Age of Enlightenment: Difference between revisions

Under [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]], the crown began to implement serious structural changes, generally known as the [[Bourbon Reforms]]. The crown curtailed the power of the Catholic Church and the clergy, established a standing military in Spanish America, established new viceroyalties and reorganized administrative districts into [[Intendant|intendants]]. Freer trade was promoted under ''comercio libre'' in which regions could trade with companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the restrictive mercantile system. The crown sent out scientific expeditions to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not control, but also importantly to discover the economic potential of its far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of use to the empire.<ref>Bleichmar, Daniela. ''Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012.</ref>

 

 

When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]] on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the [[Bayonne Statute|Bayonne Constitution]] was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project. [[Peninsular War|A war of national resistance]] erupted. The [[Cortes of Cádiz|Cortes de Cádiz]] (parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of 1812]], which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial; put limits on the king by creating a [[constitutional monarchy]]; defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry; established [[universal manhood suffrage]]; and established public education starting with primary school through university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule.<ref>Thiessen, Heather. "Spain: Constitution of 1812." ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref>