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Economic Partnership Agreements

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For the free trade scheme between two countries, see Economic partnership agreement.

Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) are a scheme to create a free trade area (FTA) between the European Union and other countries. They are a response to continuing criticism that the non-reciprocal and discriminating preferential trade agreements offered by the EU are incompatible with WTO rules. The EPAs date back to the signing of the Cotonou Agreement. The EPAs with the different regions are at different states of play. The EU has signed EPAs with the following countries: the Southern African Development Community (SADC), ECOWAS (16 states), six countries in Eastern and Southern Africa, Cameroon, four Pacific states, and the CARIFORUM states.[1] Their defining characteristic is that they open up exports to the EU immediately, while exports to the partner regions is opened up only partially and over transitioning periods.[2]

United Kingdom's Econommic Partnership Agreements
  United Kingdom
  Cameroon EPA
  CARIFORUM EPA
  Eastern and Southern Africa EPA
  Ivory Coast EPA
  Kenya EPA
  Pacific States EPA
  Southern Africa Customs Union and Mozambique EPA

Following the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, the United Kingdom duplicated eight EPAs, such as with Cameroon, Ghana, the Caribbean, and the pacific states.[3]

There is also an EU-Japan EPA, which is however symmetrical in opening markets, and thus only an EPA in name. Similarly the UK–Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement is only an EPA in name for the same reason.

Key elements

Reciprocity

Due to the continuing WTO incompatibility of previous arrangements, the EPAs' key feature is their reciprocity and their non-discriminatory nature. They involve the phased out removal of all trade preferences which have been established between the EU and the ACP countries since 1975 as well as the progressive removal of trade barriers between the partners. In order to fulfil the criterion of being a non-discriminatory agreement, the EPAs are open to all developing countries,[citation needed] thereby effectively terminating the ACP group as the main development partner of the EU.

The establishment of a reciprocal trade agreement confronts the EU with the problem of how to reconcile the special status of the ACP group with the EU's obligations to the WTO. The solution proposed for this dilemma is an agreement which is only as reciprocal as necessary to fulfil WTO criteria. In reality, the ACP countries will have some room to manoeuvre and to maintain some limited protection of their most vital products. The extent to which trade must be liberalised under the new EPAs is still a widely debated issue and it remains to be seen whether the WTO provisions regulating regional trade agreements will be revised in favour of the EPA scheme at the end of the Doha Round.

Regionalism

True to the Cotonou principle of differentiation and regionalisation the developing countries are encouraged to enter into the EPAs in regional groupings. So far the ACP countries have formed seven [4] regional groupings in which they intend to enter into EPAs with the European Union. These regional groupings are

Special treatment

The new regional grouping established due to the EPA scheme causes the problem of how to reconcile this approach with the previous special treatment of the group of least developed countries (LDCs) among the ACP countries. Currently, 40 of the 79 ACP countries are defined as LDCs by the United Nations. The LDCs constitute a special group among the developing countries and have usually been treated separately.

Therefore, the EPAs will provide special arrangements for this particular group. As opposed to the other ACP countries, the group of LDCs will be invited to reject the EPAs and continue trade relations under the "Everything But Arms" (EBA) regulation. Launched in 2001 by the Council of Ministers, this amendment to the EC's Generalized System of Preferences has since then regulated the trade relations between the EU and the LDCs that have chosen to use this facility, granting duty-free access to all products from LDCs without any quantitative restrictions – except to arms and munitions. While this provision facilitates the situation of the LDCs under the new trade scheme, it has also been criticised because the EBA initiative prevents LDCs from opening up their markets for EU products within the context of an EPA. Another weakness of the EBA initiative is that it utilises the rules of origin of the GSP which require double stage transformation for textiles and clothing. The rules of origin of the EPAs on the other hand allows single stage transformation for the exports of these sectors. This is one of the reasons why Mozambique and Lesotho (both LDCs) initialled the SADC EU Interim EPA in November 2007, and then went on to sign this agreement in July 2009. Angola (the other LDC in the SADC EPA configuration) has chosen to continue trading under EBA as their main exports to the EU are oil and diamonds which as 'wholly obtained' originating products enjoy duty and quota free entry under the EBA rules of origin.

Predicted impact

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute predict the impact of the EPAs, however, to be rather minimal.[9] Because most African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) group states already enjoyed duty and tariff free access of about €1.4 billion from the Cotonou Agreement that expired in 2007, there was little new that could be offered.[9] The expected impact described by the ODI:[9]

  • The transfer of the import tax levied by the EU (€12.7 million in 2006) to parts of the ACP export supply chain, making exports more profitable.
  • Accrued revenue transfer could induce ACP members to increase levels of trade between each other and increase their supply of competitive products without substantial new investment.
  • Removing tariff barriers may make it economically feasible to export additional products to the EU that are already exported to other markets.
  • The most significant, but not necessarily most likely effect, is that there could be increases in foreign exchange earning and positive effects for the rest of the economy.

United Kingdom

 
  United Kingdom
  Cameroon EPA
  CARIFORUM EPA
  Eastern and Southern Africa EPA
  Ivory Coast EPA
  Kenya EPA
  Pacific States EPA
  Southern Africa Customs Union and Mozambique EPA

Following the Brexit referendum, the United Kingdom replicated the eight European Economic Partnership Agreements that were entered into force prior to the UK's withdrawal from the EU on 1 January 2021.[10] These "continuity trade agreements" duplicate the majority of its clauses and text from the European agreements.[11] The following agreements, with countries and regions, were entered into force following Brexit:

Cameroon

The Cameroon EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the Economic Community of Central African States, with Cameroon being the only ECCAS member to ratify the EPA.[20] The trade deal was signed on 28 December 2020, while the agreement entered into force on 1 January 2021.[21]

CARIFORUM

The CARIFORUM EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the Caribbean Forum states; these include Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago.[22] The trade deal was signed on 22 March 2019, while the agreement entered into force on 1 January 2021.[23] Suriname signed and acceded to the EPA on 5 March 2021.[24] Haiti is eligible to join the EPA if it signs the agreement and bring it into effect.[25]

Eastern and Southern Africa

The Eastern and Southern Africa EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the COMESA states; these include Mauritius, Seychelles, and Zimbabwe.[26] The trade deal was signed on 31 January 2019, while the agreement entered into force on 1 January 2021.[27] Madagascar signed the EPA on 4 November 2021 meanwhile Comoros signed the EPA on 12 April 2022, both countries wil be covered by the agreement when they bring it into effect.[28] Zambia will be covered by the EPA if they sign it and bring it into effect.[29]

Ghana

The Ghana EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the Economic Community of West African States, with Ghana being one of only two ECOWAS member to ratify the EPA.[30] The trade deal was signed on 2 March 2021, while the agreement entered into force on 5 March 2021.[31]

Ivory Coast

The Ivory Coast EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the Economic Community of West African States, with Ivory Coast being the other ECOWAS member to ratify the EPA.[32] The trade deal was signed on 15 October 2020, while the agreement entered into force on 1 January 2021.[33]

Kenya

The Kenya EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the East African Community , with Cameroon being the only ECCAS member to ratify the EPA.[34] The trade deal was signed on 8 December 2020, while the agreement entered into force on 1 January 2021.[35] All the other East African Community members are eligible to apply for accession to the EPA; these members include Burundi, DR Congo, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.[36][37]

Pacific States

The Pacific States EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the Pacific Islands Forum states; these initially included Fiji, and Papua New Guinea.[38] The trade deal was signed on 14 March 2019, while the agreement entered into force on 1 January 2021.[39] The Solomon Islands joined the EPA on the 5 January 2021.[40] Samoa joined the EPA on the 11 January 2021.[41] The Cook Islands, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu are eligible to join the EPA if they sign it and bring it into effect; Tonga has shown interest in acceding to the EPA.[42]

Southern Africa Customs Union and Mozambique

The Southern Africa Customs Union and Mozambique EPA is a continuity trade agreement based of the EU's EPA with the Southern African Customs Union states; these include Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, and South Africa, while the UK EPA also incorporated Mozambique which had joined the customs union since the EU–SACUM EPA was signed.[43] The trade deal was signed on 9 October 2019, aside from South africa which signed on the 16 October 2019, while the agreement entered into force on 1 January 2021.[44]

See also

References

  1. ^ "EU Trade agreements". policy.trade.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  2. ^ "Access2Markets Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs)". trade.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  3. ^ "The UK's trade agreements". GOV.UK. 2 March 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  4. ^ "Africa, Caribbean, Pacific (ACP) - Trade - European Commission". Retrieved 9 November 2014.
  5. ^ "Commission de la Communauté Economique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale (CEMAC)". Archived from the original on 10 March 2010. Retrieved 26 February 2010.
  6. ^ "East African Community - Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi". Archived from the original on 5 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2006.
  7. ^ "Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) - Trade - European Commission". ec.europa.eu.
  8. ^ "CRNM - Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery". Archived from the original on 20 November 2008. Retrieved 22 February 2007.
  9. ^ a b c Christopher Stevens, Mareike Meyn and Jane Kennan (2010) Duty-free, quota-free access: What is it worth? Overseas Development Institute
  10. ^ "UK trade agreements in effect". GOV.UK. 3 November 2022. Archived from the original on 13 April 2024. Retrieved 13 April 2024.
  11. ^ Eiser, David; McEwen, Nicola; Roy, Graeme (7 April 2021). "The Trade Policies of Brexit Britain: the Influence of and Impacts on the Devolved Nations" (PDF). Brill Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
  12. ^ Jayawardena, Ranil (30 December 2020). "United Kingdom and Cameroon secure Economic Partnership Agreement". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
  13. ^ Hollingbery, George (22 March 2019). "UK signs trade continuity agreement with Caribbean countries". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
  14. ^ Hollingbery, George (31 January 2019). "UK signs Eastern and Southern Africa trade continuity agreement". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 31 January 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
  15. ^ Duddridge, James; Jayawarden, Jaya; Truss, Liz (2 March 2021). "UK signs Trade Partnership Agreement with Ghana". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2024.
  16. ^ Jayawardena, Ranil (15 October 2020). "The United Kingdom and Côte d'Ivoire sign Economic Partnership Agreement". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
  17. ^ Duddridge, James; Jayawardena, Ranil (3 November 2020). "UK and Kenya secure a trade agreement". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  18. ^ "UK and Pacific Islands sign trade continuity agreement". GOV.UK. 14 March 2019. Archived from the original on 15 March 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  19. ^ Truss, Elizabeth (11 September 2019). "UK agreed trade continuity with 6 African nations". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 11 September 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
  20. ^ Cotton, Barney (4 January 2021). "UK and Cameroon secure Economic Partnership Agreement". Business Leader. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  21. ^ "United Kingdom - Cameroon". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  22. ^ Partington, Richard (22 March 2019). "UK secures post-Brexit trade deal with group of Caribbean countries". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
  23. ^ "United Kingdom - CARIFORUM States". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  24. ^ Jayawardena, Ranil (5 March 2021). "Suriname signs CARIFORUM-UK EPA". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  25. ^ "Trade with the CARIFORUM States from 1 January 2021". GOV.UK. 8 August 2019. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  26. ^ "UK Trade with Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) from 1 Jan 2021". African Business Chamber. 5 November 2020. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
  27. ^ "United Kingdom - Eastern and Southern African States". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  28. ^ "The UK's trade agreements". GOV.UK. 2 March 2020. Archived from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  29. ^ "ESA-UK economic partnership agreement (EPA)". GOV.UK. 6 February 2019. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  30. ^ "Ghana, UK to sign new trade agreement today". Ghanaian Times. 2 March 2021. Archived from the original on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2024.
  31. ^ "United Kingdom - Ghana". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  32. ^ Ballard, Oli (20 October 2020). "The UK and Ivory Coast sign Economic Partnership Agreement". Business Leader. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
  33. ^ "United Kingdom - Côte d'Ivoire". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  34. ^ Cotton, Barney (4 January 2021). "UK and Cameroon secure Economic Partnership Agreement". Business Leader. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  35. ^ "United Kingdom - Kenya". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  36. ^ "Scrutiny of international agreements: Economic Partnership Agreement with Kenya, Trade in Goods Agreement with Norway and Iceland, and Free Trade Agreement with Vietnam". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  37. ^ Willems, Michiel (1 March 2021). "New UK-Kenya trade deal to be extended to all of East Africa after threats not to ratify". City A.M. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
  38. ^ Partington, Richard (14 March 2019). "UK signs post-Brexit trade deal with Fiji and Papua New Guinea". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 March 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  39. ^ "United Kingdom - Pacific States". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  40. ^ "Solomon Islands Accession onto the UK-Pacific interim Economic Partnership Agreement". Solomon Islands Government | Ministry of Foreign Affairs and External Trade. 5 January 2021. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  41. ^ Rheeney, Alexander (11 January 2022). "Samoa signs trade agreement with U.K." Samoa Observer. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  42. ^ Continuing the United Kingdom's trade relationship with the Republic of Fiji and the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ("the Pacific States") (PDF). GOV.UK (Report). March 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
  43. ^ Bavier, Joe (11 September 2019). "Britain agrees post-Brexit trade deal with southern Africa". Reuters. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
  44. ^ "United Kingdom - SACU and Mozambique". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 30 April 2024.

Further reading

  • Bilal, S; Rampa, F. (2006). Alternative (to) EPAs. Possible scenarios for the future ACP trade relations with the EU (ECDPM Policy Management Report 11). Maastricht: ECDPM. Retrieved June 9, 2006, from www.ecdpm.org
  • ECDPM. 2002. Cotonou Infokit. Maastricht: ECDPM. Retrieved June 8, 2006 from www.ecdpm.org Archived 6 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  • Giesbert, L; Pfeiffer, B.; Schotte, S (2016): Economic Partnership Agreements with the EU: Trade-Offs for Africa. GIGA Focus Africa 7–2016, retrieved 21 December 2016 from www.giga-hamburg.de.
  • Gillson, I; Grimm, S. (2004). European development cooperation to 2010. EU trade partnerships with developing countries. London: Overseas Development Institute. Retrieved June 10, 2006, from www.odi.org.uk
  • Jessop, David. Understanding the EPA: cultural services. The possibilities for CARIFORUM regarding the agreement involving culture under the EPA. Understanding the EPA: cultural services (in English), Retrieved on 15 December 2008.
  • Jessop, David. Governing the EPA (2008-10-12). "Governing the EPA" (in English), The Jamaica Gleaner Newspaper. Retrieved on 15 December 2008.
  • Stevens, C; Kennan, J. (2005). EU-ACP Economic Partnership Agreements: the effects of reciprocity. Sussex: Institute of Development Studies Retrieved on June 19, 2006, from www.thecommonwealth.org
  • TY. Think twice about EPA, says Marshall (2008-04-23). "Think twice about EPA, says Marshall" (in English), The Barbados Daily Nation Newspaper. Retrieved on 16 November 2013.
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