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=== Madhvacharya's monotheistic God ===
[[Madhvacharya]] (1238–1317 CE) developed the [[Dvaita]] theology wherein Vishnu was presented as a monotheistic God, similar to major world religions.<ref name="mmyers"
Madhvacharya was misperceived and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries and Hindu writers during the colonial era scholarship.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=19-25}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}} The similarities in the primacy of one God, dualism and distinction between man and God, devotion to God, the son of God as the intermediary, predestination, the role of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities in the legends of miracles in Christianity and Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these stories.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=19-25}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}} Among Christian writers, G. A. Grierson creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine of that faith".{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|p=20}} Among Hindu writers, according to Sarma, S. C. Vasu creatively translated Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000|pp=22-24}}
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Modern scholarship rules out the influence of Christianity on Madhvacharya,<ref name=skhk177/>{{Sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=266}} as there is no evidence that there ever was a Christian settlement where Madhvacharya grew up and lived, or that there was a sharing or discussion of ideas between someone with knowledge of the Bible and Christian narratives, and him.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=609-611}} Furthermore, many adherents consider the similarities to be superficial and insubstantial; for example, Madhvacharya postulates three co-eternal fundamental realities, consisting of Supreme Being (Vishnu or paramatman), individual Self ([[jiva|jīvātman]]), and inanimate matter.{{Sfn|Sarma|2000}}
== Brahman==
{{Main|Brahman|Para Brahman}}
Many traditions within Hinduism share the Vedic idea of a metaphysical ultimate reality and truth called ''Brahman''. According to [[Jan Gonda]], ''Brahman'' denoted the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas" in the earliest Vedic texts. The early Vedic religious understanding of Brahman underwent a series of abstractions in the Hindu scriptures that followed the Vedic scriptures. These scriptures would reveal a vast body of insights into the nature of Brahman as originally revealed in the Vedas. These Hindu traditions that emerged from or identified with the Vedic scriptures and that maintained the notion of a metaphysical ultimate reality would identify that ultimate reality as Brahman. Hindu adherents to these traditions within Hinduism revere Hindu deities and, indeed, all of existence, as aspects of the Brahman.<ref>James Lochtefeld, ''Brahman'', The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 122</ref><ref>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521438780}}, pages 84-85</ref> The deities in Hinduism are not considered to be almighty, omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent, and spirituality is considered to be seeking the ultimate truth that is possible by a number of paths.<ref name=johnmurdoch141>;<br>{{cite book|author=Harvey P. Alper|title=Understanding Mantras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8Upy4ApG_oC |year=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0746-4|pages=210–211}}</ref><ref>Guy Beck (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791464151}}, page 169 note 11</ref><ref>Bruce Trigger (2003), Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521822459}}, pages 441-442, '''Quote:''' [Historically...] people perceived far fewer differences between themselves and the gods than the adherents of modern monotheistic religions. Deities were not thought to be omniscient or omnipotent and were rarely believed to be changeless or eternal."</ref> Like other Indian religions, in Hinduism, deities are born, they live and they die in every [[kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]] (eon, cycle of existence).<ref>{{cite book|author=W. J. Wilkins |title=Hindu Gods and Goddesses |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I67W9aqtfOwC&pg=PA354|year=2003|publisher=Courier |isbn=978-0-486-43156-7|pages=354 }}</ref>
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Ultimate Reality]] in the [[universe]].<ref name="james122">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0823931798|volume=1|pages=122}}</ref><ref name=ptraju>P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}} In major schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], it is the material, efficient, formal and final [[Four causes|cause]] of all that exists.<ref name=ptraju/><ref>Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, {{ISBN|978-9042015104}}, pages 43–44</ref><ref name=fxclooney>For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), ''Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199738724}}, pages 51–58, 111–115;<br />For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), ''Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara'', Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35</ref> It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.<ref name=james122/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53–55}}<ref name="jeffreybrodd">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/worldreligions2000jeff|url-access=registration|title=World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery|last=Brodd|first=Jeffrey|publisher=Saint Mary's Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0884899976|edition=3rd|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldreligions2000jeff/page/43 43]–47}}</ref> Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.<ref name=james122/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=50–53}}
Brahman is a [[Vedic Sanskrit]] word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states [[Paul Deussen]], as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".<ref>Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 91</ref> Brahman is a key concept found in the [[Vedas]], and it is extensively discussed in the early [[Upanishads]].<ref name=sphilips>Stephen Philips (1998), ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida'' (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415187077}}, pages 1–4</ref> The [[Veda]]s conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121">{{Cite book|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|last=Goodman|first=Hananya|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|year=1994|isbn=978-0791417164|pages=121}}</ref> In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as ''[[Satcitananda|Sat-cit-ānanda]]'' (truth-consciousness-bliss){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=228}}<ref>Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta : A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824802714}}, Chapter 1</ref> and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53–55}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}{{refn|group=note|[[Advaita Vedanta#Criterion of Sublation|"not sublatable"]],{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}} the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").}}{{refn|group=note|It is also defined as:
* The unchanging, [[Infinity|infinite]], [[Immanence|immanent]], and [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[reality]] which is the Divine Ground of all [[matter]], [[energy]], time, [[space]], [[being]], and everything beyond in this [[Universe]]; that is the one supreme, universal spirit.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jeffrey | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, Minnesota | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref>
* The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] universe.<ref>John Bowker (ed.)(2012), ''The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', Oxford University Press.[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-1183]</ref>}}
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self),<ref name=sphilips/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–53}} [[Personal god|personal]],{{refn|group=note|[[Saguna Brahman]], with qualities}} [[Absolute (philosophy)|impersonal]]{{refn|group=note|[[Nirguna Brahman]], without qualities}} or [[Para Brahman]],{{refn|group=note|Supreme}} or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.<ref>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), ''A Survey of Hinduism'', Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791470824}}, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All</ref> In [[Dualistic cosmology|dualistic]] schools of Hinduism such as the theistic [[Dvaita Vedanta]], Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework of [[God]] in major world religions.<ref name=fxclooney/><ref name=mmyers>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124–127</ref><ref>Thomas Padiyath (2014), ''The Metaphysics of Becoming'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110342550}}, pages 155–157</ref> In [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dual]] schools of Hinduism such as the [[monism|monist]] [[Advaita Vedanta]], Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.<ref name=jeffreybrodd/><ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86</ref><ref>John E. Welshons (2009), ''One Soul, One Love, One Heart'', New World Library, {{ISBN|978-1577315889}}, pages 17–18</ref>
The Upanishads contain several ''mahā-vākyas'' or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:<ref name="EoH 270">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-0816073368|pages=270}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Text!! Upanishad !! Translation !! Reference
|-
| '''अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि'''<br />''aham brahmāsmi'' || [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 1.4.10 || "I am Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n171/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 1.4.10, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, page 145</ref>
|-
| '''अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म'''<br />''ayam ātmā brahma'' || Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5 || "The Self is Brahman" ||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n737/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, pages 711–712</ref>
|-
| '''सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म'''<br />''sarvam khalvidam brahma'' ||[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 3.14.1 || "All this is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_२ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br />English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1] Oxford University Press, page 48;<br />Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix</ref>
|-
| '''एकमेवाद्वितीयम्'''<br />''ekam evadvitiyam'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1|| "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" ||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br />English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, page 93;<br />Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix</ref>
|-
| '''तत्त्वमसि'''<br />''[[tat tvam asi]]'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq. || "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman")||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br />English Translation:Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n267/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246–250</ref><ref>A. S. Gupta, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397392 The Meanings of "That Thou Art"], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 125–134</ref>
|-
| '''प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म'''<br />''prajnānam brahma''||[[Aitareya Upanishad]] 3.3.7 || "Knowledge is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऐतरेयोपनिषद् ऐतरेयोपनिषद्] Wikisource<br />English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/246/mode/2up Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7] Oxford University Press, page 246</ref>
|}
=== ''Saguna'' and ''nirguna'' ===
{{Main|Nirguna Brahman|Saguna Brahman}}
While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', they also expound on Brahman as ''[[saguna Brahman]]''—the Brahman with attributes, and ''[[nirguna Brahman]]''—the Brahman without attributes.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [https://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Hierarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], ''Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies'', Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1–6</ref> The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the Brahman as it really is, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing ''nirguna Brahman'', but the Hinduism schools declare ''saguna Brahman'' to be ultimately illusory.<ref name=williamw/> The concept of the ''saguna Brahman'', such as in the form of [[avatar]]s, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.<ref name=williamw>William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323084508/http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |date=23 March 2015 }}, ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Stanford University, (Accessed on: 13 June 2015)</ref>
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna''.<ref name=karen21>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), ''The Embodiment of Bhakti'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 21</ref> ''Nirguna'' Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages xxvii–xxxiv</ref> ''Saguna'' Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii/> The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref name=karen21/><ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages 207–211</ref> It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives: one from ''Nirguni'' knowledge-focus and other from ''Saguni'' love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.<ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna/> ''Nirguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Jnana-shrayi'', or had roots in knowledge.<ref name=karen21/> ''Saguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Prema-shrayi'', or with roots in love.<ref name=karen21/> In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.<ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna/>
''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name=davidlorenzenns/> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name=davidlorenzenns>David Lorenzen (1996), ''Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791428054}}, page 2</ref> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name=karen21/>
== Ishvara ==
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