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{{Short description|
{{pp-
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Sierra Leone Civil War
| partof = spillover of the [[First Liberian Civil War|First]] and [[Second Liberian Civil War]]s
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| date = 23 March 1991 – 18 January 2002<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=03|day1=23|year1=1991|month2=01|day2=18|year2=2002}})
| place = [[Sierra Leone]]
| result = [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] victory
| combatant1 = {{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Sierra Leone]]
* [[Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces|SLA]] (before and after the AFRC)<ref name="Gberie102">Gberie, p. 102</ref>
* [[Civil Defence Forces|CDF]] ([[Kamajors]], Tamaboros, Kapras, etc.)<ref>Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board, Canada (3 September 1999) [https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad793b.html Sierra Leone: The Tamaboros and their role in the Sierra Leonian conflict]. [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]]. Retrieved 16 January 2022.</ref>
* {{ill|Mercenaries in Sierra Leonean Civil War|lt=Foreign mercenaries|ru|Наёмники в Сьерра-Леоне}}
{{Flag|United Kingdom}} (2000–2002)<br />{{Flag|Guinea}}<br />[[ECOMOG]] forces (1998–2000)<br /> [[Executive Outcomes]] (1995–1996)<br />'''Supported by:'''<br />{{Flag|United States}}<br />{{flag|Belarus|1995}}<ref>
* {{flag|Bangladesh}}<ref name=bd/><ref name=bd1/><ref name=bd2/><ref name=bd3/>
* {{Flag|India}}
* {{Flag|Pakistan}}
* {{Flag|Kenya}}
* {{Flag|Russia}} (1999–2005)
* {{Flag|Ukraine}}
* {{Flag|Nigeria}}
* {{Flag|Norway}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/759281.stm |title=
* {{Flag|New Zealand}}
* {{Flag|Ghana}}
* {{Flag|Jordan}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/91060.stm |title=UK | Britain's role in Sierra Leone |work=BBC News |date=10 September 2000 |access-date=21 January 2017}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Germany}}
| combatant2 =
{{ill|Mercenaries in Sierra Leonean Civil War|lt=Foreign mercenaries|ru|Наёмники в Сьерра-Леоне}}
▲*[[National Patriotic Front of Liberia|NPFL]]<br />(1991–2002)
'''Supported by:'''<br />
{{Flag|
| commander1 = {{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Joseph Saidu Momoh]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[
| commander2 = [[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Foday Sankoh]]<br />[[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Sam Bockarie]]<br />[[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Issa Sesay]]<br />[[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Augustine Gbao]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Johnny Paul Koroma]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Foday Kallay]]<br />{{Flagicon|Liberia}} [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]]<br />{{Flagicon|Liberia}} [[Benjamin Yeaten]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://africanorbit.com/news/634/liberia-benjamin-yeaten-still-a-fugitive-from-justice-emmanuel-abalo.html|title=Liberia: Former Rebel Commander Benjamin Yeaten Still A Fugitive From Justice
▲|commander1= {{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Joseph Saidu Momoh]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Julius Maada Bio]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Samuel Hinga Norman]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Yahya Kanu]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Valentine Strasser]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Solomon Musa]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Moinina Fofana]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Allieu Kondewa]]<br />{{Flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Tony Blair]]<br />{{Flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[David Richards (British Army officer)|David Richards]]<br />{{flagicon|Guinea}} [[Lansana Conté]]<br />{{flagicon|United Nations}}{{flagicon|India}} Vijay Jetley<br />{{flagicon|United Nations}}{{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Daniel Opande]]
| strength1 = {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} ~4,000 government soldiers and militiamen (1999) <br>ECOMOG: ~700 Nigerian soldiers<br />{{flagicon|United Nations}} 6,000 UNAMSIL soldiers, 260 military observers, 4 Russian [[Mil Mi-24]]s (1999)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/background.html |title=UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone – Background |website=Un.org |access-date=21 January 2017}}</ref><br />{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} ~4,500 deployed into theatre (1,300 ashore)<ref>Iron, Richard (February 2019). [https://researchcentre.army.gov.au/sites/default/files/conflict_theory_and_strategy_series_003_-_british_intervention_in_sierra_leone_combined.pdf Rapid Intervention and Conflict Resolution: British Military Intervention in Sierra Leone 2000– 2002]. [https://researchcentre.army.gov.au/ Australian Army Research Centre]. Retrieved 16 January 2022.</ref>
▲|commander2=[[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Foday Sankoh]]<br />[[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Sam Bockarie]]<br />[[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Issa Sesay]]<br />[[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] [[Augustine Gbao]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Johnny Paul Koroma]]<br />{{Flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Foday Kallay]]<br />{{Flagicon|Liberia}} [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]]<br />{{Flagicon|Liberia}} [[Benjamin Yeaten]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://africanorbit.com/news/634/liberia-benjamin-yeaten-still-a-fugitive-from-justice-emmanuel-abalo.html|title=Liberia: Former Rebel Commander Benjamin Yeaten Still A Fugitive From Justice |work=African Orbit|date=8 June 2017|access-date=30 June 2017}}</ref>
| strength2
| casualties3 = 50,000<ref name=Gberie6/> to 70,000<ref name="UNDP_casualties">{{cite book |last1=Kaldor |first1=Mary |last2=Vincent |first2=James |title=Evaluation of UNDP assistance to conflict-affected countries: Case Study: Sierra Leone |date=2006 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |location=New York City |page=4 |url=http://web.undp.org/evaluation/documents/thematic/conflict/SierraLeone.pdf |access-date=28 August 2021}}</ref>
▲|strength2= [[File:Sl RUF.png|22px]] ~20,000 rebels<small> (1999)</small><ref name="youtube.com"/>{{dead link|date=May 2016}}
▲|casualties3= 50,000<ref name=Gberie6/> to 70,000<ref name="UNDP_casualties">{{cite book |last1=Kaldor |first1=Mary |last2=Vincent |first2=James |title=Evaluation of UNDP assistance to conflict-affected countries: Case Study: Sierra Leone |date=2006 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |location=New York City |page=4 |url=http://web.undp.org/evaluation/documents/thematic/conflict/SierraLeone.pdf |access-date=28 August 2021}}</ref> casualties<br />2.5 million displaced internally and externally<ref name=Gberie6/>
▲|}}
{{Campaignbox Sierra Leone Civil War}}
The '''Sierra
During the first year of the war, the RUF took control of large swathes of territory in eastern and southern Sierra Leone, which were rich in [[alluvial]] diamonds. The government's ineffective response to the RUF
In May 1997, a group of disgruntled SLA officers staged a coup and established the [[Armed Forces Revolutionary Council]] (AFRC) as the new government of Sierra Leone.<ref name=Abdullah180>Abdullah, p. 180</ref> The RUF joined with the AFRC to capture the capital city, [[Freetown]], with little resistance. The new government, led by [[Johnny Paul Koroma]], declared the war over. A wave of looting, [[Rape during the Sierra Leone Civil War|rape]], and murder followed the announcement.<ref name="Gberie102
In January 1999, world leaders intervened diplomatically to promote negotiations between the RUF and the government.<ref name=Gberie161/> The [[Lome Peace Accord]], signed on 27 March 1999, was the result. Lome gave [[Foday Sankoh]], the commander of the RUF, the vice presidency and control of Sierra Leone's diamond mines in return for a cessation of the fighting and the deployment of a [[UNAMSIL|UN]] peacekeeping force ([[United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone]], UNAMSIL) to monitor the disarmament process. RUF compliance with the disarmament process was inconsistent and sluggish, and by May 2000, the rebels were advancing again upon Freetown.<ref name=Abdullah214-217>Abdullah, pp.
As the UN mission began to fail, the [[United Kingdom]] declared its intention to intervene in the former colony and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] member in an attempt to support the severely weak government of President [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]]. With help from a renewed UN mandate and Guinean air support, the British [[Operation Palliser]] finally defeated the RUF,
==Causes of the war==
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===Political history===
{{main|Sierra Leone}}
{{see also|Ndogboyosoi War}}
In 1961, Sierra Leone gained its independence from the United
When [[Siaka Stevens]] entered politics in 1968, Sierra Leone was a constitutional democracy. When he stepped down, seventeen years later, Sierra Leone was a one-party state.<ref name=Gberie28>Gberie, p. 28</ref> Stevens' rule, sometimes called "the 17 year plague of locusts",<ref name="CADS">{{cite web|url=http://www.cads-sierraleone.org/newunmandate.htm|title=A New Mandate For UN Mission In Africa|work=CADS Global Network|author=Ayittey, George B.N.|access-date=24 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725115348/http://www.cads-sierraleone.org/newunmandate.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011}}</ref> saw the destruction and perversion of every state institution. Parliament was undermined, judges were bribed, and the treasury was bankrupted to finance pet projects that supported insiders.<ref name=Abdullah93>Abdullah, p. 93</ref> When Stevens failed to co-opt his opponents, he often resorted to state sanctioned executions or exile.<ref name="Pham45">{{Cite book|last=Pham|first=John-Peter|title=Child Soldiers, Adult Interests: The Global Dimension of the Sierra Leonean Tragedy|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|location=New York|year=2005|page=45}}</ref>
In 1985, Stevens stepped down, and handed the nation’s preeminent position to Major General [[Joseph Momoh]],
===Diamonds and the "resource curse"===
The Eastern and Southern districts in Sierra Leone, most notably the [[Kono District|Kono]] and [[Kenema District|Kenema]] districts, are rich in alluvial [[diamonds]], and more importantly, are easily accessible by anyone with a shovel, [[sieve]], and transport.<ref name="Abdullah106">Abdullah, p. 106</ref> Since their discovery in the early 1930s, diamonds have been critical in financing the continuing pattern of corruption and personal aggrandizement at the expense of needed public services, institutions, and infrastructure.<ref>Gberie, p. 18</ref> The phenomenon whereby countries with an abundance of natural resources tend to nonetheless be characterized by lower levels of economic development is known as the "[[resource curse]]".<ref>{{cite book |last= Auty |first= Richard M. |year= 1993 |title= Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The Resource Curse Thesis |location= London |publisher= Routledge}}</ref>
[[File:Alluvial diamond miner Sierra Leone 2005.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Alluvial diamond miner]]
The presence of diamonds in Sierra Leone invited and led to the civil war in several ways. First, the highly unequal benefits resulting from diamond mining made ordinary Sierra Leoneans frustrated. Under the Stevens government, revenues from the National Diamond Mining Corporation (known as DIMINCO) – a joint government/[[DeBeers]] venture – were used for the personal enrichment of Stevens and of members of the government and business elite who were close to him.<ref name="Keen23">Keen, p. 23</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://jsaw.lib.lehigh.edu/viewarticle.php?id=924&layout=html|last=Federico|first=Victoria|title=The Curse of Natural Resources and Human Development|work=L-SAW: Lehigh Student Award Winners|year=2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322022750/http://jsaw.lib.lehigh.edu/viewarticle.php?id=924&layout=html|archive-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> When DeBeers pulled out of the venture in 1984, the government lost direct control of the diamond mining areas. By the late 1980s, almost all of Sierra Leone's diamonds were being smuggled and traded illicitly, with revenues going directly into the hands of private investors.<ref name=Keen22>Keen, p. 22</ref><ref name=Hirsch2728>Hirsch, pp. 27–28</ref> In this period the diamond trade was dominated by Lebanese traders and later (after a shift in favor on the part of the Momoh government) by Israelis with connections to the international diamond markets in [[Antwerp]].<ref>{{Cite journal
Diamonds also helped to arm the RUF rebels who used funds harvested from the alluvial diamond mines to purchase weapons and ammunition from
Although diamonds were a significant motivating and sustaining factor, there were other means of profiting from the Sierra Leone Civil War. For instance, [[gold]] mining was prominent in some regions. Even more common was [[cash crop]] farming through the use of forced labor. Looting during the Sierra Leone Civil War did not just center on diamonds, but also included that of currency, household items, food, livestock, cars, and international aid shipments. For Sierra Leoneans who did not have access to arable land, joining the rebel cause was an opportunity to seize property through the use of deadly force.<ref>Gberie, p. 85</ref> But the most important reason why the civil war should not be entirely attributed to conflict over the economic benefits incurred from the alluvial diamond mines is that the pre-war frustrations and grievances did not just concern that of the diamond sector. More than twenty years of poor governance, poverty, corruption and oppression created the circumstances for the rise of the RUF, as ordinary people yearned for change.<ref name=Abdullah99>Abdullah, p. 99</ref>
===
{{main|Revolutionary United Front}}
As a result of the First Liberian Civil War, 80,000 refugees fled neighboring Liberia for the Sierra Leone – Liberian border. This displaced population, composed almost entirely of children, would prove to be an invaluable asset to the invading rebel armies because the [[refugee]] and detention centers, populated first by displaced Liberians and later by Sierra Leoneans, helped provide the manpower for the RUF’s insurgency.<ref>Gberie, p. 56</ref> The RUF took advantage of the refugees, who were abandoned, starving, and in dire need of medical attention, by promising food, shelter, medical care, and looting and mining profits in return for their support.<ref>Gberie, p. 59</ref> When this method of recruitment failed, as it often did for the RUF, youths were often coerced at
===Libyan and arms dealing role===
[[Muammar al-Gaddafi]] both trained and supported [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]].<ref name="economistfall">{{cite news|url= http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9441341|title= How the mighty are falling|access-date=17 July 2007|date=5 July 2007|
Russian businessman [[Viktor Bout]] supplied Charles Taylor with arms for use in Sierra Leone and had meetings with him about the operations.<ref>Merchant of death: money, guns, planes, and the man who makes war possible. Douglas Farah, Stephen Braun. p. 164</ref>
==
===SLA response
[[File:MacKenzieSlcu.jpg|300px|thumb|SLA soldiers and advisers]]
The initial [[rebellion]] could have easily been quelled in the first half of 1991. But the RUF – despite being both numerically inferior and extremely brutal against civilians – controlled
====Sobels====
The SLA's sordid behavior inevitably led to the alienation of many civilians and pushed some Sierra Leoneans to join the rebel cause. With morale low and rations even lower, many SLA soldiers discovered that they could do better by joining with the rebels in looting civilians in the countryside instead of fighting against them.<ref name=Gberie102/> The local civilians referred to these soldiers as ‘[[Sobel (Sierra Leone)|sobels]]’ or ‘soldiers by day, rebels by night’ because of their close ties to the RUF. By mid-1993, the two opposing sides became virtually indistinguishable. For these reasons, civilians increasingly relied on an irregular force called the [[Kamajors]] for their protection.<ref name=Abdullah4>Abdullah, p. 4</ref>
===Rise of the Kamajors===
{{main|Kamajors}}
A grassroots [[militia]] force, the Kamajors operated invisibly in familiar territory and was a significant impediment to marauding government and RUF troops.<ref>Gberie, p. 110</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2017-03-07|title=In Search of the Kamajors, Sierra Leone's Civilian Counter-insurgents|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-africa/sierra-leone/search-kamajors-sierra-leones-civilian-counter-insurgents|access-date=2021-05-19|website=Crisis Group|language=en}}</ref> For [[Displaced person|displaced]] and unprotected Sierra
===National Provisional Ruling Council===
Within one year of fighting, the RUF offensive had stalled, but it still remained in control of large territories in Eastern and Southern Sierra Leone leaving many villages unprotected while also disrupting food and government diamond production. Soon the government was unable to pay both its civil servants and the SLA. As a result, the Momoh regime lost all remaining credibility and a group of disgruntled junior officers led by [[Valentine Strasser|Captain Valentine Strasser]] overthrew Momoh on 29 April 1992.<ref name=Gberie103/><ref>Abdullah, p.105</ref> Strasser justified the coup and the establishment of the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) by referencing the corrupt Momoh regime and its inability to resuscitate the economy, provide for the people of Sierra Leone, and repel the rebel invaders. The NPRC’s coup was largely popular because it promised to bring peace to Sierra Leone.<ref>Gberie, p. 72</ref> But the NPRC’s promise would prove to be short lived.<ref>Gberie, p. 74</ref>
In March 1993, with much help from [[ECOMOG]] troops provided by [[Nigeria]], the SLA recaptured the Koidu and Kono diamond districts and pushed the RUF to the Sierra Leone – Liberia border.<ref>Gberie, p. 65</ref> The RUF was facing supply problems as the [[United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy]] (ULIMO) gains inside Liberia were restricting the ability of Charles Taylor’s NPFL to trade with the RUF. By the end of 1993, many observers thought that the war was over because for the first time in the conflict the Sierra Leone Army was able to establish itself in the Eastern and the Southern mining districts.<ref name="Abdullah108">Abdullah, p. 108</ref>
Line 109 ⟶ 106:
===Executive Outcomes===
{{main|Executive Outcomes}}
In March 1995, with the RUF within twenty miles of [[Freetown]], [[Executive Outcomes]], a [[private military company]] from South Africa, arrived in Sierra Leone. The government paid EO $1.8 million per month (financed primarily by the [[International Monetary Fund]]),<ref>{{Cite book|title=When the State Fails: Studies on Intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War|last=Zack-Williams|first=Tunde|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2011|isbn=9781849646246|page=24}}</ref> to accomplish three goals: return the diamond and mineral mines to the government, locate and destroy the RUF’s headquarters, and operate a successful propaganda program that would encourage local Sierra Leoneans to support the [[government of Sierra Leone]].<ref name="Abdullah90
As a military force, EO was remarkably effective and conducted a highly successful counter insurgency against the RUF. In just ten days of fighting, EO was able to drive the RUF forces back sixty miles into the interior of the country.<ref name=Gberie93/> EO outmatched the RUF forces in all operations. In just seven months, EO, with support from loyal SLA and the Kamajors battalions, recaptured the diamond mining districts and the Kangari Hills, a major RUF stronghold.<ref>Abdullah, p. 96</ref> A second offensive captured the provincial capital and the largest city in Sierra Leone and destroyed the RUF’s main base of operations near [[Bo, Sierra Leone|Bo]], finally forcing the RUF to admit defeat and sign the [[Abidjan Peace Accord]] in [[Abidjan]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]] on 30 November 1996.<ref name="Gberie95">Gberie, p. 95</ref> This period of relative peace also allowed the country to hold parliamentary and presidential elections in February and March 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://africanelections.tripod.com/sl.html|title=Elections in Sierra Leone|work=African Elections Database|date=17 September 2007|access-date=24 December 2010}}</ref> [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]] (of the [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] [SLPP]), a diplomat who had worked at the [[UN]] for more than 20 years, won the presidential election.<ref>Abdullah, p. 144</ref>
===Abidjan Peace Accord===
{{main|Abidjan Peace Accord}}
The Abidjan Peace Accord mandated that Executive Outcomes was to pull out within five weeks after the arrival of a neutral [[peacekeeping]] force. The main stumbling block that prevented [[Sankoh]] from signing the agreement sooner was the number and type of peacekeepers that were to monitor the ceasefire.<ref name=Gberie161>Gberie, p. 161</ref><ref>Abdullah, p. 206</ref> Additionally, continued [[Kamajor]] attacks and the fear of punitive [[tribunals]] following [[demobilization]] kept many rebels in the bush despite their dire situation. However, in January 1997, the Kabbah government – beset by demands to reduce expenditures by the International Monetary Fund – ordered EO to leave the country, even though a neutral monitoring force had yet to arrive.<ref name="Abdullah118" /><ref name="Gberie95
===AFRC/RUF coup and interregnum===
{{main|Armed Forces Revolutionary Council}}
After the departure of Executive Outcomes, the credibility of the Kabbah government declined, especially among members of the SLA, who saw themselves being eclipsed by both the RUF on one side and the independent but pro-government Kamajors on the other.<ref name="Abdullah118-119">Abdullah, pp. 118–19</ref> On 25 May 1997, a group of disgruntled SLA officers freed and armed 600 prisoners from the Pademba Road prison in Freetown. One of the prisoners, Major [[Johnny Paul Koroma]], emerged as the leader of the coup and the [[Armed Forces Revolutionary Council]] (AFRC) proclaimed itself the new government of Sierra Leone.<ref name=Abdullah180/> After receiving the blessing of Foday Sankoh, who was then living under house arrest in Nigeria, members of the RUF – supposedly on its last legs – were ordered out of the bush to participate in the coup. Without hesitation and encountering only light resistance from SLA loyalists, 5,000 rag-tag rebel fighters marched 100 miles and overran the capital. Without fear or reluctance, RUF and SLA dissidents then proceeded to parade peacefully together. Koroma then appealed to Nigeria for the release of Sankoh, appointing the absent leader to the position of deputy chairman of the AFRC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allie|first=Joe|contribution=The Kamajor Militia in Sierra Leone: Liberators or Nihilists?|editor-last=Francis|editor-first=David J.|title=Civil Militia: Africa's Intractable Security Menace?|publisher=Ashgate|location=Burlington, VT|year=2005|page=59 }}</ref> The joint AFRC/RUF leadership then proclaimed that the war had been won, and a great wave of looting and reprisals against civilians in Freetown (dubbed "Operation Pay Yourself" by some of its participants) followed.<ref>Abdullah, p. 148</ref><ref>Gberie, p. 107</ref> President [[Kabbah]], surrounded only by his bodyguards, left by helicopter for exile in nearby [[Guinea]].<ref>Gberie, p. 108</ref>
The AFRC junta was opposed by organised members of Sierra Leone's civil society such as
▲The AFRC junta was opposed by members of Sierra Leone's civil society such as student unions, journalists associations, women's groups and others, not only because of the violence it unleashed but because of its political attacks on press freedoms and civil rights.<ref>Abdullah, p. 156</ref> The international response to the coup was also overwhelmingly negative.<ref>"The AFRC remained a pariah junta, shunned by every government in the world." Abdullah, p. 156</ref> The [[United Nations|UN]] and the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU) condemned the coup, foreign governments withdrew their diplomats and missions (and in some cases evacuated civilians) from Freetown, and Sierra Leone's membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] was suspended.<ref name="Abdullah158">Abdullah, p. 158</ref> The [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) also condemned the AFRC coup and demanded that the new [[Military junta|junta]] return power peacefully to the Kabbah government or risk sanctions and increased military presence by ECOMOG forces.<ref>Gberie, p. 112</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Shocking War Crimes in Sierra Leone New Testimonies on Mutilation, Rape of Civilians|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1999/06/24/shocking-war-crimes-sierra-leone|website=Human Rights Watch|date=24 June 1999}}</ref>
ECOMOG’s intervention in Sierra Leone brought the AFRC/RUF rebels to the negotiating table where, in October 1997, they agreed to a tentative peace known as the Conakry Peace Plan.<ref>Abdullah, p. 161</ref> Despite having agreed to the plan, the AFRC/RUF continued to fight. In March 1998, overcoming entrenched AFRC positions, the ECOMOG forces retook the capital and reinstated the Kabbah government, but let the rebels flee without further harassment.<ref>Abdullah, p. 223</ref><ref>Gberie, p. 121</ref> The regions lying just beyond Freetown proved much more difficult to pacify. Thanks in part to bad road conditions, lack of support aircraft, and a revenge driven rebel force, ECOMOG’s offensive ground to a halt just outside Freetown. ECOMOG’s forces suffered from several weakness, the most important being, poor command and control, low morale, poor training in counterinsurgency, low manpower, limited air and sea capability, and poor funding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ero|first1=Comfort|last2=Sidhu|first2=Waheguru Pal Singh|last3=Toure|first3=Augustine|date=September 2001|title=Toward a Pax West Africana: Building Peace in a Troubled Sub-region|url=https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/pdf_report_pax_w__africana.pdf|journal=International Peace Academy|page=40|via=International Peace Institute}}</ref>
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{{Main|UNAMSIL}}
In October 1999 the UN established the [[UNAMSIL|United Nations Mission to Sierra Leone]] (UNAMSIL). The main objective of UNAMSIL was to assist with the disarmament process and enforce the terms established under the Lome Peace Agreement.<ref name=Gberie161 /> Unlike other previous neutral peacekeeping forces, UNAMSIL brought serious military power.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Woods|first1=Larry J.|last2=Reese|first2=Colonel Timothy R.|date=2008|title=Military Interventions in Sierra Leone: Lessons From a Failed State |url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a494520.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223110640/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a494520.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=23 February 2017|series=The Long War Series Occasional Paper |publisher=Combat Studies Institute Press|volume=28|page=117|via=Defense Technical Information Center}}</ref> The original multi-national force was commanded by General Vijay Jetley of [[India]].<ref name=Gberie164>Gberie, p. 164</ref> Jetley later resigned and was replaced by Lieutenant General Daniel Opande of Kenya in November 2000.<ref name="ISSMonoCh4">{{cite web|url=http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/monographs/No68/Chap4.html|author=Malan, Mark, Phenyo Rakate and Angela MacIntyre |title=Chapter Four: The 'New' UNAMSIL: Strength and Composition|work=Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone: UNAMSIL Hits the Home Straight|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|location=Pretoria, South Africa|date=January 2002|access-date=29 December 2010|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305024721/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/monographs/No68/Chap4.html|archive-date=5 March 2012}}</ref> Jetley had accused Nigerian political and military officials at the top of the UN mission of "sabotaging peace" in favor of national interests, and alleged that Nigerian army commanders illegally mined diamonds in league with RUF.<ref name="Jetley_resignation">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/sep/22/sierraleone.unitednations|author=McGreal|work=The Guardian|date=21 September 2000|access-date=12 December 2017|title=Indian troop recall shifts onus to Nato}}</ref> The Nigerian army called for General Jetley's resignation immediately after the report was released, saying they could no longer work with him.<ref name="Jetley_resignation" />
UNAMSIL forces began arriving in Sierra Leone in December 1999. At that time the maximum number of troops to be deployed was set at 6,000. Only a few months later, though, in February 2000, a new UN resolution authorized the deployment of 11,000 combatants.<ref name="ISSMonoCh3">{{cite web|url=http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/monographs/No68/Chap3.html|author=Malan, Mark, Phenyo Rakate and Angela MacIntyre|title=Chapter Three: UNAMSIL's Troubled Debut|work=Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone: UNAMSIL Hits the Home Straight|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|location=Pretoria, South Africa|date=January 2002|access-date=29 December 2010|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305024659/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/monographs/No68/Chap3.html|archive-date=5 March 2012}}</ref> In March 2001 that number was increased to 17,500 troops, making it at the time the largest UN force in existence,<ref name="ISSMonoCh4" /> and UNAMSIL soldiers were deployed in the RUF-held diamond areas. Despite these numbers, UNAMSIL was frequently rebuffed and humiliated by RUF rebels, being subjected to attacks, obstruction and disarmament. In the most egregious example, in May 2000 over 500 UNAMSIL peacekeepers were captured by the RUF and held hostage. Using the weapons and [[armored personnel carrier]]s of the captured UNAMSIL troops, the rebels advanced towards Freetown, taking over the town of Lunsar to its northeast.<ref name=Abdullah214-217 /> For over a year later, the UNAMSIL force meticulously avoided intervening in RUF controlled mining districts lest another major incident occur.<ref>Gberie, p. 189</ref> After the UNAMSIL force had essentially rearmed the RUF, a call for a new military intervention was made to save the UNAMSIL hostages and the government of Sierra Leone.<ref name=":1" /> After [[Operation Palliser]] and [[Operation Khukri]] the situation stabilized and UNAMSIL
In late 1999, the [[UN Security Council]] asked Russia for participation in a peacekeeping mission in Sierra Leone. The [[Federation Council of Russia]] decided to send 4 Mil Mi-24 attack helicopters with 115 crew and technical personnel into Sierra Leone.
====Operation Khukri====
{{Main|Operation Khukri}}
Operation Khukri was a unique multinational operation launched in the United Nations Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), involving India, Nepal, Ghana, Britain and Nigeria. The aim of the operation was to break the two-month-long siege laid by armed cadres of the RUF around two companies of 5/8
===British intervention===
{{main|British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War}}
[[File:SeaHarrier.jpg|240px|thumb|A British [[Sea Harrier]] jet, such as those used to support government forces]]
In May 2000, the situation on the ground had deteriorated to such an extent that British paratroopers were deployed in Operation Palliser to evacuate foreign nationals and establish order.<ref name=Gberie173>Gberie, p. 173</ref> They stabilized the situation, and were the catalyst for a ceasefire that helped end the war. The British forces, under the command of Brigadier [[David Richards (British Army officer)|David Richards]], expanded their original mandate, which was limited to evacuating
===End of the war===
Several factors led to the end of the civil war. First, Guinean cross-border bombing raids against villages believed to be bases used by the RUF working in conjunction with Guinean dissidents were very effective in routing the rebels.<ref>Abdullah, p. 221</ref><ref name=Gberie172>Gberie, p. 172</ref> Another factor encouraging a less combative RUF was a new UN resolution that demanded that the government of Liberia expel all RUF members, end their financial support of the RUF, and halt the illicit diamond trade.<ref>Gberie, p. 170</ref> Finally, the Kamajors, feeling less threatened now that the RUF was disintegrating in the face of a robust opponent, failed to incite violence like they had done in the past. With their backs against the wall and without any international support, the RUF forces signed a new peace treaty within a matter of weeks.
On 18 January 2002, President Kabbah declared the eleven-year-long Sierra Leone Civil War officially over.<ref>Abdullah, p. 229</ref> By most estimates, over 50,000 people had
==War atrocities and crimes against humanity==
[[File:School destroyed by Sierra Leone Civil War.jpg|thumb|A school destroyed during the civil war, in Kono, eastern Sierra Leone.]]
During the Sierra Leone Civil War numerous atrocities were committed including [[war rape]], [[mutilation]], and mass murder, causing many of the perpetrators to be tried in international criminal courts, and the establishment of a truth and reconciliation commission. A 2001 overview noted that there had been "serious and grotesque human rights violations" in Sierra Leone since its civil war began in 1991. The rebels, the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), had "committed horrendous abuses". The report noted that "25 times as many people" had already been killed in Sierra Leone than had been killed in the [[Kosovo war]] (1998-1999) at the point when the international community decided to take action. "In fact, it has been pointed out by many that the atrocities in Sierra Leone have been worse than was seen in Kosovo."<ref name="Shah">{{cite web|last=Shah|first=Anup|title=Sierra Leone|url=http://www.globalissues.org/article/88/sierra-leone|work=Global Issues|date=23 July 2001 |access-date=12 January 2013}}</ref> In total, 1,270 primary schools were destroyed in the War.<ref name=ilab>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/Sierra-leone.htm "Sierra Leone"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102020941/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/Sierra-leone.htm |date=2 November 2013 }}. ''2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor''. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2002)</ref>
These crimes included but are not limited to:
===
*'''Drafting of Underage Soldiers''' – About one quarter of the soldiers serving in the government armed forces during the civil war were under age 18.<ref name="Shah"/> "Recruitment methods were brutal – sometimes children were abducted, sometimes they were forced to kill members of their own families so as to make them outcasts, sometimes they were drugged, sometimes they were forced into conscription by threatening family members." Child soldiers were deliberately overwhelmed with violence "in order to completely desensitize them and make them mindless killing machines".<ref>{{cite web|title=Sierra Leone – Human Rights|url=http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art24082.asp|work=Bella Online|access-date=12 January 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/innocence-lost-the-child-soldiers-of-sierra-leone/ Innocence Lost, Radio Netherlands Archives, February 16, 2000]</ref>▼
''Cry Freetown'', the 2000 documentary film directed by Sorious Samura
*'''Mass War Rape''' – During the war gender specific violence was widespread. Rape,<ref>[http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-memories-should-be-their-punishment-war-rape-in-sierra-leone/ The Memories should be their punishment, Radio Netherlands Archives, January 12, 2000]</ref> [[sexual slavery]] and [[forced marriages]] were commonplace during the conflict.{{sfn|Oosterveld|2013|p=235}} The majority of assaults were carried out by the [[Revolutionary United Front]] (RUF). The [[Armed Forces Revolutionary Council]] (AFRC), The [[Civil Defence Forces]] (CDF), and the [[Sierra Leone Army]] (SLA) have also been implicated in sexual violence. The RUF, even though they had access to women, who had been abducted for use as either sex slaves or combatants, frequently raped non-combatants.{{sfn|Wood|2013|p=145}} The militia also carved the RUF initials into women's bodies, which placed them at risk of being mistaken for enemy combatants if they were captured by government forces.{{sfn|Meyersfeld|2012|p=164}} Women who were in the RUF were expected to provide sexual services to the male members of the militia. And of all women interviewed, only two had not been repeatedly subjected to sexual violence; gang rape and individual rapes were commonplace.{{sfn|Denov|2010|p=109}} A report from PHR stated that the RUF was guilty of 93 per cent of sexual assaults during the conflict.{{sfn|Mustapha|2003|p=42}} The RUF was notorious for human rights violations, and regularly amputated arms and legs from their victims.{{sfn|Kennedy|Waldman|2014|pp=215–216}} [[Human trafficking|Trafficking]] by military and militias of women and girls, for use as [[Sexual slavery|sex slaves]] is well documented. With reports from recent conflicts such as those in, Angola, the former Yugoslavia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, the DRC, Indonesia, Colombia, Burma and Sudan.{{sfn|Decker|Oram|Gupta|Silverman|2009|p=65}} During the decade long civil conflict in Sierra Leone, women were used as sex slaves having been trafficked into refugee camps. According to PHR, one third of women who reported sexual violence had been kidnapped, with fifteen per cent forced into sexual slavery. The PHR report also showed that ninety four per cent of internally displaced households had been victims of some form of violence.{{sfn|Martin|2009|p=50}} PHR estimated that there were between 215,000 and 257,000 victims of rape during the conflict.{{sfn|Simpson|2013}}{{sfn|Reis|2002|pp=17–18}}{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=397}}▼
=== Drafting of underage soldiers ===
▲
=== Mass war rape ===
▲Cry Freetown the 2000 documentary film directed by Sorious Samura shows accounts of the victims of the Sierra Leone Civil War and depicts the most brutal period with the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) rebels burning houses and The ECOMOG soldiers summarily executing suspects. Sorious Samura films Nigerian soldiers executing suspects without trial including women and children.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uu4jWN3B1Vg |title=YouTube |publisher=YouTube |date= |access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref>
{{Main|Rape during the Sierra Leone Civil War}}
▲
==After the war==
===Withdrawal===
[[File:Mohammad Mosaddak Ali met with President of Sierra Leone Alhaji Ahmad Tejan Kabbah at Prime Minister's Office in Dhaka.jpg|300px|thumb|President Kabbah meeting with Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddak Ali at his Office in Dhaka, Bangladesh in 2004. Bangladesh, together with many other countries, played a key role in the UN's mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL).]]
On 28 July 2002, the British withdrew a 200-strong military contingent that had been in country since the summer of 2000, leaving behind a 140-strong military training team with orders to professionalize the SLA and Navy. In November 2002, UNAMSIL began a gradual reduction from a peak level of 17,800 personnel.<ref name="Bell">Bell, 2005</ref> Under pressure from the British, the withdrawal slowed, so that by October 2003 the UNAMSIL contingent still stood at 12,000 men. As peaceful conditions continued through 2004, however, UNAMSIL drew down its forces to slightly over 4,100 by December 2004. The UN Security Council extended UNAMSIL’s mandate until June 2005 and again until December 2005. UNAMSIL completed the withdrawal of all troops in December 2005 and was succeeded by the [[United Nations Integrated Office in Sierra Leone]] (UNIOSIL).<ref name="UNAMSIL">{{cite web | title = UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone | url = https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/|website=Un.org | access-date =21 July 2011 }}</ref>
===Truth and Reconciliation Commission===
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==== Population ====
After the war many of the children who were abducted and used in the conflict needed some form of rehabilitation, debriefing and care after the conflict came to an end. Only a handful of the children could be immediately sent home after six weeks of debriefing at a center for ex-combatants. This is due to many of the children suffering from drug
There was an estimated one to two million displaced persons and refugees who wanted to or needed to be returned to their villages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kuiter|first=Bart|date=July–August 2001|title=Post War Reconstruction in Sierra Leone|url=http://ec.europa.eu/development/body/publications/courier/courier187/en/en_076.pdf|journal=Courier ACP-EU|pages=76–77}}</ref>
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==== Government ====
The European Union [EU] sent budgetary support with the support of the IMF, the World Bank and the UK in an effort to stabilize the economy and the government. The amount
===Diamond revenues===
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=== Prosecution ===
[[File:Stephen J. Rapp, Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues.jpg|200px|right|thumb|upright|Stephen J. Rapp, chief prosecutor]]
On 13 January 2003, a small group of armed men tried unsuccessfully to break into an armory in Freetown. Former AFRC-junta leader Koroma, after being linked to the raid, went into hiding. In March, the Special Court for Sierra Leone issued its first indictments for [[war crimes]] during the civil war. Sankoh, already in custody, was indicted, along with notorious RUF field commander [[Sam Bockarie|Sam "Mosquito" Bockarie]], Koroma, the Minister of Interior and former head of the Civil Defense Force, [[Samuel Hinga Norman]], and several others. Norman was arrested when the indictments were announced, while Bockarie and Koroma remained at large (presumably in Liberia). On 5 May 2003, Bockarie was killed in Liberia. President Taylor expected to be indicted by the Special Court and had feared Bockarie’s testimony.<ref>{{cite book| author= Lykke, A.M. and Due, M.K. and Kristensen, M. and Nielsen, I. |title= The Sahel. Proceedings of the 16th Danish Sahel Workshop. |year=2004 |pages= volume 5 page 6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oc2rPwAACAAJ | isbn=978-87-87600-38-5 | publisher=Dept. of Systematic Botany, Institute of Biological Sciences, Aarhus University}}</ref> He is suspected of ordering Bockarie's murder, although no indictments are pending.<ref name=
Several weeks later, word filtered out of Liberia that Koroma had been killed as well, although his death remains unconfirmed. In June the Special Court announced Taylor’s indictment for war crimes.<ref name=
In August 2003 President Kabbah testified before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on his role during the civil war. On 1 December 2003, [[Major General]] [[Tom Carew]], who had been the Chief of Defence Staff for the Government of Sierra Leone and an important figure in the SLA, was reassigned to civilian duties. In June 2007, the Special Court found three of the [[Special Court for Sierra Leone#Indictees|eleven people indicted]] – Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu – guilty of war crimes, including acts of [[terrorism]], [[collective punishment]]s, extermination, murder, rape, outrages upon personal dignity, [[Military use of children|conscripting or enlisting children]] under the age of 15 years into armed forces, [[slavery|enslavement]] and pillage.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sc-sl.org/Press/pressrelease-062007.pdf |title= Guilty Verdicts in the Trial of the AFRC Accused |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081029201800/http://www.sc-sl.org/Press/pressrelease-062007.pdf |archive-date= 29 October 2008 |df= dmy-all }} {{small|(104 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, press release from the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 20 June 2007; [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/20/AR2007062000952.html?hpid=moreheadlines "Sierra Leone Convicts 3 of War Crimes"], ''[[Associated Press]]'', 20 June 2007 (hosted by ''[[The Washington Post]]''); [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6221112.stm "First S Leone war crimes verdicts"], ''[[BBC News]]'', 20 June 2010</ref>
== Depictions ==
In 2000, the Sierra Leonean journalist, cameraman and editor, [[Sorious Samura]] released his documentary ''[[Cry Freetown]]''. The self-funded film depicted the most brutal period of the civil war in Sierra Leone with RUF rebels capturing the capital city in the late 1990s and the subsequent fight by ECOMOG and loyal government forces' to take back control of the city. The film won, among other awards, an [[Emmy]] Award and a [[Peabody Award|Peabody]].▼
[[File:LeonardoDiCaprioNov08.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Leonardo DiCaprio]], star of ''[[Blood Diamond (film)|Blood Diamond]]'']]▼
The civil war served as the background for the [[2006 in film|2006 movie]] ''[[Blood Diamond (film)|Blood Diamond]]'', starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], [[Djimon Hounsou]] and [[Jennifer Connelly]].<ref name="IMDb">{{cite web | title= More at IMDbPro » Blood Diamond (2006)| url= https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0450259/| website= [[IMDb]] | access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> During the end of the movie ''[[Lord of War]]'', Yuri Orlov (played by [[Nicolas Cage]]) sells arms to militias during the civil war. The militias are allied with André Baptiste ([[Eamonn Walker]]), who is based on Charles Taylor.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Boston Globe|date=16 September 2005|first=Ty|last=Burr|title=Provocative 'War' Skillfully Takes Aim|pages=D1}}</ref>▼
The documentary movie [[Sierra Leone's Refugee All Stars (film)|''Sierra Leone's Refugee All Stars'']] tells the story of a group of refugees who fled to Guinea and created a band to ease the pain of the constant difficulty of living away from home and community after the atrocities of war and mutilation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.refugeeallstars.org/|title=Sierra Leone Refugee All Stars: A Documentary Film|website=Refugeeallstars.org|access-date=24 December 2010}}</ref>▼
The use of children in both the rebel (RUF) military and the government militia is depicted in [[Ishmael Beah]]'s 2007 memoir, ''[[A Long Way Gone]]''.▼
{{Clear}}▼
[[File:Kanye West in Portland.jpg|200px|thumb|West performing at a concert in 2005, [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], United States – four months after the release of Late Registration]]
In the 2012 Documentary ''[[La vita non perde valore]]'', by Wilma Massucco, former child soldiers and some of their victims talk about the way how they feel and live, ten years after the Sierra Leone civil war ending, thanks to the personal, familiar and social rehabilitation provided to them by Father [[Giuseppe Berton]], an Italian missionary of the [[Xaverian Brothers|Xaverian order]]. The documentary has been analyzed in different Universities, becoming subject of various degrees,.<ref>[http://www.eugad.eu/2013/07/la-vita-non-perde-valore-entra-in-una-tesi-di-laurea-sulla-gestione-dei-conflitti-universita-di-firenze/ University of Florence (Italy), Conflict management course, thesis of comparison between recruitment of child soldiers and recruitment of children of Camorra in Naples]. Title ''Child soldiers in the Globalized North? Organized crime and youth in Naples'' (thesis by Alma Rondanini, Prof. Giovanni Scotto – A.A. 2012/2013)</ref><ref>[http://www.eugad.eu/2014/06/la-vita-non-perde-valore-in-una-tesi-di-laurea-alluniversita-bicocca-di-milano-scienza-delleducazione/ University La Bicocca of Milan (Italy), Degree in Science Education, thesis based on the analysis of Father Berton's educational model and its role in post-conflict contexts], title ''A laboratory for the rehabilitation of former child soldiers in Sierra Leone'' (thesis by Sara Pauselli, Prof. Mariangela Giusti – A.A. 2012/2013)</ref>▼
The title and lyrics of American rapper [[Kanye West]]'s 2005 hit song [[Diamonds from Sierra Leone]], from his second studio album [[Late Registration]], were based on one of the key circumstances surrounding the civil war (conflict/blood diamonds). West was inspired to record the song after reading about the issue of conflict diamonds and how their sales were continuing to fuel the violent civil war in Sierra Leone.<ref name="times">{{cite news |last1=Boyd |first1=Brian |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/taking-the-rap-for-bloody-bling-1.1292800 |title=Taking the rap for bloody bling |access-date=August 5, 2021 |date=March 16, 2007 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |archive-date=July 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719060919/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/taking-the-rap-for-bloody-bling-1.1292800 |url-status=live }}</ref> The song won [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Song|Best Rap Song]] at the [[48th Annual Grammy Awards]], and won one of the Pop Awards at the [[BMI Film & TV Awards|2006 BMI London Awards]], before being named by ''[[Slant Magazine]]'' as among the best singles of the 2000s decade.<ref>{{cite web|title=Artist – Kanye West|url=https://www.grammy.com/grammys/artists/kanye-west|publisher=[[Grammy Awards|Grammy.com]]|access-date=January 31, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181208103043/https://www.grammy.com/grammys/artists/kanye-west|archive-date=December 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=2006 BMI London Awards|url=https://www.bmi.com/news/entry/2006_bmi_london_awards|access-date=January 21, 2019|publisher=[[Broadcast Music, Inc.|BMI]]|date=October 3, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313090310/https://www.bmi.com/news/entry/2006_bmi_london_awards|archive-date=March 13, 2016}}</ref>
▲[[File:LeonardoDiCaprioNov08.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.
[[Mariatu Kamara]] wrote about being attacked by the rebels and having her hands chopped off in her book ''The Bite of the Mango''. Ishmael Beah wrote a foreword to Kamara's book.<ref>Kamara, 2008, pp. 7–8.</ref>▼
▲The civil war also served as the background for the [[2006 in film|2006 movie]] ''[[Blood Diamond (film)|Blood Diamond]]'', starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], [[Djimon Hounsou]] and [[Jennifer Connelly]].<ref name="IMDb">{{cite web | title= More at IMDbPro » Blood Diamond (2006)| url= https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0450259/| website= [[IMDb]] | access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> During the end of the movie ''[[Lord of War]]'', Yuri Orlov (played by [[Nicolas Cage]]) sells arms to militias during the civil war. The militias are allied with André Baptiste ([[Eamonn Walker]]), who is based on Charles Taylor.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Boston Globe|date=16 September 2005|first=Ty|last=Burr|title=Provocative 'War' Skillfully Takes Aim|pages=D1}}</ref>
▲The use of children in both the rebel (RUF) military and the government militia is depicted in [[Ishmael Beah]]'s 2007 memoir, ''[[A Long Way Gone]]''.
Jonathon Torgovnik wrote about eight women that he interviewed after the war had ended in his book; ''Girl Soldier: Life After War in Sierra Leone''. In the book he describes the experiences of the eight women who were abducted during the war and forced to fight in it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2014/06/18/jonathan-torgovniks-girl-soldiers/|title=Jonathan Torgovnik's 'Girl Soldier,' Life After War in Sierra Leone|date=18 June 2014|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>▼
▲[[Mariatu Kamara]] wrote about being attacked by the rebels and having her hands chopped off in her book ''The Bite of the Mango''. Ishmael Beah wrote a foreword to Kamara's book.<ref>Kamara, 2008, pp. 7–8.</ref>
▲The documentary movie [[Sierra Leone's Refugee All Stars (film)|''Sierra Leone's Refugee All Stars'']] tells the story of a group of refugees who fled to Guinea and created a band to ease the pain of the constant difficulty of living away from home and community after the atrocities of war and mutilation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.refugeeallstars.org/|title=Sierra Leone Refugee All Stars: A Documentary Film|website=Refugeeallstars.org|access-date=24 December 2010}}</ref>
▲{{Clear}}
▲In the 2012 Documentary ''[[La vita non perde valore]]'', by Wilma Massucco, former child soldiers and some of their victims talk about the way how they feel and live, ten years after the Sierra Leone civil war ending, thanks to the personal, familiar and social rehabilitation provided to them by Father [[Giuseppe Berton]], an Italian missionary of the [[Xaverian Brothers|Xaverian order]]. The documentary has been analyzed in different
▲Jonathon Torgovnik wrote about eight women that he interviewed after the war had ended in his book; ''Girl Soldier: Life After War in Sierra Leone''. In the book he describes the experiences of the eight women who were abducted during the war and forced to fight in it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/
▲In 2000 the Sierra Leonean journalist, cameraman and editor, [[Sorious Samura]] released his documentary ''[[Cry Freetown]]''. The self-funded film depicted the most brutal period of the civil war in Sierra Leone with RUF rebels capturing the capital city in the late 1990s. The film won, among other awards, an [[Emmy]] Award and a [[Peabody Award|Peabody]].
==See also==
{{Portal|Sierra Leone}}
* [[Burundian Civil War]]
* [[Second Congo War]]
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==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
===Books===
*{{Cite book|last=Beah|first=Ishmael|title=A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|location=New York|year=2007}}
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*[http://peacemaker.un.org/document-search?keys=&field_padate_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Bdate%5D=&field_pacountry_tid=sierra+leone&field_paconflict_tid%5B%5D=1 Text of all peace accords for Sierra Leone]
*[http://bluindaco.org/en/life-does-not-lose-its-value-documentary-film/ Life does not lose its value], Documentary by Wilma Massucco
* [https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/media/jan-june01/sierra_1-25.html Cry Freetown, Interview to Sorious Samura] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122000545/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/media/jan-june01/sierra_1-25.html |date=22 January 2014 }}
* [http://www.raffaeleciriello.com/site/pw/56children1.html ''Postcards from Hell'']
* [http://www.alongwaygone.com/ A Long Way Gone] by [[Ishmael Beah]]
{{Sierra Leone topics}}
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[[Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]
[[Category:Civil wars
[[Category:Revolution-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Blood diamonds]]
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