|
| strength1 = 10,000–11,000 men{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303}}{{efn|"''The French army of 10,000-11,000 men came down the valley of the Taro towards Parma. Gonzaga had about 20,000 troops...''".{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}}}
| strength2 = 20,000-21,500 men{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=462}}
| casualties1 = * 100100–200 killed{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}}–200 killed{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=438462}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}
* 200 wounded{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=438462}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}
| casualties2 = * 3,350-3,500 killed{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=462}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}}
| units2 = [[Stradioti]]
|campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Italian War of 1494–1498}}
{{Campaignbox Italian Wars}}
}}
The '''Battle of Fornovo''' took place {{convert|30|km|abbr=in}} southwest of the city of [[Parma]] on 6 July 1495. It was fought asafter [[Charles VIII of France|King Charles VIII]] of [[Kingdom of France|France]] had left [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] in southern Italy upon hearing the news of thea grand coalition assembledassembling against him. Despite the numerical advantage of theirthe opponentscoalition, theCharles Frenchwas cameable out triumphantto ofdefeat the engagementcoalition and Charles was able to marchcontinue his armywithdrawal out offrom Italy. ItThe battle was nonethelessa devoid[[pyrrhic ofvictory]] anyfor strategicthe resultFrench aswho allhad ofabandoned their conquests in the [[Italian Peninsula]] wereand abandonedlost all the loot taken during the campaign. Fornovo was the first major pitchedbig battle of the [[Italian Wars]] (1494–1559).
==AntecedentsBackground==
In the year 1495, [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] was the youthful Kingking of France, the most powerful state in medieval Europe. A dreamer who saw himself as the saviour of Christian Europe, he believed he could roll-back the ever-spreadingstem tide of Ottoman Turkish conquest. As a base for his crusade, he was determined to seize Southern Italy. His claim on the [[Kingdom of Naples]] through his paternal grandmother, [[Marie of Anjou]] (1404–1463) presented such an opportunity. Charles made pacts with his neighbours, so they would not interfere. [[Henry VII of England]] was given cash, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] was given [[Roussillon]] and [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximillian]] was given [[Artois]] and [[Franche-Comté]].{{sfn|Palmer|1994|p=19}}
Italian armies of the late medieval period consisted of forces from the many independent towns of Italy. They were raised by establishing a contract , or "{{lang|it|condotta "}}, between the town leaders and the chiefs of mercenary bands, who came to be called {{lang|it|[[Condottieri]] }}. Military doctrines and tactics destined to establish field supremacy were developed, as were methods of capture of wealthy prisoners for ransom , and astuces to minimize casualties. {{cn|date=November All of these were proven ineffective when the highly motivated standing armies of France and Spain invaded the Italian Peninsula.2021}}▼To have his hands free in Italy, Charles made various pacts with his neighbours, so they would not interfere. [[Henry VII of England]] was given cash,{{sfn|Palmer|1994|p=19}} [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] was given [[Roussillon]] and [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximillian]] was given [[Artois]] and [[Franche-Comté]]. This handing out of territory could be regarded as a total lack of foresight on Charles' behalf but he was willing to take such steps to establish his Neapolitan base for his crusade.
Charles VIII was on good terms with the two powers in northern Italy, [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], which dominated northern Italy and both had encouraged his claim over the [[Kingdom of Naples ]]. Thus he assumed he wouldCharles haveexpected their support when he moved against [[Alfonso II of Naples]], especially as the rival claimant was [[Ferdinand II of Aragon ]], [[King of Spain]]. At the end of August 1494, in a lightningrapid campaign, he used France's powerful modern army, reinforced by a large contingent of [[Swiss mercenaries]], to sweep through Italy, his mobile field artillerysiege train smashing into dustdemolishing the tall towers of Italy's medieval castles. He was granted free passage through Milan , but was vigorously opposed by [[Florence]], [[Pope Alexander VI]] , and [[Naples]]. {{cn|date=November 2021}}▼▲Italian armies of the late medieval period consisted of forces from the many independent towns of Italy. They were raised by establishing a contract, or "condotta", between the town leaders and the chiefs of mercenary bands, who came to be called [[Condottieri]]. Military doctrines and tactics destined to establish field supremacy were developed, as were methods of capture of wealthy prisoners for ransom, and astuces to minimize casualties. All of these were proven ineffective when the highly motivated standing armies of France and Spain invaded the Italian Peninsula.
On the way to Naples, the French had defeated every army they met and were ruthless with any city that resisted the invasion.<!--too vague, did they besiege and sack them?--> This shocked the Italians, who were accustomed to the relatively bloodless wars of the {{lang|it|Condottieri}}. On 22 February 1495, Charles and his chief commander, [[Louis II de La Trémoille]], entered Naples, almost without opposition. The Venetians and the new Duke of Milan, [[Ludovico Sforza]], realised that unless Charles was stopped, Italy would become another province of France. The Italian states rallied and in Venice on 31 March, the [[League of Venice|Holy League]] was proclaimed. The signatories were the Republic of Venice, the Duke of Milan, the Pope, the monarchs of Castile and Aragon, the King of England and the Holy Roman Emperor.{{cn|date=November 2021}}
==Campaign==
▲Charles VIII was on good terms with the two powers in northern Italy, [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], and both had encouraged his claim over the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. Thus he assumed he would have their support when he moved against [[Alfonso II of Naples]], especially as the rival claimant was [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], [[King of Spain]]. At the end of August 1494, in a lightning campaign, he used France's powerful modern army, reinforced by a large contingent of [[Swiss mercenaries]], to sweep through Italy, his mobile field artillery train smashing into dust the tall towers of Italy's medieval castles. He was granted free passage through Milan, but was vigorously opposed by [[Florence]], [[Pope Alexander VI]], and [[Naples]].
==Prelude==
On their way to Naples, the French defeated every army sent against them and were ruthless with any city that resisted the invasion. This shocked the Italians, who were accustomed to the relatively bloodless wars of the Condottieri.
On 22 February 1495 Charles VIII and his chief commander, [[Louis II de La Trémoille]], entered Naples almost without opposition. The speed and violence of the campaign left the Italians stunned. Realization struck them, especially the Venetians and the new Duke of Milan, [[Ludovico Sforza]], that unless Charles was stopped Italy would soon just be another province of France. The Italian states rallied and on March 31 in Venice, the [[League of Venice|Holy League]] was proclaimed. The signatories were the Republic of Venice, the Duke of Milan, the Pope, the monarchs of Castile and Aragon, the King of England and the Holy Roman Emperor. The League engaged a veteran {{lang|it|Condottiero }}, [[Francesco II of Gonzaga]], [[Duke of Mantua]] , to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. Upon hearing the news of the coalition assembled against him, Charles VIII left behind a garrisoning forcegarrison in Naples and marched north with the remainder of his army, his artillerysiege train and the considerable booty seized in the campaign thus far in order, to join a smaller army under [[Louis II, Duke of Orléans]] , in Piedmont in north-western Italy. While in Naples, the French army had been swept by an outbreak of [[syphilis ]] and as the army moved north, it spread throughoutthe disease through Italy, where it became known as the "French Disease". {{cn|date=November 2021}}▼
On July27 June the Venetians and their allies established camp near [[Fornovo di Taro]] ({{Coord|44|41|N|10|06|E}}), about {{cvt|30|km|mi}} southwest of [[Parma]], to wait for the French. The [[Venetian Senate]] was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize their loot, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle as this was just one French army and others could be called upon.{{cn|date=November 2021}} On 4 July, [[Ercole d'Este]], Duke of [[Ferrara]], Charles' strongestmost allypowerful inItalian Italyally, wrote to him and informed him that the Senate had not yet decided onwhat anto actiondo. But Charles was anxious , seeingabout the enemygrowing numbersstrength growingof his opponents, while he himself had no hope of reinforcementsquick for the time beingreinforcement. When anAn effortattempt to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians , Charlesand insteadCharles sent a messenger to request free passage to return to France ,. but theThe Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests before such could be consideredfirst. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The 40forty soldiers Charles subsequently sent to reconnoiterreconnoitre were attacked and quickly routed by the [[Stradioti]], mostly Albanian mercenaries from the Balkans.{{sfn|Birtachas|2018| ppp= 327-328327–328}} ▼▲On 22 February 1495 Charles VIII and his chief commander, [[Louis II de La Trémoille]], entered Naples almost without opposition. The speed and violence of the campaign left the Italians stunned. Realization struck them, especially the Venetians and the new Duke of Milan, [[Ludovico Sforza]], that unless Charles was stopped Italy would soon just be another province of France. The Italian states rallied and on March 31 in Venice, the [[League of Venice|Holy League]] was proclaimed. The signatories were the Republic of Venice, the Duke of Milan, the Pope, the monarchs of Castile and Aragon, the King of England and the Holy Roman Emperor. The League engaged a veteran Condottiero, [[Francesco II of Gonzaga]], [[Duke of Mantua]] to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. Upon hearing the news of the coalition assembled against him, Charles VIII left behind a garrisoning force in Naples and marched north with the remainder of his army, his artillery train and the considerable booty seized in the campaign thus far in order to join a smaller army under [[Louis II, Duke of Orléans]] in Piedmont in north-western Italy. While in Naples, the French army had been swept by an outbreak of syphilis and as the army moved north, it spread throughout Italy, where it became known as the "French Disease".
==Battle=Plans===
[[File:Fornovo-battle-Vaticano.jpg|thumb|The Battle of Fornovo in [[the Gallery of Maps]] ([[Vatican Museums]])]]
TwoOn days later, on6 July 6, Charles decided to offer battle because the French were short of provisions. South of Milan, the path of his army of some 10 ,000 to 12,000 French and Swiss was blocked by 20,000 VenetiansVenetian and MantuansMantuan troops under Gonzaga , whose strength is estimated between 14,000 and 20,000.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303}} The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battle groups. The first battle consisted of about 2,500 men and was led by [[Gian Giacomo Trivulzio]]. The second , theand largest , was led by Charles himself.and Thethe finallast battle , consisted of about 1,400 men, was led by [[Francesco Secco]]. There was in additionalso a large infantry force of spearmen. The French artillery was arranged in front of the first line,battle asand well as on the side of the Taro, protecting the second linebattle. {{cn|date=November 2021}}▼
The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Melchiorre Trevisan promised the League soldiers the spoils of battle if they were victorious , igniting their combat ardor. Francesco Gonzaga divided his forces into nine lines. His battle plan was to distract the first and middle groupsbattles of the French with two lines while outflanking the rear. Once the French groupsbattles were disorganized, the rest of the Italian troops would attack. {{cn|date=November 2021}}▼
On 27 June the Venetians and their allies established camp near [[Fornovo di Taro]] ({{Coord|44|41|N|10|06|E}}), some 30 km southwest of [[Parma]], to wait for the French. They would not have to wait long, but the [[Venetian Senate]] was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize their loot, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle as this was just one French army and others could potentially be called upon.
==Battle==
[[File:Hallebardes-p1000544.jpg|thumb|{{centre|Examples of Swiss halberds}}]]
The battle began in the early afternoon with an exchange of artillery-fire that generated more fear and disorder than casualties. The cavalry on the right wing led by Galeazzo Sanseverino attacked the French vanguard without suffering much damage from the French artillery, on terrain that made the artillery difficult to maneuver. The French vanguard responded with a charge of the mounted knights led by Trivulzio. Both sides soon found themselves fighting on banks full of ditches, twigs and thorns. The French finally prevailed by sending the Swiss [[halberd]]iers against the Milanese cavalry, which was unable to fight on such unfavorable terrain.{{cn|date=November 2021}}
Gonzaga's cavalry had attacked, the French center followed by the infantry and Gonzaga had been killed. Bernardino Fortebraccio's cavalry had bypassed the French rearguard together with Duodo's {{lang|it|[[stradioti]]}}, attacking it on the flank but with a certain delay due to the unusually high water of the river. After an hour of fighting Gonzaga’s troops were repulsed, while the light cavalry of Fortebraccio, after a brief skirmish, along with the {{lang|it|stradioti}} and part of the Venetian infantry, plundered the French baggage. Fortebraccio, unable to reorganize his men, withdrew from the battle. The Count of Pitigliano conducted the last attacks with little effect. The Venetian administrators and Niccolò Orsini, who took advantage of the opportunity to free himself from the French, tried to convince many fugitives to return by saying that the battle was almost won.<ref>Francesco Guicciardini, ''Storia d'Italia'', p. 9</ref>{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=43}}<ref>Vincenzo Alberici, Massimo Predonzani, ''Le guerre d'Italia. Dalla spedizione di Carlo VIII in Italia alla battaglia di Fornovo'', pp. 177–178</ref>
▲On July 4, [[Ercole d'Este]], Duke of [[Ferrara]], Charles' strongest ally in Italy, wrote to him and informed him that the Senate had not yet decided on an action. But Charles was anxious, seeing the enemy numbers growing, while he himself had no hope of reinforcements for the time being. When an effort to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians, Charles instead sent a messenger to request free passage to return to France, but the Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests before such could be considered. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The 40 soldiers Charles subsequently sent to reconnoiter were attacked and quickly routed by the [[Stradioti]], mostly Albanian mercenaries from the Balkans.{{sfn|Birtachas|2018|p=327-328}}
After more than an hour of fighting, the French withdrew to a hill. Few of the Venetians were willing to pursue them and both sides set up camp. The French lost more than a thousand men, while the Venetians more than two thousand but the nobles on both sides were either isolated or dead.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=43}}<ref>Vincenzo Alberici, Massimo Predonzani, ''Le guerre d'Italia. Dalla spedizione di Carlo VIII in Italia alla battaglia di Fornovo'', pp. 177–178</ref><ref>Lino Lionello Ghirardini, ''La battaglia di Fornovo: un dilemma della storia'', p. 139</ref> Charles lost all his booty, valued at more than 300,000 ducats. A one-day truce was declared to bury the dead who, along with the wounded, were stripped by the Italian infantry and local inhabitants. Rodolfo Gonzaga, son of the Marquis of Mantua, Ludovico III Gonzaga, was among the casualties. At the end of the truce, Charles withdrew from the battlefield, marching on into Lombardy and returning to France.{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=43}}<ref>Gianfranco Cimino, ''Fornovo 1495'', p. 149</ref><ref>Lino Lionello Ghirardini, ''La battaglia di Fornovo: un dilemma della storia'', p. 157</ref>
▲Two days later, on July 6, Charles decided to offer battle because the French were short of provisions. South of Milan, the path of his army of some 10,000 French and Swiss was blocked by 20,000 Venetians and Mantuans under Gonzaga.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303}} The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battle groups. The first battle consisted of about 2,500 men and was led by [[Gian Giacomo Trivulzio]]. The second, the largest, was led by Charles himself. The final battle, about 1,400 men, was led by [[Francesco Secco]]. There was in addition a large infantry force of spearmen. The French artillery was arranged in front of the first line, as well as on the side of the Taro, protecting the second line.
==Aftermath==
▲Melchiorre Trevisan promised the League soldiers the spoils of battle if they were victorious, igniting their combat ardor. Francesco Gonzaga divided his forces into nine lines. His battle plan was to distract the first and middle groups of the French with two lines while outflanking the rear. Once the French groups were disorganized, the rest of the Italian troops would attack.
===Analysis===
Instead of the usual feckless and nearly bloodless affair then common in Italian condottieri warfare, the French opened with an artillery bombardment, intending to kill as many of their opponents as possible.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303-304}} Then they charged with their heavy cavalry, destroying and scattering the disordered Italian ranks in just minutes.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}} The fight was perhaps more memorable for the ineffectiveness of artillery on either side, other than the psychological effect achieved by the French guns. Of the 100 French and 3,500 Italian dead, one eyewitness estimated that fewer than 10 men were killed by cannon fire.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}} After the battle, Charles then marched on into Lombardy and returned to France.{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}
BothIn parties1921 stroveFrederick toTaylor presentwrote themselves as the victors inthat the battle.{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}} The battle was reported in Venice as a victory, and was recorded and celebrated as such. Butbut the French had won theirthe battle, fighting offagainst superior numbers, inflicted much higher casualties and proceedingproceeded on their march; Michael Mallet and Christine Shaw in 2012 and Kenneth Setton in 1978 reached the same conclusion.{{sfn|Taylor|1921|p=14}}{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=493–494}}{{efn|The battle of Fornovo, by which Charles forced his way past the enemy who stood in his path, was not an indecisive action but a definite victory for France.{{sfn|Taylor|1921|p=14}}}} In 1976, Sarah Bradford wrote that due to the recapture of all the booty looted by Charles' troops and his baggage train (among the trophies were Charles' helmet and seal, two royal flags and his collection of erotic images), the battle was reported and celebrated in Venice as a victory.{{sfn|TaylorBradford|19211976|ppp=1449–51}}{{sfn|Setton|1978|<ref>Lino Lionello Ghirardini, ''La battaglia di Fornovo: un dilemma della storia'', p=493–494}}. 157</ref> In 2006, Cathal Nolan wrote that instead of the usual feckless and nearly bloodless affair then common in Italian condottieri warfare, the French opened with an artillery bombardment, intending to kill as many of their opponents as possible. They charged with their heavy cavalry, scattering the disordered Italian ranks. The fight was perhaps more memorable for the ineffectiveness of artillery on either side, other than the psychological effect achieved by the French guns. One witness estimated that less than ten men were killed by cannon fire.{{sfn|MallettNolan|Shaw|20122006|ppp=31303–304}} TheIn League2012, tookMichael much higher casualtiesMallet and couldChristine notShaw preventwrote thethat Frenchboth armyparties fromstrove crossingto Italianpresent landsthemselves onas itsthe wayvictors backin tothe Francebattle.{{sfn|SettonMallett|1978Shaw|2012|p=493–49431}}
==Consequences=Naples===
Ironically, onOn the same day asof the battle was fought, [[Ferdinand II of Naples|Ferdinand II]] appeared before Naplesthe port with a Spanish fleet; heand re-entered andthe occupied Naplescity the following day. He was welcomed with rejoicing by the citizens, as the French had made themselves hated through their behaviour. Pope Alexander VI denounced the French as having committed worse crimes in Italy than had the [[Goths]]. Already under threat of excommunication, Charles VIII was ordered by the Pope to lay down his arms and promote the peace of Christendom by the pope. Alexander also wrote to the Venetians to congratulate them on winning "immortal fame" by their liberation of Italy.{{sfn|Setton|1978|ppp=495–496}}
===Subsequent events===
Charles left Italy abandoning all his conquests. He attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army, but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the previous one, and he never succeeded in recouping anything substantive. He died two-and-a-half years after his retreat, of an accident, striking his head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later.
Charles left Italy abandoning all his conquests. He attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the campaign and he never succeeded. Charles died two-and-a-half years after his retreat, of an accident, striking his head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later. Charles left France in debt and in disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic and having lost several important provinces that it would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian [[humanists]], energizing French art and letters in the latter [[Renaissance]]. Charles proved to be the last of the elder branch of the [[House of Valois]] and upon his death at Amboise the throne passed to a cousin, the Duc d'Orléans, who reigned as King [[Louis XII of France]], who would try to make good his clearer claim to the Duchy of Milan.{{cn|date=November 2021}}
However, forFor Italy the consequences were catastrophic. Europe knew now, from Charles' expedition, of an enormously rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities , and defended only by mercenary armies that refused to fight withat the slightest disadvantage. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, with the result that the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. Only [[Republic of Venice |Venice]], [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], the [[Papal States]], [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] , and [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]] would survivesurvived as independent nations after the end of the Italian Wars, losing however their original power and stability. {{cn|date=November 2021}}▼Charles bequeathed a meagre legacy: he left France in debt and in disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic, and having lost several important provinces that it would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian [[humanists]], energizing French art and letters in the latter [[Renaissance]].
Charles proved to be the last of the elder branch of the [[House of Valois]], and upon his death at Amboise the throne passed to a cousin, the Duc d'Orléans, who reigned as King [[Louis XII of France]], who would try to make good his clearer claim to the [[Duchy of Milan]].
▲However, for Italy the consequences were catastrophic. Europe knew now, from Charles' expedition, of an enormously rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities, and defended only by mercenary armies that refused to fight with the slightest disadvantage. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, with the result that the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. Only [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], the [[Papal States]], [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]], and [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]] would survive as independent nations after the end of the Italian Wars, losing however their original power and stability.
==See also==
* [[Madonna della Vittoria]]
==Notes==
{{Notelistnotelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}
==Sources==
* {{cite book |series=Cambridge library collection. European History |title=The Art of War in Italy 1494–1529: Prince Consort Prize Essay 1920 |url=https://archive.org/details/artofwarinitaly100taylrich |via=Archive Foundation |first=Frederick Lewis |last=Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1921 |oclc=967401725}}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Georgios |editor-last1=Theotokis |editor-first2=Aysel |editor-last2=Yıldız |series=History of Warfare (118) |title=A Military History of the Mediterranean Sea: Aspects of War, Diplomacy, and Military Elites |year=2018 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden/Boston |edition=e-book |isbn=978-90-04-36204-8}}
** {{harvc |last=Birtachas |first=Stathis |c=Stradioti, Cappelletti, Compagnie or Milizie Greche: 'Greek' Mounted and Foot Troops in the Venetian State (Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries) |year=2018 |in1=Theotokis |in2=Yıldız}}
* {{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&q=spencer+tucker+battle+of+muret&pg=PA269 |title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East |volume=I |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-672-5}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Battle of Fornovo}}
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