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Restored revision 1237406871 by Onceinawhile (talk): See talk page (The phrasing here is tricky and I share your goal of wanting to get it right, but current text is misleading)
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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
[[File:Medinet Habu Ramses III. Tempel Nordostwand Abzeichnung 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|This scene from the north wall of [[Medinet Habu (temple)|Medinet Habu]] is often used to illustrate the Egyptian campaign against the Sea Peoples, in what has come to be known as the [[Battle of the Delta]] ({{circa|1175}}{{nbsp}}BC),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Lincoln |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QITaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |title=The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World |date=2015-10-27 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-101-97035-5 |page=76 |language=en}}</ref> during the reign of Ramesses III. While accompanying hieroglyphs do not name Egypt's enemies, describing them simply as being from "northern countries", early scholars noted the similarities between the hairstyles and accessories worn by the combatants and other reliefs in which such groups are named.]]
The '''Sea Peoples''' were a group of tribes that, accordinghypothesized to Egyptian records,have attacked [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and other [[Eastern Mediterranean]] regions around 1200 BC during the [[Late Bronze Age]], and who some historians hypothesize to have been part of a large wave of migrants,.<ref name=Drews48>{{harvnb|Drews|1995|pp=48–61}}: "The thesis that a great 'migration of the Sea Peoples' occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves, such a migration nowhere appears... Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation"</ref> The hypothesis was first proposed by the 19th century [[Egyptology|Egyptologists]] [[Emmanuel de Rougé]] and [[Gaston Maspero]], on the basis of primary sources such as the [[relief]]s on the [[Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III]] at [[Medinet Habu (temple)|Medinet Habu]]. Subsequent research developed the hypothesis further, attempting to link these sources to other Late Bronze Age evidence of migration, piracy, and destruction. While initial versions of the hypothesis regarded the Sea Peoples as a primary cause of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], more recent versions generally regard them as a symptom of events which were already in motion before their purported attacks.
 
The Sea Peoples included well-attested groups such as the [[Lukka]], as well as others such as the [[Weshesh]] whose origins are unknown. Hypotheses regarding the origin of the various groups are the source of much speculation. Several of them appear to have been [[Aegean civilizations|Aegean]] tribes, while others may have originated in [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], [[Cyprus]], and Western [[Anatolia]].
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We see that these different peoples, common enemies of Egypt in their Asian campaigns before those of Ramses III, are gathered in one group. In the next column, we find a second group formed of people considered by Champollion to have played an important role in the campaign with the naval combat ships; it is the Poursata, the Takkara, the Shakarsha, the Taamou, and Ouaschascha. We see that the only missing Sharetana to this list.}}</ref><ref>Greene's documentary photographs are held at the Musee d'Orsay, for example: [http://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/catalogue-des-oeuvres/notice.html?no_cache=1&nnumid=033426&cHash=e2eb6fc49f Médinet-Habou, Temple funéraire de Ramsès III, muraille du nord (5)]; inventory number: PHO 1986 131 40.</ref> De Rougé noted that "in the crests of the conquered peoples the [[Sherden]] and the Teresh bear the designation of the {{lang|fr|peuples de la mer}}", in a reference to the prisoners depicted at the base of the Fortified East Gate.<ref name=deRouge>{{harvnb|de Rougé|1855|p=14}}: [Translation from the French]: "For a long time Kefa has been identified, with [[verisimilitude]], with [[Caphthorim]] of the Bible, to whom Gesenius, along with most interpreters, assigns as a residence the islands of [[Crete]] or Cyprus. The people of Cyprus had certainly to take sides in this war; perhaps they were then the allies of Egypt. In any case, our entry does not detail the names of these people, from the islands of the Mediterranean. Champollion noted that [[Tjeker|T'akkari]] [which he names Fekkaros; see appendix at the following entry] and [[Sherden|Schartana]], were recognizable, in enemy ships, with unique hairstyles. In addition, in the crests of the conquered peoples, the Schartana and the [[Tyrrhenians|Touirasch]] bear the designation of the peoples of the sea. It is therefore likely that they belong to these nations from islands or coasts of the archipelago. The Rabou are still recognizable among the prisoners."</ref> In 1867, de Rougé published his ''Excerpts of a dissertation on the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BC'', which focused primarily on the battles of [[Ramesses II]] and [[Merneptah]] and which proposed translations for many of the geographic names included in the hieroglyphic inscriptions.{{sfn|de Rougé|1867}}{{sfn|Vandersleyen|1985|p=41 n.10}} De Rougé later became chair of Egyptology at the [[Collège de France]] and was succeeded by [[Gaston Maspero]]. Maspero built upon de Rougé's work and published ''The Struggle of the Nations'',{{sfn|Maspero|1896|p=461–470}} in which he described the theory of the seaborne migrations in detail in 1895–96 for a wider audience,<ref name=Drews1/> at a time when the idea of population migrations would have felt familiar to the general population.{{sfn|Silberman|1998|p=270|ps=: "The English translation of Maspero's résumé of ethnic movement entitled The Struggle of the Nations (Maspero 1896) must surely have evoked meaningful associations at a time when competition for territory and economic advantage among European Powers was at a fever pitch (Hobsbawm 1987)."}}
 
The migration theory was taken up by other scholars such as [[Eduard Meyer]] and became the generally accepted theory amongst Egyptologists and Orientalists.<ref name=Drews1>{{harvnb|Drews|1992}}{{blockquote|In fact, this migration of the Sea Peoples is not to be found in Egyptian inscriptions, but was launched by Gaston Maspero in 1873 [footnote: In the Revue Critique d'Histoire et de Littérature 1873, pp. 85–86]. Although Maspero's proposal initially seemed unlikely, it gained credibility with the publication of the [[Lemnos stele]]. In 1895, in his popular ''Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'orient classique'' [footnote; Vol. II (Paris:1895), translated into English as ''The Struggle of the Nations'' (ed. A. H. Sayce, tr. M. L. McClure, New York: 1896)], Maspero fully elaborated his scenario of "the migration of the Sea Peoples". Adopted by Eduard Meyer for the second edition of his Geschichted es Altertums, the theory won general acceptance among Egyptologists and orientalists.}}</ref> Since the early 1990s, however, it has been brought into question by a number of scholars.<ref name=AK2013>{{harvnb|Killebrew|2013|p=2}}. Quote: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term 'Sea Peoples' encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). [Footnote: The modern term 'Sea Peoples' refers to people that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from 'islands' (tables 1–2; Adams and Cohen, this volume; see, e.g., Drews 1993, 57 for a summary). The use of quotation marks in association with the term 'Sea Peoples' in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. The designation 'of the sea' appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses Ill (see, e.g., Sandars 1978; Redford 1992, 243, n. 14; for a recent review of the primary and secondary literature, see {{harvnb|Woudhuizen|2006}}). Henceforth the term Sea Peoples will appear without quotation marks.]"</ref><ref name=Drews48>{{harvnb|Drews|1995|pp=48–61}}: "The thesis that a great 'migration of the Sea Peoples' occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves, such a migration nowhere appears... Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation"</ref><ref name=Silberman>{{harvnb|Silberman|1998|p=272}}:{{blockquote|As E. S. Sherratt has pointed out in an enlightening study of the interplay of ideology and literary strata in the formation of the Homeric epics (1990), phases of active narrative or descriptive invention closely correspond to periods of rapid social and political change. Sherratt notes that one of the characteristic manifestations of this process – in which emerging elites seek to legitimate their power – is 'the transformation of an existing oral epic tradition in order to dress it in more recognizably modern garb' (1990: 821). Can we not see in the history of the archaeology of the Sea Peoples a similar process of literary reformulation, in which old components are reinterpreted and reassembled to tell a new tale? Narrative presupposes that both storyteller and audience share a single perspective, and therein may lie the connection between the intellectual and ideological dimensions of archaeology. To generalize beyond specific, highly localized data, archaeologists must utilize familiar conceptual frameworks and it is from the political and social ideologies of every generation that larger speculations about the historical role of the Sea Peoples have always been drawn. As many papers in this conference have suggested, traditional interpretive structures are in the process of reconsideration and renovation. That is why I believe it essential that we reflect on our current Sea Peoples stories – and see if we cannot detect the subtle yet lingering impact upon them of some timeworn Victorian narratives.}}</ref><ref name=Vandersleyen/>
 
The historical narrative stems primarily from seven [[Ancient Egyptian]] sources{{sfn|Killebrew|2013|pp=2–5}} and although in these inscriptions the designation "of the sea" does not appear in relation to all of these peoples,<ref name=AK2013/><ref name=Vandersleyen>{{harvnb|Vandersleyen|1985|p=53}}:{{blockquote|However, of the nine peoples concerned by these wars, only four were actually defined as coming 'from wꜣd-wr' or 'from pꜣ ym'. Furthermore, these expressions seem to be linked more often to vegetation and sweet water than to seawater, and it seems clear that the term "Sea Peoples" has to be abandoned. Some will object to this, basing themselves on the expression ''iww hryw-ib w3d-wr'', usually translated by 'islands situated in the middle of the sea', where some of the Sea Peoples are said to have come from. Indeed. it is this expression that supported the persistent idea that the 'Sea Peoples' came from the [[Aegean islands]] or at least from an [[East Mediterranean]] island. Now, these terms are misleading, not only because w3d-wr and p3 ym, quite likely, do not designate 'the sea' here, but also because the term in itself does not always mean 'island'; it can also be used to indicate other kinds of territories not necessarily maritime ones. The argument based on these alleged 'sea islands' is thus groundless&nbsp;... To conclude, the Philistines came neither from Crete nor from the Aegean islands or coasts, but probably from the southern coast of Asia Minor or from Syria.}}</ref> the term "Sea Peoples" is commonly used in modern publications to refer to the following nine peoples.{{sfn|Killebrew|2013|p=2a}}<ref>A convenient table of Sea Peoples in hieroglyphics, transliteration and English is given in {{harvnb|Woudhuizen|2006}}, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there.</ref>
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===Ramesses III narrative===
{{further|Battle of the Delta|Battle of Djahy|Late Bronze Age collapse}}
{{Multiple image|align=left|direction=vertical|image1=Medinet Habu Ramses III. Tempel Nordostwand 08.jpg|image2=Medinet Habu Ramses III. Tempel Nordostwand Abzeichnung 01.jpg|footer=Medinet Habu northeast outside wall, showing wide view and a close-up sketch of the right-hand side relief. Behind the king (out of scene) is a chariot, above which the text describes a battle in Year 8 as follows:<br /><br />"Now the northern countries, which were in their isles, were quivering in their bodies. They penetrated the channels of the Nile's mouths. Their nostrils have ceased (to function, so that) their desire is [to] breathe the breath. His majesty is gone forth like a whirlwind against them, fighting on the battlefield like a runner. The dread of him and the terror of him have entered in their bodies; (they are) capsized and overwhelmed in their places. Their hearts are taken away; their soul is flown away. Their weapons are scattered in the sea. His arrow pierces him whom he has wished among them, while the fugitive becomes one fallen into the water. His majesty is like an enraged lion, attacking his assailant with his paws; plundering on his right hand and powerful on his left hand, like Set[h] destroying the serpent 'Evil of Character'. It is Amon-Re who has overthrown for him the lands and has crushed for him every land under his feet; King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands: Usermare-Meriamon."<ref>Translation by Egerton and Wilson, 1936, plates 37–39, lines 8–23. Also found in {{harvnb|Breasted|1906|loc=volume 4, p. 44, §75}}</ref>}}<ref name="Emanuel2017">{{cite book |last1=Emanuel |first1=Jeffrey P. |title=Black Ships and Sea Raiders: The Late Bronze and Early Iron Age Context of Odysseus' Second Cretan Lie |year=2017 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-7222-4 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPM_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref>
 
[[RamessesA III]], who reigned for mostnumber of theprimary firstsources half ofabout the 12thSea centuryPeoples BCpertain asto the second pharaohreign of the[[Ramesses 20th DynastyIII]], confrontedwho areigned laterfrom wave1186 ofto invasions1155 of the Sea Peoples in his eighth yearBC. The battles were later recorded in two long inscriptions from his [[Medinet Habu]] mortuary temple, which are physically separate and somewhat different from one another.{{sfn|Oren|2000|p=86|ps=: "One consists of a string of large scale scenes, complemented with relatively brief texts, extending in a narrative sequence along part of the north facade of the temple, which it shares with part of a similar narrative treatment of Ramesses III's Year 5 campaign against the Libyans. This latter sequence originates however on the west or rear wall of the temple. The other, physically quite separate composition relating to the Sea Peoples is displayed across the external (eastern) face of the great pylon which separates the first court of the temple from the second. On the pylon's southern wing is a large-scale scene – occupying most of the facade – showing Ramesses III leading three lines of captive Sea Peoples to Amun-Re, lord of Thebes (and of the empire), and his consort Mut. Displayed on the equivalent space of the north wing is a long text, without pictorial embellishment, which is a verbal statement by Ramesses III describing at length his victory over the Sea Peoples, and the extraordinary beneficence of Amun-Re thus displayed, to 'the entire land gathered together'. In fact, this apparent simplicity – two separate and somewhat different compositions relevant to the Sea Peoples-belies the actual complexity of the compositional relationship between the two Sea Peoples compositions on the one hand, and their joint relationship to the entire compositional scheme or 'program' of the entire temple on the other. Any effort to understand the historical significance of the Sea Peoples' records at Medinet Habu must take this compositional dimension into account, as well as the conceptual dimensional, the relationship of the general composition scheme or program to the functions and meanings of the temple, as understood by the Egyptians."}} The Year 8 campaign is the best-recorded Sea Peoples invasion.
 
The fact that several civilizations collapsed around 1175 BC has led to the suggestion that the Sea Peoples may have been involved at the end of the [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] and [[Mitanni]] kingdoms. The American [[Hittitologist]] [[Gary Beckman]] writes, on page 23 of ''Akkadica 120'' (2000):<ref>Beckman cites the first few lines of the inscription located on the NW panel of the 1st court of the temple. This extensive inscription is stated in full in English in the {{harvnb|Woudhuizen|2006|pp=43–56}}, which also contains a diagram of the locations of the many inscriptions pertaining to the reign of Ramses III on the walls of the temple at Medinet Habu.<!--Beckman, p. 23--></ref>
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The inscriptions of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu record three victorious campaigns against the Sea Peoples that are considered bona fide, in Years 5, 8 and 12, as well as three considered spurious, against the [[Nubia]]ns and [[Libya]]ns in Year 5 and the Libyans with Asiatics in Year 11. During Year 8, some Hittites were operating with the Sea Peoples.<ref>{{harvnb|Woudhuizen|2006|pp=43–56}} quotes the inscriptions in English.</ref>
 
The inner west wall of the second court describes the invasion of Year 5. Only the Peleset and Tjeker are mentioned, but the list is lost in a [[lacuna (manuscripts)|lacuna]]. The attack was two-pronged, one by sea and one by land. That is, the Sea Peoples divided their forces. Ramesses was waiting in the [[Nile]] mouths and trapped the enemy fleet there. The land forces were defeated separately.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
 
The Sea Peoples didattacked not learn any lessons from this defeat, as they repeated their mistake inagain Year 8 with a similar result. The campaign is recorded more extensively on the inner northwest panel of the first court. It is possible, but not generally believed, that the dates are only those of the inscriptions and both refer to the same campaign.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
 
In Ramesses' Year 8, the [[Nine Bows]] appear as a "conspiracy in their isles". This time, they are revealed unquestionably as Sea Peoples: the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, which are classified as "foreign countries" in the inscription. They camped in [[Amurru kingdom|Amor]] and sent a fleet to the Nile.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
 
The pharaoh was once more waiting for them. He had built a fleet especially for the occasion, hidden it in the mouths of the Nile, and posted coast watchers. The enemy fleet [[Battle of the Delta|was ambushed there]], their ships overturned, and the men dragged up on shore and executed ad hoc.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
 
The land army [[Battle of Djahy|was also routed]] within Egyptian controlled territory. Additional information is given in the relief on the outer side of the east wall. This [[Battle of Djahy|land battle]] occurred in the vicinity of [[Djahy]] against "the northern countries". When it was over, several chiefs were captive: of Hatti, [[Amorites|Amor]] and [[Shasu]] among the "land peoples" and the Tjeker, "Sherden of the sea", "[[Tyrrhenoi|Teresh]] of the sea" and Peleset or [[Philistines]].
 
The campaign of Year 12 is attested by the [[Südstele]] found on the south side of the temple. It mentions the Tjeker, Peleset, Denyen, Weshesh and Shekelesh.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
 
[[Papyrus Harris I]] of the period, found behind the temple, suggests a wider campaign against the Sea Peoples but does not mention the date. In it, the persona of Ramses III says, "I slew the Denyen (D'-yn-yw-n) in their isles" and "burned" the Tjeker and Peleset, implying a maritime raid of his own. He also captured some Sherden and Weshesh "of the sea" and settled them in Egypt. As he is called the "Ruler of Nine Bows" in the relief of the east side, these events probably happened in Year 8; i.e. the Pharaoh would have used the victorious fleet for some punitive expeditions elsewhere in the Mediterranean.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
 
The Rhetorical Stela to [[Ramesses III]], Chapel C, [[Deir el-Medina]] records a similar narrative.<ref>Bernard Bruyère, Mert Seger à Deir el Médineh, 1929, pages 32–37</ref>
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[[File:Bichrome pottery.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Philistine Bichrome pottery]]]]
 
The Peleset are generally regarded as originating somewhere within the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] cultural area.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yasur-Landau |first=Assaf |year=2014 |title=The Philistines and Aegean migration at the end of the Late Bronze Age|publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=1,163|isbn=978-0-521-19162-3}}</ref> Historians generally identify the ''Peleset'' with the later [[Philistines]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Killebrew|first=Ann E.|title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300-1100 B.C.E.|location=Atlanta, Georgia|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|year=2005|isbn=1-58983-097-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC|page=202}}</ref> EvidenceThe Peleset are generally regarded as originating somewhere within the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] cultural area;<ref>{{cite book |last=Yasur-Landau |first=Assaf |year=2014 |title=The Philistines and Aegean migration at the end of the Late Bronze Age|publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=1,163|isbn=978-0-521-19162-3}}</ref> evidence for this identification comes from the{{Bibleverse|Genesis|10:14}}, laterwhich Biblical tradition associatingassociates the Philistines with [[Caphtor]] and [[Casluhim]], and {{Bibleverse|Deuteronomy|2:23}}, which mentions the Caphtorim settling in Gaza. Aegean-style material remains such as [[Philistine Bichrome ware]], as well as genetic evidence suggesting that immigrants from Europe settled in sites such as [[Ashkalon]] at the beginning of the Iron Age.{{sfn|Maeir|2005|pp=528–536}} Both genetic and archaeological evidence suggests that any newcomers quickly acculturated and intermarried with local populations.<ref name="pmid31281897">{{cite journal|last1=Feldman|first1=Michal|last2=Master|first2=Daniel M.|last3=Bianco|first3=Raffaela A.|last4=Burri|first4=Marta|last5=Stockhammer|first5=Philipp W.|last6=Mittnik|first6=Alissa|last7=Aja|first7=Adam J.|last8=Jeong|first8=Choongwon|last9=Krause|first9=Johannes|date=3 July 2019|title=Ancient DNA sheds light on the genetic origins of early Iron Age Philistines|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=7|pages=eaax0061|bibcode=2019SciA....5...61F|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax0061|pmc=6609216|pmid=31281897 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
=== Shekelesh ===
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[[File:Mod. Bronzo nuraghe quadrilobato.gif|thumb|120px|right|Bronze model of a [[nuraghe]]. 10th century BC]]
 
The Sherden are previously mentioned in the records of [[Ramesses II]], who claimed to have defeated them in his second year (1278&nbsp;BC) when they attempted to raid Egypt's coast. The pharaoh subsequently incorporated many of them into his personal guard.{{sfn|Grimal|1992|pp=250–253}}<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Kenneth Kitchen |author=Kitchen, Kenneth |title=Pharaoh Triumphant: The life and times of Ramesses&nbsp;II, King of Egypt |publisher=Aris & Phillips |year=1982 |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Giacomo |last=Cavillier |year=2008 |title=Gli shardana e l'Egitto ramesside |journal=BAR |issue=1438 |publisher=Archaeopress |location=Oxford, UK}}</ref> They may also appear in the [[Amarna Letters]], with their name rendered in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as "še-er-ta-an-nu".<ref>EA&nbsp;81, EA&nbsp;122, EA&nbsp;123 in Moran (1992) pp.&nbsp;150-151, 201-202{{full citation needed|date=September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Emanuel |first=Jeffrey P. |date=2013 |title=Sherden from the Sea: The arrival, integration, and acculturation of a Sea People |journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=14–27 |doi=10.2458/azu_jaei_v05i1_emanuel |url=https://www.academia.edu/2445831|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |conference=AIA annual meeting |year=2012 |last=Emanuel |first=Jeffrey P. |title=Šrdn of the Sea: A reassessment of the Sherden and their role in Egyptian Society |url=https://www.academia.edu/1716287}}</ref> Based on onomastic similarities, similar weapons, presence in the same places of the Mediterranean and similar relationships with other peoples there, and other analysis of historical and archaeological sources, some archaeologists have proposed to identify the Sherden with the [[Nuragic civilization]] of [[Sardinia]].<ref name="BarKahn2011">{{cite book|author1=S. Bar|author2=D. Kahn|author3=J.J. Shirley|title=Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature: Proceedings of a Conference at the University of Haifa, 3–7 May 2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UC3KdEzloiYC&pg=PA350|date=9 June 2011|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-19493-9|pages=350 ff}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book|last=Ugas|first=Giovanni|title=Shardana e Sardegna : i popoli del mare, gli alleati del Nordafrica e la fine dei Grandi Regni (XV-XII secolo a.C.)|publisher=Edizioni della Torre|year=2016|isbn=9788873434719|location=Cagliari|language=it|oclc=976013893}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Tusa|first=Sebastiano|title=I popoli del Grande Verde : il Mediterraneo al tempo dei faraoni|publisher=Edizioni Storia e Studi Sociali|year=2018|isbn=9788899168308|location=Ragusa|language=it|oclc=1038750254|author-link=Sebastiano Tusa}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last=Zorea|first=Carlos Roberto|url=https://eprints.ucm.es/id/eprint/65302/1/T42277.pdf|title=Sea peoples in Canaan, Cyprus and Iberia (12th to 10th centuries BC)|publisher=[[Complutense University of Madrid]]|year=2021|location=Madrid}}</ref> Potential further evidence for this position comes from 12th century Nuragic pottery found at [[Kokkinokremmos|Pyla Kokkinokremos]], a fortified settlement in Cyprus.<ref>"[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318723190_Revisiting_Late_Bronze_Age_oxhide_ingots_Meanings_questions_and_perspectives Revisiting Late Bronze Age oxhide ingots: Meanings, questions and perspectives]". Serena Sabatini, University of Gothenburg. 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_7zBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80|publisher=Gangemi Editore|first1=Marco|last1=Minoja|first2=Alessandro|last2=Usai|isbn=978-88-492-9958-8|oclc=907638763|language=it|title=Le sculture di Mont'e Prama - Contesto, scavi e materiali|trans-title=Mont'e Prama's sculptures - Context, excavations & materials|date=2014|place=Roma|page=80|access-date=2019-07-19|quote=Si aggiunge ora la individuazione di un vaso a collo con anse a gomito rovescio, nuragico della Sardegna occidentale o nord occidentale, frammetario, restaurato ab antiquo con una duplice placca di piombo dell'iglesiente, presso Pyla-Kokkinokremos, un centro fortificato cipriota nell'entroterra del golfo di Larnaka (Kition), vissuto mezzo secolo fra il 1200 e il 1150 a.C. (Now the identification of a neck vase with inverted elbow handles is added, Nuragic from western or north-western Sardinia, fragmentary, restored from the outside with a double-lead plaque of the Iglesiente, near Pyla-Kokkinokremos, a fortified Cypriot center inland of the Gulf of Larnaka (Kition), lived half a century between 1200 and 1150 BC.)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite webbook|url=https://www.academia.edu/36116570|title=PYLA-KOKKINOKREMOS: Short report of the 2017 campaign|first1=Joachim|last1=Bretschneider|first2=Greta|last2=Jans|first3=Thérèse|last3=Claeys|first4=Simon|last4=Jusseret|first5=Athanasia|last5=Kanta|first6=Jan|last6=Driessen|first7=Vanessa|last7=Boschloos|via=www.academia.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/31539876|title=Pyla-Kokkinokremos: Short report of the 2016 campaign|first1=Joachim|last1=Bretschneider|first2=Jan|last2=Driessen|first3=Simon|last3=Jusseret|first4=Thérèse|last4=Claeys|first5=Greta|last5=Jans|via=www.academia.edu}}</ref><ref>V. Karageorghis, J. Karageorghis, "L'Isola di Afrodite", ''Archeologia Viva'', 2013, No. 159 pp. 40–53</ref><ref>[http://www.raco.cat/index.php/CuadernosArqueologia/article/viewFile/276368/392932 INTERCONNESSIONI FRA MEDITERRANEO E ATLANTICO NELL'ETÀ DEL BRONZO: IL PUNTO DI VISTA DELLA SARDEGNA] Fulvia Lo Schiavo, ISMA-CNR.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Karageorghis|first=Vassos|title=On cooking pots, drinking cups, loomweights and ethnicity in bronze age Cyprus and neighbouring regions: an international archaeological symposium held in Nicosia, November 6th-7th, 2010|date=2011|isbn=978-9963-560-93-6|page=90|language=en|chapter=Handmade Burnished Ware in Cyprus and elsewhere in the Mediterranean|publisher=A.G. Leventis Foundation |oclc=769643982}}</ref>
 
=== Weshesh ===
Line 216 ⟶ 217:
 
The ''Ekwesh'' and the ''Denyen'' have been tentatively identified with the ethnonyms {{lang|grc|Ἀχαι(ϝ)οί|Achai(w)oí}} and {{lang|grc|Δαναοί|Danaoí}}, which are attested in the [[Epic Cycle|Homeric epics]].<ref name="Kelder125–126">{{harvnb|Kelder|2010|pp=125–126}}.</ref>
=== Tjeker ===
{{main|Tjeker}}
{{Empty section|date=July 2024}}
 
== See also ==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Peoples"