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| reign2 = 9 July 1763 – {{nowrap|23 (11) March 1801}}
| spouses = {{Ubl
|{{Marriage|[[Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt)|Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt]]|1773|15 April 1776|end=d.}}
|{{Marriage|[[Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)|Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg]]|1776}}
}}
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| full name = {{Ubl
|Pável Petróvich Románov
|{{
}}
| house = [[
| father = [[Peter III of Russia]]{{efn|[[Sergei Saltykov]] (rumoured)}}
| mother = [[Catherine II of Russia]]
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| signature = Paul I signature.svg
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'''Paul I''' ({{langx|ru|Па́вел I Петро́вич|Pavel I Petrovich}}; {{OldStyleDate|1 October|1754|20 September}} – {{OldStyleDate|23 March|1801|11 March}}) was [[Emperor of Russia]] from 1796 until his assassination in 1801.
He was ''de facto'' [[Grand Master (order)|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Hospitaller]] from 1799 to 1801 and ordered the construction of a number of priories of the Order of Malta.<ref>▼
Paul remained overshadowed by his mother, [[Catherine the Great]], for most of his life. He adopted the [[Pauline Laws|laws of succession to the Russian throne]]—rules that lasted until the end of the [[Romanov dynasty]] and of the [[Russian Empire]]. He also imposed the first limitations on [[serfdom in Russia|serfdom]] with the [[Manifesto of three-day corvee]], sought to curtail the privileges of the [[Russian nobility|nobility]], pursued various military reforms which were highly unpopular among officers and was known for his unpredictable behavior, all of which contributed to the conspiracy that would take his life.
In 1799 he brought Russia into the [[War of the Second Coalition|Second Coalition]] against [[First French Republic|Revolutionary France]] alongside [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]]; the Russian forces achieved several victories at first but withdrew after facing setbacks. Paul then realigned Russia with France and led the creation of the [[Second League of Armed Neutrality]] to oppose Britain after [[Napoleon]]'s rise to power. Toward the end of his reign, he added [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti|Kartli and Kakheti]] in [[Eastern Georgia (country)|Eastern Georgia]] to the Russian Empire. He was planning a joint [[Indian March of Paul|invasion of British India]] with the French before being killed in a fight with his own officers who were trying to force his [[abdication]]. He was succeeded by his son [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]].
▲He was ''de facto'' [[Grand Master (order)|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Hospitaller]] from 1799 to 1801 and ordered the construction of a number of priories of the Order of Malta.<ref>{{cite web|title=Мальтийский орден|url=http://www.encspb.ru/object/2855702197?lc=ru|website=Encyclopaedia of Saint Petersburg}}</ref>
==Early years==
Paul was son of Emperor [[Peter III of Russia|
Paul was taken almost immediately after birth by the Empress Elizabeth, and had limited contact with his mother. As a boy, he was reported to be intelligent and good-looking, but sickly. His pug-nosed facial features in later life are attributed to an attack of [[typhus]], from which he suffered in 1771.{{cn|date=November 2023}} Paul was put in the charge of a trustworthy governor, [[Nikita Ivanovich Panin]], and of competent tutors. Panin's nephew went on to become one of Paul's assassins. One of Paul's tutors, Poroshin, complained that he was "always in a hurry", acting and speaking without reflection.
==Under Catherine II==
Empress Elizabeth died in 1762, when Paul was eight years old, and he became crown prince with the accession of his father to the throne as Peter III. However, within a matter of months, Paul's mother engineered a coup and not only deposed her husband but, for a long time, was believed to have had him killed by her supporters. It was later found that Peter III probably died due to a fit of apoplexy when exerting himself in a dispute with Prince Feodor, one of his jailers. Some historians believe that he was murdered by a vindictive [[Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov|Alexei Orlov]]. After the death of Peter III, Catherine then placed herself on the throne in a surpassingly grand and ostentatious coronation ceremony, for which event the [[Russian Imperial Crown]] was crafted by court jewellers. The 8-year-old Paul retained his position as [[Tsesarevich]], or heir apparent.<ref>Sebag Montefiore, p. 309-310</ref>▼
[[File:Natalia Alexeievna of Russia by A.Roslin (1776, Hermitage).jpg|thumb|left|Natalia Alexeievna by [[Alexander Roslin]] 1776]]
▲Empress Elizabeth died in 1762, when Paul was eight years old, and he became crown prince with the accession of his father to the throne as Peter III. However, within a matter of months, Paul's mother engineered a coup
[[File:Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna by Roslin (1777, Hermitage).jpg|thumb|[[Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)|Maria Feodorovna]], portrait by [[Alexander Roslin]]]]
In 1772, her son and heir, Paul, turned eighteen. Paul and his adviser, Panin, believed he was the rightful tsar of Russia, as the only son of Peter III. His adviser had also taught him that the rule of women endangered good leadership, which was why he was so interested in gaining the throne. Distracting him, Catherine took trouble to find Paul a wife among the minor princesses of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. She chose Princess Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt, who acquired the Russian name "[[Natalia Alexeievna of Russia|Natalia Alexeievna]]", a daughter of [[Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt|Ludwig IX]], [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt|Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt]]. The bride's older sister, [[Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt|Frederika Louisa]], was already married to the [[Frederick William II of Prussia|Crown Prince of Prussia]]. Around this time, Catherine allowed Paul to attend the council in order that he might be trained for his work as Emperor. Wilhelmina and their child died in childbirth on 15 April 1776, three years after the wedding. It soon became even clearer to Catherine that Paul wanted power, including his separate court. There was talk of having both Paul and his mother co-rule Russia, but Catherine narrowly avoided it. A fierce rivalry began between them, as Catherine knew she could never truly trust her son, as his claim to
After her daughter-in-law's death, Catherine began work forthwith on the project of finding another wife for Paul, and on 7 October 1776, less than six months after the death of his first wife and their child, Paul married again. The bride was the beautiful [[Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)|Sophia Dorothea]] of [[Kingdom of Württemberg|Württemberg]], who received the new
===Relationship with Catherine the Great===
Catherine and her son and heir Paul maintained a distant relationship throughout her reign. Empress Elizabeth had taken up the child and proved an obsessive but incapable caretaker, as she had not raised children of her own.<ref name="McGrew1992">McGrew, Roderick E. (1992), ''Paul I of Russia''. (Oxford: Clarendon Press) {{ISBN|0-19-822567-9}}</ref>{{rp|28}} Paul was supervised by a variety of caregivers. Roderick McGrew briefly relates the neglect to which the infant heir was sometimes subject: "On one occasion he fell out of his crib and slept the night away unnoticed on the floor."<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|30}} Even after Elizabeth's death, relations with Catherine hardly improved. Paul was often jealous of the favours she would shower upon her lovers. In one instance, the empress gave to one of her favourites 50,000 rubles on her birthday, while Paul received a cheap watch.<ref name="Sorokin, 185">Sorokin, 185.</ref> Paul's early isolation from his mother created a distance between them that later events would reinforce. She never considered inviting him to share power in governing Russia. Once Paul's son Alexander was born, it appeared that she had found a more suitable heir. The use made of his name by the rebel [[Yemelyan Pugachev]], who impersonated his father Peter, tended no doubt to render Paul's position more difficult.
Catherine's absolute power and the delicate balance of courtier status greatly influenced the relationship at Court with Paul, who openly disregarded his mother's opinions. Paul adamantly protested{{clarifyme|date=July 2024}} his
Paul spent the following years away from the Imperial Court, content to remain at his private estates at Gatchina Palace with his growing family and perform Prussian drill exercises. As Catherine grew older, she became less concerned that her son attend court functions; her attentions focused primarily on the future Emperor Alexander I.
It was not until 1787 that Catherine may have in fact decided to exclude her son from succession.<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|184}} After Alexander and his brother [[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Constantine]] were born, she had them placed under her charge, just as Elizabeth had done with Paul. That Catherine grew to favour Alexander as
==Accession to the throne==
[[File:Imperial Monogram of Tsar Paul I of Russia.svg|thumb|120px|Imperial
Catherine suffered a [[stroke]] on 17 November 1796, and died without regaining consciousness. Paul's first act as Emperor was to inquire about and, if possible, destroy her testament, as he feared it would exclude him from succession and leave the throne to Alexander. These fears may have contributed to Paul's promulgation of the [[Pauline Laws]], which established the strict principle of [[primogeniture]] in the House of Romanov, leaving the throne to the next male heir. As emperor, Paul sought revenge for the deposition of his father, and the coup of his mother.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}▼
▲[[File:Imperial Monogram of Tsar Paul I of Russia.svg|thumb|120px|Imperial Monogram]]
▲Catherine suffered a [[stroke]] on 17 November 1796, and died without regaining consciousness. Paul's first act as Emperor was to inquire about and, if possible, destroy her testament, as he feared it would exclude him from succession and leave the throne to Alexander. These fears may have contributed to Paul's promulgation of the [[Pauline Laws]], which established the strict principle of [[primogeniture]] in the House of Romanov, leaving the throne to the next male heir.
The army, then [[Persian Expedition of 1796|poised to attack Persia]] in accordance with Catherine's last design, was recalled to the capital within one month of Paul's accession. In a remarkable poem, the Russian court poet [[Gavrila Derzhavin|Derzhavin]] commented bitterly on the inglorious return from that expedition of its commander Count [[Valerian Zubov|Valerian Zubov,]] who was the youthful brother of [[Platon Zubov|Prince Platon Zubov]], the lover of the Empress.▼
▲The army, then [[Persian Expedition of 1796|poised to attack Persia]] in accordance with Catherine's last design, was recalled to the capital within one month of Paul's accession. In a remarkable poem, the Russian court poet [[Gavrila Derzhavin|Derzhavin]] commented bitterly on the inglorious return from that expedition of its commander Count [[Valerian Zubov
Upon his death in 1762, Peter III had been buried without any honors in the [[Annunciation Church of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra|Annunciation Church]]{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]] in [[St. Petersburg]]. Immediately after the death of his mother, Paul ordered his father's remains transferred, first to the church in the [[Winter Palace]] and then to the [[Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg]], the burial site of the Romanovs.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} 60-year-old Count Alexei Orlov, who had played a role in deposing Peter III and possibly also in his death, was made to walk in the funeral cortege, holding the Imperial Crown of Russia as he walked in front of Peter's coffin.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Peter III had never been crowned so at the time of his reburial, Paul personally performed the ritual of coronation on his remains.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Paul responded to the rumour of his illegitimacy by parading his descent from Peter the Great. The inscription on the [[Monument to Peter I (St. Michael's Castle)|monument to the first Emperor of Russia]] near the [[St. Michael's Castle]] reads in Russian "''To the Great-Grandfather from the Great-Grandson''". This is an allusion to the [[Latin]] "PETRO PRIMO CATHARINA SECUNDA", the dedication by Catherine on the '[[Bronze Horseman]]' statue of Peter the Great.
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==Purported eccentricities==
{{Main|Personality and reputation of Paul I of Russia}}
Paul was idealistic and capable of great generosity, but he was also mercurial and capable of vindictiveness. In spite of doubts of his legitimacy, he greatly resembled his father, Peter III, and other Romanovs as well and shared the same character. During the first year of his reign, Paul emphatically reversed many of his mother's policies. Although he accused many of [[Jacobinism]], he allowed Catherine's best known critic, [[Alexander Radishchev]], to return from [[Siberia]]n exile. Besides Radishchev, he liberated [[Nikolay Novikov]] from [[Shlisselburg|Schlüsselburg fortress]], and also [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], yet after liberation both were confined to their own estates under police supervision. He viewed the [[Russian nobility]] as decadent and corrupt, and was determined to transform them into a disciplined, principled, loyal caste resembling a medieval [[chivalric order]]. To those few who conformed to his view of a modern-day knight (e.g., his favourites [[Mikhail Kutuzov]], [[Aleksey Arakcheyev]], and [[Feodor Rostopchin]]) he granted more serfs during the five years of his reign than his mother had presented to her lovers during her thirty-four years. Those who did not share his chivalric views were dismissed or lost their places at court: seven field marshals and 333 generals fell into this category.
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==Foreign affairs==
Paul's early foreign policy can largely be seen as reactions against his mother's. In foreign policy, this meant that he opposed the many expansionary wars she fought and instead preferred to pursue a more peaceful, diplomatic path. Immediately upon taking the throne, he recalled all troops outside Russian borders, including the struggling expedition Catherine II had sent to conquer [[Qajar Iran]] through the [[Caucasus]] and the 60,000 men she had promised to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] to help them defeat the [[French First Republic|French]].<ref>For the Iranian expedition, see Haukeil, 349. For the 60,000 troops to Europe, see McGrew (1992), 282.</ref> Paul hated the French before their revolution, and afterwards, with their republican and anti-religious views, he detested them even more.<ref name="Haukeil, 351">Haukeil, 351.</ref> In addition to this, he knew French expansion hurt Russian interests, but he recalled his mother's troops primarily because he firmly opposed wars of expansion. He also believed that Russia needed substantial governmental and military reforms to avoid an economic collapse and a revolution, before Russia could wage war on foreign soil.<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|283}}▼
[[File:Paul I by A.F. Mitrokhin.jpeg|thumb|Paul I in the early 1790s]]
▲Paul's early foreign policy can largely be seen as reactions against his mother's. In foreign policy, this meant that he opposed the many expansionary wars she fought and instead preferred to pursue a more peaceful, diplomatic path. Immediately upon taking the throne, he recalled all troops outside Russian borders, including the struggling expedition Catherine II had sent to conquer [[Qajar Iran]] through the [[Caucasus]] and the 60,000 men she had promised to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] to help them defeat the [[French First Republic|French]].<ref>For the Iranian expedition, see Haukeil, 349. For the 60,000 troops to Europe, see McGrew (1992), 282.</ref> Paul hated the French before their revolution, and afterwards, with their republican and anti-religious views, he detested them even more.<ref name="Haukeil, 351">Haukeil, 351.</ref> In addition to this, he knew French expansion hurt Russian interests, but he recalled his mother's troops primarily because he firmly opposed wars of expansion. He also believed that Russia needed substantial governmental and military reforms to avoid an economic collapse and a revolution, before Russia could wage war on foreign soil.<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|283}}
Paul offered to mediate between Austria and France through Prussia and pushed Austria to make peace, but the two countries made peace without his assistance, signing the [[Treaty of Campoformio]] in October 1797.<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|286}} This treaty, with its affirmation of French control over islands in the Mediterranean and the partitioning of the [[Republic of Venice]], upset Paul, who saw it as creating more instability in the region and displaying France's ambitions in the Mediterranean. In response, he offered asylum to the [[Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé|Prince of Condé]] and his army, as well as the future [[Louis XVIII]], both of whom had been forced out of Austria by the treaty.<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|288–289}} By this point, the French Republic had seized Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, establishing [[Sister republic|republics]] with constitutions in each, and Paul felt that Russia now needed to play an active role in Europe in order to overthrow what the republic had created and restore traditional authorities.<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|289–290}} In this goal he found a willing ally in the Austrian chancellor [[Johann Amadeus Francis de Paula, Baron of Thugut|Baron Thugut]], who hated the French and loudly criticized revolutionary principles. Britain and the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined Austria and Russia to stop French expansion, free territories under their control and re-establish the old monarchies. The only major power in Europe who did not join Paul in his anti-French campaign was Prussia, whose distrust of Austria and the security they got from their current relationship with France prevented them from joining the [[War of the Second Coalition|Second Coalition]].<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|286–287}} Despite the Prussians’ reluctance, Paul decided to move ahead with the war, promising 60,000 men to support Austria in Italy and 45,000 men to help Britain in North Germany and the Netherlands.<ref name="Haukeil, 351"/>
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Although by the fall of 1799 the Russo-Austrian alliance had more or less fallen apart, Paul still cooperated willingly with the British. Together, they planned to invade the Netherlands, and through that country attack France proper. Unlike Austria, neither Russia nor Britain appeared to have any secret territorial ambitions: they both simply sought to defeat the French.<ref name="McGrew1992"/>{{rp|309}}
The [[Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland]] started well, with a British victory – the [[Battle of Callantsoog]] (27 August 1799) – in the north, but when the Russian army arrived in September, the allies found themselves faced with bad weather, poor coordination, and unexpectedly fierce resistance from the Dutch and the French, and their success evaporated.<ref> For a summary of the Netherlands campaign, see McGrew (1992), 309. For a more detailed look at the events, with a slight British bias, see Haukeil, 364.</ref> As the month wore on, the weather worsened and the allies suffered more and more losses, eventually signing an armistice in October 1799.<ref>Haukeil, 364.</ref> The Russians suffered three-quarters of allied losses and the British left the Russian troops on the [[Isle of Wight]] in the Channel after the retreat, as it was illegal for foreign troops to enter Britain.<ref name="McGrew1992" />{{rp|309–310}} This defeat and subsequent maltreating of Russian troops strained Russo-British relations, but a definitive break did not occur until later.<ref name="McGrew1992" />{{rp|311}} The reasons for this break are less clear and simple than those of the split with Austria, but several key events occurred over the winter of 1799–1800 that helped: Bonaparte released 7,000 captive Russian troops that Britain had refused to pay the ransom for; Paul grew closer to the Scandinavian countries of [[Denmark-Norway]] and [[Gustavian era|Sweden]], whose claim to neutral shipping rights offended Britain; Paul had the British ambassador in St. Petersburg ([[Charles Whitworth, 1st Earl Whitworth|Whitworth]]) recalled (1800) and Britain did not replace him, without any clear reason given as to why; and Britain, needing to choose between their two allies, chose Austria, who had with certainty committed to fighting the French to the end.<ref>For a summary, with more information on Paul growing closer to the Baltic states, see McGrew (1992), 311–12. For information on the British ambassador and their choice of Austria over Russia, see Ragsdale, "A Continental System in 1801: Paul I and Bonaparte," ''The Journal of Modern History'', 71–72. For Napoleon's actions and Paul's feelings towards him, see Haukeil, 365.</ref>▼
▲</ref> The Russians suffered three-quarters of allied losses and the British left the Russian troops on the [[Isle of Wight]] in the Channel after the retreat, as it was illegal for foreign troops to enter Britain.<ref name="McGrew1992" />{{rp|309–310}} This defeat and subsequent maltreating of Russian troops strained Russo-British relations, but a definitive break did not occur until later.<ref name="McGrew1992" />{{rp|311}} The reasons for this break are less clear and simple than those of the split with Austria, but several key events occurred over the winter of 1799–1800 that helped: Bonaparte released 7,000 captive Russian troops that Britain had refused to pay the ransom for; Paul grew closer to the Scandinavian countries of [[Denmark-Norway]] and [[Gustavian era|Sweden]], whose claim to neutral shipping rights offended Britain; Paul had the British ambassador in St. Petersburg ([[Charles Whitworth, 1st Earl Whitworth|Whitworth]]) recalled (1800) and Britain did not replace him, without any clear reason given as to why; and Britain, needing to choose between their two allies, chose Austria, who had with certainty committed to fighting the French to the end.<ref>
[[File:PavelI-FShubin.jpg|thumb| Portrait of Paul I of Russia by [[Fedot Shubin|F. Shubin]], marble, 1800, [[Russian Museum]], Saint-Petersburg]]
Finally, two events occurred in rapid succession that destroyed the alliance completely: first, in July 1800, the British seized a Danish frigate, prompting Paul to close the British trading factories in St. Petersburg as well as impound British ships and cargo; second, even though the allies resolved this crisis, Paul could not forgive the British for [[Horatio Nelson|Admiral Nelson's]] refusal to return Malta to the Order of St. John, and therefore to Paul, when the British captured it from the French in September 1800.<ref>For information on the Danish frigate, see Hugh Ragsdale, "Was Paul Bonaparte's Fool?: The Evidence of Neglected Archives," in ''Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign'', ed. Hugh Ragsdale (Pittsburgh: University Center for International Studies, University of Pittsburgh, 1979), 80. For Paul's reaction to the seizure and then the events at Malta, see McGrew (1992), 313–14. For the date of the Maltese events, and a more English view of them, see Haukeil, 366.</ref> In a drastic response, Paul seized all British vessels in Russian ports, sent their crews to detention camps and took British traders hostage until he received satisfaction.<ref>For a summary of Paul's reaction, see McGrew (1992), 314. For more details, see Haukeil, 366.</ref> Over the next winter, he went further, using his new [[Second League of Armed Neutrality|Armed Neutrality coalition]] with Sweden, Denmark and Prussia to prepare the Baltic against possible British attack, prevent the British from searching neutral merchant vessels, and freeze all British trade in Northern Europe.<ref>For information on the military side of these measures, see McGrew (1992), 314. For information on the economic side and how Paul interacted with the Armed Neutrality, see Ragsdale, "Was Paul Bonaparte's Fool?" in ''Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign'', 81.</ref> As France had already closed all of Western and Southern Europe to British trade, Britain, which relied heavily upon imports (especially for timber, naval products, and grain) felt seriously threatened by Paul's move and reacted fast.<ref>Ragsdale, "A Continental System in 1801: Paul I and Bonaparte," ''The Journal of Modern History'', 81–82.</ref> In March 1801, Britain sent a fleet to Denmark, [[Battle of Copenhagen (1801)|bombarding Copenhagen]] and forcing the Danes to surrender in the beginning of April.<ref>Haukeil, 366.</ref> Nelson then sailed towards St. Petersburg, reaching [[Reval]] (14 May 1801), but after the conspiracy assassinated Paul (23 March 1801), the new Tsar Alexander opened peace-negotiations shortly after taking the throne.<ref name="McGrew1992" />{{rp|314}}
The most original aspect of Paul I's foreign policy was his rapprochement with France after the coalition fell apart. Several scholars have argued that this change in position, radical though it seemed, made sense, as Bonaparte became [[First Consul]] and made France a more conservative state, consistent with Paul's view of the world.<ref>For arguments about consistency and Paul's reasons to fight, see McGrew (1992), 318. For the arguments as to why Paul was willing to reach an agreement with Bonaparte, see Muriel Atkin, "The Pragmatic Diplomacy of Paul I: Russia's Relations with Asia, 1796–1801," ''Slavic Review'', 38 (1979), 68.</ref> Paul also decided to [[Indian March of Paul|send a Cossack army to take British India]], as Britain itself was almost impervious to direct attack, being an island nation with a formidable navy, but the British had left [[India]] largely unguarded and would have great difficulty staving off a force that came over land to attack it.<ref>Atkin, "The Pragmatic Diplomacy of Paul I," 68.</ref> The British themselves considered this enough of a problem that they signed three treaties with Persia, in [[Anglo-Persian Treaty of 1801|1801]], 1809 and 1812, to guard against an army attacking India through Central Asia.<ref>"While the British were signing treaties with Persia to protect their holding in India in the late 18th century Paul I was working with the [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti]] and made them a protectorate of the Russian Empire in 1768 and then in 1801 Georgia was attacked by Iranian forces. This attack would push Paul I to take further steps beyond what was in place in order to protect his interests in the Caucasus. Paul I intended to annex the kingdom but he was assassinated before he could finish the decree but Alexander I, Paul I's successor, would finish the deal and provide full protection."▼
Atkin, "The Pragmatic Diplomacy of Paul I", p. 69.</ref> Paul sought to attack the British where they were weakest: through their commerce and their colonies. Throughout his reign, his policies focused reestablishing peace and the balance of power in Europe, while supporting autocracy and old monarchies, without seeking to expand Russia's borders.<ref>Ragsdale, "Was Paul Bonaparte's Fool?" in ''Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign'', 88.</ref>▼
▲Atkin, "The Pragmatic Diplomacy of Paul I," 68.</ref> The British themselves considered this enough of a problem that they signed three treaties with Persia, in [[Anglo-Persian Treaty of 1801|1801]], 1809 and 1812, to guard against an army attacking India through Central Asia.<ref>"While the British were signing treaties with Persia to protect their holding in India in the late 18th century Paul I was working with the [[Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti]] and made them a protectorate of the Russian Empire in 1768 and then in 1801 Georgia was attacked by Iranian forces. This attack would push Paul I to take further steps beyond what was in place in order to protect his interests in the Caucasus. Paul I intended to annex the kingdom but he was assassinated before he could finish the decree but Alexander I, Paul I's successor, would finish the deal and provide full protection."
▲</ref> Paul sought to attack the British where they were weakest: through their commerce and their colonies. Throughout his reign, his policies focused reestablishing peace and the balance of power in Europe, while supporting autocracy and old monarchies, without seeking to expand Russia's borders.<ref>
===Irano-Georgian matters===
{{See also|Georgia within the Russian Empire}}
{{Further|Treaty of Georgievsk|Battle of Krtsanisi}}
In lieu of Russia's failure to honour the terms of the [[Treaty of Georgievsk]], Qajar Iran reinvaded Georgia. Georgian rulers felt they had nowhere else to turn now as Georgia was again re-subjugated by Iran. [[Battle of Krtsanisi|Tbilisi]] was captured and burnt to the ground, and eastern Georgia reconquered. However, [[Agha Mohammad Khan]], Persia's ruler, was assassinated in 1797 in [[Shusha]], after which the Persian grip on Georgia softened again. [[Heraclius II of Georgia|Erekle, King of Kartli-Kakheti]], still dreaming of a united Georgia, died a year later. After his death, a civil war broke out over the succession to the throne of Kartli-Kakheti, and one of the rival candidates called on Russia to intervene and decide matters. On 8 January 1801, Tsar Paul I signed a decree on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire,<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 85</ref><ref>Avalov (1906), p. 186</ref> which was confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801.<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 86</ref><ref>[[David Marshall Lang|Lang]] (1957), p. 249</ref> The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg, [[Garsevan Chavchavadze]], reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor [[Alexander Kurakin]].<ref>Lang (1957), p. 251</ref> In May 1801, after Paul's death, Russian General [[Carl Heinrich von Knorring]] removed the Georgian heir to the throne, [[David Bagrationi|David]] [[Batonishvili]], from power and deployed a provisional government headed by General [[Ivan Petrovich Lazarev]].<ref>Lang (1957), p. 247</ref>▼
[[File:Roubaud. Russian troops entering Tiflis in 1799.JPG|thumb|''Entrance of the Russian troops in Tiflis, 26 November 1799'', by [[Franz Roubaud]], 1886]]
▲In lieu of Russia's failure to honour the terms of the [[Treaty of Georgievsk]], Qajar Iran reinvaded Georgia. Georgian rulers felt they had nowhere else to turn now as Georgia was again re-subjugated by Iran. [[Battle of Krtsanisi|Tbilisi]] was captured and burnt to the ground, and eastern Georgia reconquered. However, [[Agha Mohammad Khan]], Persia's ruler, was assassinated in 1797 in [[Shusha]], after which the Persian grip on Georgia softened again. [[Heraclius II of Georgia|Erekle, King of Kartli-Kakheti]], still dreaming of a united Georgia, died a year later. After his death, a civil war broke out over the succession to the throne of Kartli-Kakheti, and one of the rival candidates called on Russia to intervene and decide matters. On 8 January 1801, Tsar Paul I signed a decree on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire,<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 85</ref><ref>Avalov (1906), p. 186</ref> which was confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801.<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 86</ref><ref>[[David Marshall Lang|Lang]] (1957), p. 249</ref> The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg, [[Garsevan Chavchavadze]], reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor [[Alexander Kurakin]].<ref>Lang (1957), p. 251</ref> In May 1801, after Paul's death, Russian General [[Carl Heinrich von Knorring]] removed the Georgian heir to the throne, [[David Bagrationi|David]] [[Batonishvili]], from power and deployed a provisional government headed by General [[Ivan Petrovich Lazarev]].<ref>Lang (1957), p. 247</ref>
==Assassination==
Paul's premonitions of [[assassination]] were well-founded. His attempts to force the nobility to adopt a code of [[chivalry]] alienated many of his trusted advisors. The Emperor also discovered outrageous machinations and [[corruption]] in the Russian [[treasury]]. As he had revoked Catherine's decree allowing [[corporal punishment]] of the free classes, and directed reforms that resulted in greater rights for the peasantry and provided for better treatment for serfs on agricultural estates, many of his policies greatly annoyed the nobility and induced his enemies to work out a plan of action.▼
[[File:Spb 06-2017 img21 StMichael Castle.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Saint Michael's Castle|St. Michael's Castle]] in Saint Petersburg, where Emperor Paul was murdered mere weeks after the opening festivities]]
▲Paul's premonitions of [[assassination]] were well-founded. His attempts to force the nobility to adopt a code of [[chivalry]] alienated many of his trusted advisors. The Emperor also discovered outrageous machinations and [[corruption]] in the Russian [[treasury]].
{{cite book|last1=Newton|first1=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4-dAwAAQBAJ|title=Famous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610692861|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|page=411|chapter=Paul I of Russia (1754-1801)|quote=The plot's mastermind was Count Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov .... Count Zubov hatched the conspiracy with Count Peter Alekseyevich Pahlen .... Allegedly financed by Zubov's sister, Olga Zherebetsova, with funds procured from her lover -- Charles Whitworth, 1st Earl Whitworth, Britain's envoy-extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary at St. Petersburg under Catherine -- the conspirators recruited others.|author-link1=Michael Newton (author)|access-date=2019-05-27}}▼
▲A [[List of conspiracies (political)|conspiracy]] was organized, some months before it was executed, by Counts [[Peter Ludwig von der Pahlen]], [[Nikita Petrovich Panin]], and [[José de Ribas|Admiral de Ribas]], with the alleged support of the [[List of ambassadors of Great Britain to Russia|British ambassador in Saint Petersburg]], Charles Whitworth.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Newton|first1=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4-dAwAAQBAJ|title=Famous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610692861|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|page=411|chapter=Paul I of Russia (1754-1801)|quote=The plot's mastermind was Count Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov .... Count Zubov hatched the conspiracy with Count Peter Alekseyevich Pahlen .... Allegedly financed by Zubov's sister, Olga Zherebetsova, with funds procured from her lover -- Charles Whitworth, 1st Earl Whitworth, Britain's envoy-extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary at St. Petersburg under Catherine -- the conspirators recruited others.|author-link1=Michael Newton (author)|access-date=2019-05-27}}</ref>
The death of de Ribas in December 1800 delayed the assassination; but, on the night of {{OldStyleDate|23 March|1801|11 March}}, a band of dismissed officers murdered Paul at the newly completed palace of [[Saint Michael's Castle]]. The assassins included General [[Levin August, Count von Bennigsen]], a [[Hanover]]ian in the Russian service and General [[Vladimir Mikhailovich Yashvil]], a Georgian. They charged into Paul's bedroom, flushed with drink after dining together, and found the emperor hiding behind some drapes in the corner.<ref>Radzinsky, Edvard. ''Alexander II, The last great tsar'' Freepress, 2005. Pages 16–17.</ref> The conspirators pulled him out, forced him to the table, and tried to compel him to sign his [[abdication]]. Paul offered some resistance, and [[Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov|Nikolay Zubov]] struck him with a sword, after which the assassins strangled and trampled him to death. Paul's successor on the Russian throne, his 23-year-old son Alexander, was actually in the palace at the time of the killing; he had "given his consent to the overthrow of Paul, but had not supposed that this would be carried out by means of assassination".<ref>''A History of Russia'' by George Vernadsky, Yale University Press.</ref> Zubov announced his accession to the heir, accompanied by the admonition, "Time to grow up! Go and rule!" Alexander I did not punish the assassins, and the court physician, [[Sir James Wylie, 1st Baronet|James Wylie]], declared [[apoplexy]] the official cause of death.<ref>Marbot, Jean. (Oliver C. Colt, trans.) ''The Memoirs of General the Baron de Marbot'', Volume 2, [http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2401/pg2401-images.html Chapter 3 "The intrigues of Count Czernicheff"]</ref><ref>Hutchison, Robert. "A Medical Adventurer. Biographical Note on Sir James Wylie, Bart., M.D., 1758 to 1854." ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine'', 06/1928; 21(8):1406.</ref>▼
▲The death of de Ribas in December 1800 delayed the assassination; but, on the night of {{OldStyleDate|{{nowrap|23 March}}|1801|11 March}}, a band of dismissed officers murdered Paul at the newly completed palace of [[Saint Michael's Castle]]. The assassins included General [[Levin August, Count von Bennigsen]], a [[Hanover]]ian in the Russian service and General [[Vladimir Mikhailovich Yashvil]], a Georgian. They charged into Paul's bedroom, flushed with drink after dining together, and found the emperor hiding behind some drapes in the corner.<ref>Radzinsky, Edvard. ''Alexander II, The last great tsar'' Freepress, 2005. Pages 16–17.</ref> The conspirators pulled him out, forced him to the table, and tried to compel him to sign his [[abdication]]. Paul offered some resistance, and [[Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov|Nikolay Zubov]] struck him with a sword, after which the assassins strangled and trampled him to death. Paul's successor on the Russian throne, his 23-year-old son Alexander, was actually in the palace at the time of the killing; he had "given his consent to the overthrow of Paul, but had not supposed that this would be carried out by means of assassination".<ref>''A History of Russia'' by George Vernadsky, Yale University Press.</ref> Zubov announced his accession to the heir, accompanied by the admonition, "Time to grow up! Go and rule!" Alexander I did not punish the assassins, and the court physician, [[Sir James Wylie, 1st Baronet|James Wylie]], declared [[apoplexy]] the official cause of death.<ref>Marbot, Jean. (Oliver C. Colt, trans.) ''The Memoirs of General the Baron de Marbot'', Volume 2, [http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2401/pg2401-images.html Chapter 3 "The intrigues of Count Czernicheff"]</ref><ref>Hutchison, Robert. "A Medical Adventurer. Biographical Note on Sir James Wylie, Bart., M.D., 1758 to 1854." ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine'', 06/1928; 21(8):1406.</ref>
==Legacy==
There is some evidence that Paul I was venerated as a saint among the Russian Orthodox populace,<ref>Zhevakhov, Prince N. D. (1993) Reminiscences, V.2, p.273. Moscow.</ref> even though he was never officially canonized by any of the Orthodox Churches.▼
[[File:Paulparade.jpg|thumb|300px|''Military Parade of Emperor Paul in front of Mikhailovsky Castle'' painting by [[Alexandre Benois]], taken from the art book ''[[Mir iskusstva]]'']]
▲There is some evidence that Paul I was venerated as a saint among the Russian Orthodox populace,<ref>Zhevakhov, Prince N. D. (1993) Reminiscences, V.2, p.273. Moscow.</ref> even though he was never officially canonized by any of the Orthodox Churches.
===Portrayals in popular culture===
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* The Soviet experimental film ''[[Assa (film)|Assa]]'' (1987) has a subplot revolving around Paul's murder; Paul is portrayed by {{interlanguage link|Dmitry Dolinin|ru|Долинин, Дмитрий Алексеевич}}.
* ''[[Poor Poor Paul]]'' (2003; Бе́дный бе́дный Па́вел) is a film about Paul's rule produced by [[Lenfilm]], directed by Vitaliy Mel'nikov, and starring [[Viktor Sukhorukov]] as Paul and [[Oleg Yankovsky]] as Count Pahlen, who headed the conspiracy against him. The film portrays Paul more compassionately than the long-existing stories about him. The movie won the Michael Tariverdiev Prize for best music to a film at the Open Russian Film Festival [[Kinotavr]], in 2003.
* The young Paul appears in the 2014 [[Russia-1]] television series [[Ekaterina (TV series)|''Ekaterina'']] and features heavily as a main character in its second, third, and
* The young Paul is portrayed by [[Joseph Quinn (actor)|Joseph Quinn]] in the 2019 [[HBO]] mini-series ''[[Catherine the Great (miniseries)|Catherine the Great]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://deadline.com/2018/08/howards-end-joseph-quinn-helen-mirren-jason-clarke-hbo-sky-catherine-the-great-1202442494/ |title='Howards End' Star Joseph Quinn Set To Join Helen Mirren & Jason Clarke In HBO-Sky Drama 'Catherine The Great' |work=Deadline |last=Wiseman |first=Andreas |date=9 August 2018 |access-date=12 July 2021 }}</ref>
* An adult Paul is portrayed by [[Bruce Langley]] in the third season of the 2020 [[Hulu]] series ''[[The Great (TV series)|The Great]]''.
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|27 April 1779
|15 June 1831
|m. first [[Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld|Juliane, Princess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (Anna Feodorovna)]]
|-
|[[Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia|Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna]]
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|}
===
* [[Sophia Razumovskaya]] (1746–1803), lady in waiting of [[Catherine the Great]].
** Semyon Afanasyevich Velikiy (1772 – 13 August 1794)– became a naval officer and died in a
* Mavra Yuryeva (1760–1828), spouse of Aleksey Vakar
** Marfa Pavlovna Musina-Yuryeva (1801–1803) – died prematurely
==Ancestry==
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* [[Tsars of Russia family tree]]
==
{{notelist|30em}}
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* {{cite book|last1=McGrew|first1=Roderick E.|year=1979|chapter=Paul I and the Knights of Malta|title=Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign|editor-first1=Hugh|editor-last1= Ragsdale|place=Pittsburgh|publisher=University Center for International Studies, University of Pittsburgh|isbn=0-916002-28-4|pages=44 ff}}
* {{cite book|last1=McGrew|first1= Roderick E.|year=1992|title=Paul I of Russia|place=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=0-19-822567-9}} [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24657306 online review]
* {{cite journal|last1=Alexander|first1= J. T.|year=1993|title=Review of Paul I of Russia 1754-1801, by R. E. McGrew|journal=Russian History|volume=20|issue=1/4|pages=281–283|doi= 10.1163/187633193X00243|doi-broken-date= 2024-11-19|url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/24657306|jstor=24657306}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Ragsdale |editor-first1=Hugh |title=Paul I: A Reassessment of His Life and Reign |publisher=University Center for International Studies |place=University of Pittsburgh |year=1979 |isbn=9780916002282}}
* {{cite book|last=Sebag Montefiore|first=Simon|title=The Romanovs: 1613—1918|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2016}}
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* {{cite book|last1=Waliszewski|first1= K.|title=The Story of a Throne|place=London|year= 1895}}
==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/Paul.html Paul I of Russia] at AlexanderPalace.org{{Self-published inline|date=November 2021|certain=y}}
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[[Category:Deaths by strangulation]]
[[Category:Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp]]
[[Category:Grand
[[Category:House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
[[Category:Knights of Malta]]
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