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{{More citations needed|date=September 2022}}
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[[File:Mercator World Map.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[world map]] by the Italian [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (from whose name the word ''America'' is derived) and Belgian [[Gerardus Mercator]] shows (besides the classical continents [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]]) the [[Americas]] as ''America sive India Nova
Modern reference works on the period tend to follow the introduction of the Gregorian calendar for the sake of clarity; thus [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendar.html NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue] states "The Gregorian calendar is used for all dates from 1582 Oct 15 onwards. Before that date, the Julian calendar is used." For dates after 15 October 1582, care must be taken to avoid confusion of the two styles.</ref> The [[Spanish Colonial Empire|Habsburg Spanish Empire]], [[Portuguese Empire]], [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Safavid Empire|Safavid Persia]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughal India]] and [[Ming Empire|Ming China]] were the most powerful and hegemonic states. The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century which saw the rise of [[Western culture|Western civilization]] and the [[Gunpowder empires|Islamic gunpowder empires]]. The [[Renaissance]] in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include [[accounting]] and [[political science]]. [[Copernicus]] proposed the [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric universe]], which was met with strong resistance, and [[Tycho Brahe]] refuted the theory of [[celestial spheres]] through observational measurement of the [[SN 1572|1572 appearance]] of a [[Milky Way]] [[supernova]]. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by [[Ptolemy]] and [[Aristotle]], and led to major revolutions in [[astronomy]] and science. [[Galileo Galilei]] became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of [[physics]] and [[astronomy]], becoming a major figure in the [[Scientific Revolution]].
Spain and Portugal colonized large parts of [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], followed by France and England in [[Northern America]] and the [[Lesser Antilles]]. The Portuguese became the masters of trade between [[Brazil]], the coasts of Africa, and their possessions in the [[East Indies|Indies]], whereas the Spanish came to dominate the [[Greater Antilles]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], and opened trade across the [[Pacific Ocean]], linking the Americas with the Indies. English and French [[privateer]]s began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era of [[colonialism]] established [[mercantilism]] as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a [[zero-sum game]] in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist [[doctrine]] encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European [[Expansionism|expansion]] and [[imperialism]] throughout the world until the [[19th century]] or early [[20th century]].
The [[Reformation]] in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of the [[Pope|papacy]] and the [[Catholic Church]]. In [[Kingdom of England|England]], the British-Italian [[Alberico Gentili]] wrote the first book on public international law and divided [[secularism]] from [[canon law]] and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal [[Thirty Years' War]] being laid towards the end of the century.
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