e.g., Sotho) and eastern Bantu (e.g., Luhya) peoples, their African ancestry may derive from a source population in Mozambique.[14] Additionally, the African ancestors of the Makranis may have been enslaved by slavers from the Omani Empire during the Indian Ocean slave trade of the 18th century CE.[14]
Medical DNA
editSince enslaved Africans were brought to Pakistan, the African Duffy-null alleles in Makranis have evolved.[14] Makranis have an increased level of malarial resistance to P. vivax.[14]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease, which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin.[42]
Some infectious diseases are protected against due to African ancestry.[42] Hereditary blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, produce an effect on the development of hemoglobin, which, consequently, prevents the reproduction of malaria parasites within the erythrocyte.[42] Populations with West African ancestry, including among the African diaspora brought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
References
edit- ^ Osborne, Anne H.; et al. (October 2008). "A humid corridor across the Sahara for the migration of early modern humans out of Africa 120,000 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (43): 16444–16447. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10516444O. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804472105. PMC 2575439. PMID 18936490. S2CID 10418009.
- ^ Drake, Nick; Breeze, Paul (2016). "Climate Change and Modern Human Occupation of the Sahara from MIS 6-2". Africa from MIS 6-2. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Africa from MIS 6-2. pp. 103–122. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_6. ISBN 978-94-017-7519-9. S2CID 131383927.
- ^ El-Shenawy, Mohammed I.; et al. (2018). "Speleothem evidence for the greening of the Sahara and its implications for the early human dispersal out of sub-Saharan Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews. 188: 67–76. Bibcode:2018QSRv..188...67E. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.03.016. S2CID 134694090.
- ^ Scheele, Judith (Aug 2016). "Crossroads Regions: The Sahara". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935369.013.18. ISBN 978-0-19-993536-9.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Wippel, Steffen (2020). "The Sahara as a Bridge, Not a Barrier: An Essay and Book Review on Recent Transregional Perspectives". Neue Politische Literatur. 65 (3): 449–472. doi:10.1007/s42520-020-00318-y. S2CID 224855920.
- ^ a b Soares, Pedro; et al. (2013). "The genetic impact of the lake chad basin population in north africa as documented by mitochondrial diversity and internal variation of the L3e5 haplogroup". Annals of Human Genetics. 77 (6): 513–523. doi:10.1111/ahg.12040. PMID 25069842. S2CID 24672148.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Shriner, Daniel; Rotimi, Charles N. (2018). "Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase". American Journal of Human Genetics. 102 (4). Am J Hum Genet.: 547–556. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003. PMC 5985360. PMID 29526279. S2CID 4636822.
- ^ a b c d e f Esoh, Kevin; Wonkam, Ambroise (2021). "Evolutionary history of sickle-cell mutation: implications for global genetic medicine". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R119–R128. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddab004. PMC 8117455. PMID 33461216. S2CID 231640941.
- ^ a b Laval, Guillaume; et al. (2019). "Recent Adaptive Acquisition by African Rainforest Hunter-Gatherers of the Late Pleistocene Sickle-Cell Mutation Suggests Past Differences in Malaria Exposure". American Journal of Human Genetics. 104 (3): 553–561. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2019.02.007. PMC 6407493. PMID 30827499. S2CID 73503158.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Yaseen, Noor Taha; et al. (2020). "Sickle ß-globin haplotypes among patients with sickle cell anemia in Basra, Iraq: A cross-sectional study". Iraqi Journal of Hematology. 9 (1): 23–29. doi:10.4103/ijh.ijh_20_19. ISSN 2072-8069. S2CID 216082225.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Sá, Luísa; et al. (16 August 2022). "Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (16): 9219. doi:10.3390/ijms23169219. ISSN 1661-6596. OCLC 9627558751. PMC 9408831. PMID 36012483. S2CID 251653686.
- ^ a b c González-Fortes, G.; et al. (2019). "A western route of prehistoric human migration from Africa into the Iberian Peninsula". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 286 (1895): 20182288. doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.2288. PMC 6364581. PMID 30963949. S2CID 104296971.
- ^ a b Salesse, Kevin; et al. (June 2021). "Far from home: A multi analytical approach revealing the journey of an African born individual to imperial Rome". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 37 (103011): 4, 12–13. Bibcode:2021JArSR..37j3011S. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103011. S2CID 235509252.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Romuald, Laso-Jadart; et al. (7 December 2017). "The Genetic Legacy of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade: Recent Admixture and Post-admixture Selection in the Makranis of Pakistan". American Journal of Human Genetics. 101 (6): 977–984. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.09.025. PMC 5812914. PMID 29129317. S2CID 4400003.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Fortes-Lima, Cesar A. (22 Nov 2021). "Disentangling the Impact of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in African Diaspora Populations from a Genomic Perspective". Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity Cultural and Biological Approaches to Uncover African Diversity. Brill. pp. 305, 308–321. doi:10.1163/9789004500228_012. ISBN 978-90-04-50022-8. S2CID 244549408.
- ^ a b Simão, Filipa; et al. (March 2015). "Genetic portrait of Lisboa immigrant population from Angola with mitochondrial DNA". Forensic Science International: Genetics. 15: 34. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2014.09.013. PMID 25451274. S2CID 25684497.
- ^ a b Amorim, António; et al. (September 19, 2017). "Updated mtDNA study of Guinea-Bissau immigrant population living in Lisbon". Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series. 6: e329–e331. doi:10.1016/j.fsigss.2017.09.122. S2CID 91067869.
- ^ a b de Campos, Marta Proença; et al. (September 20, 2017). "The immigrant population from Mozambique in Lisbon: Updated mitochondrial DNA portrait". Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series. 6: e298–e300. doi:10.1016/j.fsigss.2017.09.134. S2CID 90400711.
- ^ Fleskes, Raquel E.; et al. (June 5, 2023). "Historical genomes elucidate European settlement and the African diaspora in Delaware". Current Biology. 33 (11): 2350–2358.e7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.069. ISSN 0960-9822. OCLC 9874997102. PMID 37207647. S2CID 258767664.
- ^ Fleskes, Raquel E.; et al. (2019). "Ancient DNA and bioarchaeological perspectives on European and African diversity and relationships on the colonial Delaware frontier". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 170 (2): 232–245. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23887. PMID 31270812. S2CID 195796747.
- ^ Harney, Éadaoin; et al. (2023). "The genetic legacy of African Americans from Catoctin Furnace" (PDF). Science. 381 (500): eade4995. doi:10.1126/science.ade4995. PMC 10958645. PMID 37535739. S2CID 260440898.
- ^ Harney, Éadaoin; et al. (2023). "Supplementary Materials for The genetic legacy of African Americans from Catoctin Furnace" (PDF). Science. 381 (500): eade4995. doi:10.1126/science.ade4995. PMC 10958645. PMID 37535739. S2CID 260440898.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Harney, Éadaoin; et al. (2023). "Tables S1 to S24, S1.1, S3.2 to S3.7, and S4.1 for The genetic legacy of African Americans from Catoctin Furnace". Science. 381 (500): eade4995. doi:10.1126/science.ade4995. PMC 10958645. PMID 37535739. S2CID 260440898.
- ^ Lee, Esther J.; et al. (December 2009). "MtDNA origins of an enslaved labor force from the 18th century Schuyler Flatts Burial Ground in colonial Albany, NY: Africans, Native Americans, and Malagasy?". Journal of Archaeological Science. 36 (12): 2805–2810. Bibcode:2009JArSc..36.2805L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.09.008. S2CID 162393390.
- ^ Richards, Christine Marie (April 1, 2011). "Analysis of ancient mitochondrial (mtDNA) from African American skeletal remains from a Portsmouth, New Hampshire slave burial ground". University of Massachusetts Lowell. p. ii. S2CID 163631136.
- ^ a b Fleskes, Raquel E.; et al. (2020). "Ancestry, health, and lived experiences of enslaved Africans in 18th century Charleston: An osteobiographical analysis" (PDF). American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 175 (1): 3–24. doi:10.1002/ajpa.24149. PMID 33022107. S2CID 222180278.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Fleskes, Raquel E.; et al. (2023). "Community-engaged ancient DNA project reveals diverse origins of 18th-century African descendants in Charleston, South Carolina". Anthropology. 120 (3): e2201620120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12001620F. doi:10.1073/pnas.2201620120. PMC 9934026. PMID 36623185. S2CID 255568252.
- ^ Schablitsky, Julie M.; et al. (May 2019). "Ancient DNA analysis of a nineteenth century tobacco pipe from a Maryland slave quarter". Journal of Archaeological Science. 105: 11–18. Bibcode:2019JArSc.105...11S. doi:10.1016/J.JAS.2019.02.006. S2CID 133818711.
- ^ Ozga, Andrew T.; et al. (2015). "Origins of an Unmarked Georgia Cemetery Using Ancient DNA Analysis". Human Biology. 87 (2): 117. doi:10.13110/humanbiology.87.2.0109. PMID 26829294. S2CID 39797366.
- ^ Devault, Alison M.; et al. (January 23, 2014). "Second-Pandemic Strain of Vibrio cholerae from the Philadelphia Cholera Outbreak of 1849". New England Journal of Medicine. 370 (4): 334–340. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1308663. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002A-0B62-7. PMID 24401020. S2CID 1599975.
- ^ Sims, Lynn; Garvey, Dennis; Ballantyne, Jack (2007). "Sub-Populations Within the Major European and African Derived Haplogroups R1b3 and E3a Are Differentiated by Previously Phylogenetically Undefined Y-SNPs". Human Mutation. 28 (1): 3. doi:10.1002/humu.9469. PMID 17154278. S2CID 34556775.
- ^ Mendez, Fernando L.; et al. (7 March 2013). "An African American Paternal Lineage Adds an Extremely Ancient Root to the Human Y Chromosome Phylogenetic Tree". American Journal of Human Genetics. 92 (3): 454–459. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.02.002. PMC 3591855. PMID 23453668. S2CID 16611039.
- ^ Torres, Jada Benn; et al. (25 Jan 2012). "Y chromosome lineages in men of west African descent". PLOS ONE. 7 (1): e29687. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...729687T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029687. OCLC 7919015239. PMC 3266241. PMID 22295064. S2CID 6850246.
- ^ Bryc, Katarzyna; et al. (December 22, 2009). "Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (2): 786–791. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909559107. PMC 2818934. PMID 20080753. S2CID 1648391.
- ^ Bryc, Katarzyna; et al. (8 January 2015). "The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States". American Journal of Human Genetics. 96 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010. PMC 4289685. PMID 25529636. S2CID 3889161.
- ^ Micheletti, Steven J.; et al. (6 August 2020). "Genetic Consequences of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics. 107 (2): 265–277. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.06.012. PMC 7413858. PMID 32707084. S2CID 222230119.
- ^ a b Johnson, Derek C.; et al. (Jun 2015). "Mitochondrial DNA diversity in the African American population". Mitochondrial DNA. 26 (3): 445–451. doi:10.3109/19401736.2013.840591. PMC 4048334. PMID 24102597. S2CID 22704004.
- ^ a b Stefflova, Klara; et al. (January 6, 2011). "Dissecting the Within-Africa Ancestry of Populations of African Descent in the Americas". PLOS ONE. 6 (1): e14495. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...614495S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014495. ISSN 1932-6203. OCLC 8091520981. PMC 3017210. PMID 21253579. S2CID 9792013.
- ^ a b c d Benn-Torres, J.; et al. (January 2, 2008). "Admixture and Population Stratification in African Caribbean Populations". Annals of Human Genetics. 72 (1): 071003002530001––. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00398.x. PMID 17908263. S2CID 28510744.
- ^ a b c d e Murray, Tanda; et al. (17 August 2010). "African and non-African admixture components in African Americans and an African Caribbean population". Genetic Epidemiology. 34 (6): 561–568. doi:10.1002/gepi.20512. PMC 3837693. PMID 20717976. S2CID 21326600.
- ^ a b Tishkoff, Sarah A.; et al. (22 May 2009). "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science. 324 (5930): 1035–1044. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. ISSN 0036-8075. OCLC 5866476797. PMC 2947357. PMID 19407144. S2CID 2738085.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw dx dy dz ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei ej ek el em en eo ep eq er es et eu ev Tříska, Petr (2016). "Genetic Legacy Of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade In Present Populations: Anthropological And Clinical Context" (PDF). University of Porto. pp. 47, 49–50, 52. S2CID 132835585.
- ^ a b Wonkam, Ambroise; Adeyemo, Adebowale (March 8, 2023). "Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health" (PDF). Cell Genomics. 3 (3): 100278. doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278. PMC 10025516. PMID 36950382. S2CID 257458855.
- ^ a b c Nieves-Colon, Maria A. (15 December 2021). "Anthropological genetic insights on Caribbean population history". Evolutionary Anthropology. 31 (3): 118–137. doi:10.1002/evan.21935. PMID 35060661. S2CID 246078786.
- ^ Alleyne, Angela T.; Bideau, Virgil S. (13 April 2019). "Haplotypes of CYP1B1 and CCDC57 genes in an Afro-Caribbean female population with uterine leiomyoma". Molecular Biology Reports. 46 (3): 3304. doi:10.1007/s11033-019-04790-y. PMID 30989560. S2CID 115153495.
- ^ a b c d e f Mathias, Rasika Ann; et al. (11 October 2016). "A continuum of admixture in the Western Hemisphere revealed by the African Diaspora genome". Nature Communications. 7 (12522): 12522. Bibcode:2016NatCo...712522M. doi:10.1038/ncomms12522. PMC 5062574. PMID 27725671. S2CID 11070628.
- ^ a b c d e f Mathias, Rasika Ann; et al. (11 October 2016). "Supplementary Information". Nature Communications. 7 (12522): 20–21. Bibcode:2016NatCo...712522M. doi:10.1038/ncomms12522. PMC 5062574. PMID 27725671. S2CID 11070628.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Torres, Jada Benn; Stone, Anne C.; Kittles, Rick (29 March 2013). "An anthropological genetic perspective on creolization in the anglophone caribbean". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 151 (1): 137. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22261. PMID 23553646. S2CID 5211235.
- ^ a b Simms, Tanya M.; et al. (May 11, 2012). "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: Contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow". American Journal of Biological Anthropology. 148 (4): 618–631. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22090. PMID 22576450. S2CID 38473346.
- ^ Deason, Michael L; et al. (February 23, 2012). "Interdisciplinary approach to the demography of Jamaica". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 12 (24): 24. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-12-24. PMC 3299582. PMID 22360861. S2CID 13070520.
- ^ Schroeder, Hannes; et al. (March 24, 2015). "Genome-wide ancestry of 17th-century enslaved Africans from the Caribbean". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 112 (12): 3669–3673. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.3669S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1421784112. PMC 4378422. PMID 25755263. S2CID 13118314.
- ^ a b c d e f g Crawford, M. H. (1983). "The Anthropological Genetics of the Black Caribs (Garifuna) of Central America and the Caribbean". Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. 26: 187. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330260508. S2CID 84393158.
- ^ Barquera, Rodrigo; et al. (8 June 2020). "Origin and Health Status of First-Generation Africans from Early Colonial Mexico". Current Biology. 30 (11): 2078–2091. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.002. hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-30FE-5. PMID 32359431. S2CID 216662049.
- ^ Tiesler, Vera; et al. (13 July 2022). "Life and death in early colonial Campeche: new insights from ancient DNA" (PDF). Antiquity. 96 (388): 937–954. doi:10.15184/aqy.2022.79. ISSN 0003-598X. OCLC 9575495220. S2CID 250545868.
- ^ a b c Guzmán-Solís, Axel A; et al. (2021). "Ancient viral genomes reveal introduction of human pathogenic viruses into Mexico during the transatlantic slave trade" (PDF). eLife. 10: 8, 12–13. doi:10.7554/eLife.68612. PMC 8423449. PMID 34350829. S2CID 236927237.
- ^ Jaeger, Lauren H.; et al. (May 2013). "Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Remains of 18th–19th Century Slaves, Brazil". Emerg Infect Dis. 19 (5): 837–838. doi:10.3201/eid1905.120193. PMC 3647487. PMID 23697340. S2CID 21169120.
- ^ a b Martínez, Beatriz; et al. (26 November 2020). "Searching for the roots of the first free African American community". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 20634. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77608-8. PMC 7691995. PMID 33244039. S2CID 227181719.
- ^ a b Martínez, Beatriz; et al. (26 November 2020). "Figure 2 From: Searching for the roots of the first free African American community". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 20634. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77608-8. PMC 7691995. PMID 33244039. S2CID 227181719.
- ^ Van Dissel, Jaap T.; et al. (December 2019). "Archival, paleopathological and aDNA-based techniques in leprosy research and the case of Father Petrus Donders at the Leprosarium 'Batavia', Suriname". International Journal of Paleopathology. 27: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.08.001. PMID 31430635. S2CID 201115951.
- ^ Santana, Jonathan; et al. (12 October 2015). "The early colonial atlantic world: New insights on the African Diaspora from isotopic and ancient DNA analyses of a multiethnic 15th–17th century burial population from the Canary Islands, Spain". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 159 (2): 300–312. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22879. PMID 26458007. S2CID 31024121.
- ^ a b c d e Sandoval-Velasco, Marcela; et al. (7 September 2023). "The ancestry and geographical origins of St Helena's liberated Africans" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 110 (9): 1590–1599. bioRxiv 10.1101/787515. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2023.08.001. ISSN 0002-9297. OCLC 9998699240. PMC 10502851. PMID 37683613. S2CID 261620937.
- ^ Isable, Kendra Briana (August 2021). "Contributing to the Discussion: The Health of Enslaved Africans Through the Lens of Bioarchaeology". California State University, Northridge. p. 34.
- ^ Fortes-Lima, Cesar; Verdu, Paul (17 December 2020). "Anthropological genetics perspectives on the transatlantic slave trade". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R79–R87. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddaa271. PMID 33331897. S2CID 229301497.
- ^ Callaway, Ewen (December 7, 2016). "What DNA reveals about St Helena's freed slaves". Nature. 540 (7632): 184–187. doi:10.1038/540184a. S2CID 89162808.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Sandoval-Velasco, Marcela; et al. (7 September 2023). "Data S1. Tables S1–S13: The ancestry and geographical origins of St Helena's liberated Africans". American Journal of Human Genetics. 110 (9): 1590–1599. bioRxiv 10.1101/787515. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2023.08.001. ISSN 0002-9297. OCLC 9998699240. PMC 10502851. PMID 37683613. S2CID 261620937.
- ^ Racimo, Fernando; et al. (2020). "Beyond broad strokes: sociocultural insights from the study of ancient genomes" (PDF). Nature Reviews Genetics. 21 (6): 355–366. doi:10.1038/s41576-020-0218-z. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 32127690. S2CID 207780165.
- ^ Callaway, Ewen (November 5, 2019). "Genomes trace origins of enslaved people who died on remote island". Nature. 575 (18): 18. Bibcode:2019Natur.575...18C. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-03152-9. PMID 31690869. S2CID 207896705.
- ^ Abel, Sarah; Schroeder, Hannes (October 2020). "From Country Marks to DNA Markers: The Genomic Turn in the Reconstruction of African Identities". Current Anthropology. 61: S206. doi:10.1086/709550. S2CID 224962523.
- ^ Brunel, Samantha; et al. (June 9, 2020). "Ancient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (23): 12791–12798. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11712791B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1918034117. ISSN 0027-8424. JSTOR 26968323. OCLC 8600693713. PMC 7293694. PMID 32457149. S2CID 218910530.
- ^ a b c d e Arnaiz-Villena, A.; et al. (August 2002). "Population genetic relationships between Mediterranean populations determined by HLA allele distribution and a historic perspective". Tissue Antigens. 60 (2): 111–121. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0039.2002.600201.x. PMID 12392505. S2CID 46083822.
- ^ a b c d Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; et al. (September 2001). "The correlation between languages and genes: the Usko-Mediterranean peoples". Human Immunology. 62 (9): 1054, 1056. doi:10.1016/S0198-8859(01)00300-7. PMID 11543906. S2CID 9866124.
- ^ a b c d Suarez-Trujillo, Fabio; et al. (27 September 2023). "HLA alleles and haplotypes in Sudanese population and their relationship with Mediterraneans". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 16203. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1316203S. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40173-x. ISSN 2045-2322. OCLC 10022569515. PMC 10533553. PMID 37758772. S2CID 263128668.
- ^ a b Arnaiz-Villena, A.; et al. (20 December 2000). "HLA genes in Macedonians and the sub-Saharan origin of the Greeks" (PDF). Tissue Antigens. 57 (2): 126. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0039.2001.057002118.x. ISSN 0001-2815. PMID 11260506. S2CID 652188.
- ^ a b Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; et al. (May 20, 2021). "The Northern Migrations from a drying Sahara (6,000 years BP): cultural and genetic influence in Greeks, Iberians and other Mediterraneans". International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (15): 489, 500. doi:10.4314/ijma.v2i15.5. S2CID 240940946.
- ^ a b c d e Hajjej, A.; et al. (January–February 2006). "HLA genes in Southern Tunisians (Ghannouch area) and their Relationship with other Mediterraneans". European Journal of Medical Genetics. 49 (1): 54. doi:10.1016/j.ejmg.2005.01.001. PMID 16473309. S2CID 38989276.
- ^ Martiniano, Rui; et al. (2014). "Genetic Evidence of African Slavery at the Beginning of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade". Scientific Reports. 4: 5994. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E5994M. doi:10.1038/srep05994. PMC 4125989. PMID 25104065. S2CID 10438015.
- ^ Martiniano, Rui; et al. (2014). "Supplementary Information: Genetic Evidence of African Slavery at the Beginning of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade". Scientific Reports. 4: 8. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E5994M. doi:10.1038/srep05994. PMC 4125989. PMID 25104065. S2CID 10438015.
- ^ Peyroteo-Stjerna, Rita; et al. (21 February 2022). "Multidisciplinary investigation reveals an individual of West African origin buried in a Portuguese Mesolithic shell midden four centuries ago". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 42: 103370. Bibcode:2022JArSR..42j3370P. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103370. S2CID 247045502.
- ^ a b c Olalde, Iñigo; et al. (March 27, 2019). "Supplementary Materials for The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science. 363 (6432): 1230–1234. Bibcode:2019Sci...363.1230O. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. PMC 6436108. PMID 30872528. S2CID 78094214.
- ^ a b Olalde, Iñigo; et al. (March 27, 2019). "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science. 363 (6432). Table S1. Bibcode:2019Sci...363.1230O. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. hdl:10261/207967. PMC 6436108. PMID 30872528. S2CID 78094214.
- ^ a b Richards, Martin; et al. (April 2003). "Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations". American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (4): 1058–1064. doi:10.1086/374384. PMC 1180338. PMID 12629598. S2CID 823799.
- ^ a b c d e Margaryan, Ashot; et al. (2021). "The genomic origin of Zana of Abkhazia". Advanced Genetics. 2 (2): 3, 6–7. doi:10.1002/ggn2.10051. PMC 9744565. PMID 36618122. S2CID 235474604.
- ^ Gauniyal, Mansi; Aggarwal, Aastha; Kshatriya, Gautam K. (28 January 2011). "Genomic Structure of the Immigrant Siddis of East Africa to Southern India: A Study of 20 Autosomal DNA Markers". Biochemical Genetics. 49 (7–8): 432. doi:10.1007/s10528-011-9419-7. PMID 21274614. S2CID 12018889.
- ^ Amanzougaghene, Nadia; et al. (October 14, 2016). "High Ancient Genetic Diversity of Human Lice, Pediculus humanus, from Israel Reveals New Insights into the Origin of Clade B Lice". PLOS ONE. 11 (10): e0164659. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1164659A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0164659. PMC 5065229. PMID 27741281. S2CID 14033603.