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Coal mining has had many developments in recent years, from the early days of men tunneling, digging, and manually extracting the coal on carts to large [[Open-pit mining|open-cut]] and [[Longwall mining|longwall]] mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of [[Dragline excavator|draglines]], trucks, [[conveyor]]s, [[hydraulic jack]]s, and shearers.
The coal mining industry has a long history of significant negative [[Health and environmental impact of the coal industry|environmental impacts]] on local ecosystems, health impacts on local communities and workers, and contributes heavily to the global environmental crises, such as [[Air pollution|poor air quality]] and [[climate change]]. For these reasons, coal has been one of the first [[Fossil fuel phase-out|fossil fuels to be phased out]] of various parts of the [[Energy industry|global energy economy]]. The major coal producing countries, though, such as [[Coal in China|China]], Indonesia, [[Coal in India|India]] and [[Australia]], have not reached peak production, with production increases replacing falls in Europe and
==History==
{{Excerpt|History_of_coal_mining}}
[[File:Boats hauling coal.jpg|thumb|Ships have been used to haul coal since the [[Roman Empire]]]]
{{Coal sidebar|state=collapsed}}
==Methods of extraction==
Coal extraction methods vary depending on whether the mine is an underground mine or a surface (also called an open cast) mine. Additionally, coal seam thickness and geology are factors in the selection of a mining method. The most economical method of coal extraction for surface mines is the electric shovel or drag line. The most economical form of underground mining is the long wall, which involves using two spinning drums with carbide bits that runs along sections of the coal seam. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a [[coal preparation plant]]. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; [[overburden]] characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography, especially altitude and slope; climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; groundwater conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.<ref>[http://www.greatmining.com/articles/methods-of-coal-mining/ "Methods of Coal Mining"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318121002/http://www.greatmining.com/articles/methods-of-coal-mining/ |date=18 March 2012 }} ''Great Mining'' (2003) accessed 19 December 2011</ref>
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The use of sophisticated sensing equipment to monitor air quality is common and has replaced the use of small animals such as canaries, often referred to as "[[domestic Canary#Miner's canary|miner's canaries]]".<ref>{{cite web| last=Engelbert| first=Phillis| title=Energy – What Is A "Miner's Canary"?| url=http://www.enotes.com/science-fact-finder/energy/what-miners-canary| publisher=enotes| access-date=18 August 2010| archive-date=1 October 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001041554/http://www.enotes.com/science-fact-finder/energy/what-miners-canary| url-status=dead}}</ref>
In the United States, the increase in technology has significantly decreased the mining workforce. in 2015 US coal mines had 65,971 employees, the lowest figure since [[Energy Information Administration|EIA]] began collecting data in 1978.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/coal/annual/|title=Annual Coal Report – Energy Information Administration|website=www.eia.gov}}</ref> However, a 2016 study reported that a relatively minor investment would allow most coal workers to retrain for the solar energy industry.<ref name=Louie>{{cite journal|last1=Louie|first1=Edward P.|last2=Pearce|first2=Joshua M.|title=Retraining investment for U.S. transition from coal to solar photovoltaic employment|journal=Energy Economics|date=June 2016|volume=57|pages=295–302|doi=10.1016/j.eneco.2016.05.016|bibcode=2016EneEc..57..295L |s2cid=156845876 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02113504/file/Retraining_Investment_for_U.S._Transitio.pdf}}</ref>
== Safety ==
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Improvements in mining methods (e.g. longwall mining), hazardous gas monitoring (such as [[safety-lamp]]s or more modern electronic gas monitors), gas drainage, [[Electrical equipment in hazardous areas|electrical equipment]], and ventilation have reduced many of the risks of rock falls, explosions, and unhealthy air quality. Gases released during the mining process can be recovered to generate electricity and improve worker safety with [[gas engines]].<ref>[http://www.clarke-energy.com/gas-type/coal-gas/ Coal Gas Utilisation], www.clarke-energy.com</ref> Another innovation in recent years is the use of [[Self-contained self-rescue device|closed circuit escape respirator]]s, respirators that contain oxygen for situations where mine ventilation is compromised.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2013/08/07/super-workplace/ |title = The Importance of Occupational Safety and Health: Making for a "Super" Workplace |date = 7 August 2013 |access-date = 15 January 2015 |first1 = Jaclyn |last1 = Krah |first2 = Richard L. |last2 = Unger |publisher = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health}}</ref> Statistical analyses performed by the US Department of Labor's [[Mine Safety and Health Administration]] (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds. But according to the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]], even in 2006, mining remained the second most dangerous occupation in America, when measured by [[mortality rate|fatality rate]].<ref name="laborbureau2006">U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. [http://stats.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/cfoi/cfch0005.pdf Stats.bls.gov]</ref>{{Verify source|date=May 2015}} These numbers, however, include all mining activities, and [[oil well|oil and gas mining]] contribute to the majority of fatalities. Coal mining resulted in 47 fatalities that year.<ref name="laborbureau2006"/> One study, though, has suggested that hazards of modern mining are now more accretive with workers facing long-term health impacts, such as sleep deprivation, that build up over time.<ref name="T3">Ryan Driskell Tate, "Slow Violence and Hidden Injuries: The Work of Stripmining in the American West," ''Violence of Work: New Essays in Canadian and US Labour History'' (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2020).</ref>
==
{{Excerpt|Health and environmental impact of the coal industry|Impact to land and surroundings}}
==Coal mining by country==
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===Canada===
{{main|Coal in Canada}}
Canada was ranked as the [[List of countries by coal production|15th]] coal producing country in the world in 2010, with a total production of 67.9 million tonnes. Canada's [[coal reserves]], the 12th largest in the world, are located largely in the province of [[Alberta]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiapacificpartnership.org/pdf/Coalmining/expo_vegas/Overview_Canada_Coal_Sector.pdf |title=Overview of Canada's Coal Sector |work=Natural Resources Canada |access-date=6 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525231929/http://www.asiapacificpartnership.org/pdf/Coalmining/expo_vegas/Overview_Canada_Coal_Sector.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=
The first coal mines in North America were located in [[Joggins]] and [[Port Morien]], [[Nova Scotia]], mined by French settlers beginning in the late 1600s. The coal was used for the British garrison at [[Annapolis Royal]], and in the construction of the [[Fortress of Louisbourg]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
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===Germany===
[[File:Ende Gelände 2017 CHB 23 (cropped).jpg|thumb|An [[Open-pit mining|open-pit]] coal mine in the [[Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier|Rhineland lignite mining area]] in Germany]]
[[Germany]] has a long history of coal mining, going back to the [[Middle Ages]]. Coal mining greatly increased during the [[
Coal mining reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century. After 1950, the coal producers started to struggle financially. In 1975, a subsidy was introduced (''Kohlepfennig'', ''coal penny'' as part of the electricity bill), which was discontinued in the 1990s. In 2007, due to EU regulations, the [[Bundestag]] decided to end subsidies by 2018. As a consequence, [[RAG AG]], the owner of the two remaining coal mines in Germany, Prosper Haniel and Ibbenbüren, announced it would close all mines by 2018, thus ended underground coal mining in Germany.
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===Russia===
Russia ranked as the [[List of countries by coal production|fifth largest coal producing country]] in 2010, with a total production of 316.9 Mt. Russia has the world's second largest coal reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls |title=BP Statistical review of world energy June 2007 |publisher=BP |format=XLS |date=June 2007 |access-date=22 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206104056/http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls |archive-date=6 February 2009 }}</ref> Although Russian oil and gas exports get a lot more attention, Russia is the world's third largest coal exporter and these exports are an important source of foreign revenue and are important for the coal mining communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Overland |first1=Indra |last2=Loginova |first2=Julia |date=2023-08-01 |title=The Russian coal industry in an uncertain world: Finally pivoting to Asia? |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=102 |pages=103150 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2023.103150 |issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023ERSS..10203150O }}</ref> Russia and Norway share the coal resources of the Arctic archipelago of [[Svalbard]], under the [[Svalbard Treaty]].{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}
===Spain===
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==See also==
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* {{annotated link|Glossary of coal mining terminology}}
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* {{annotated link|Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia}}
* {{annotated link|Hurrying}}
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* {{annotated link|Mine fire}}
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* Kuenzer, Claudia. ''Coal Mining in China'' (In: Schumacher-Voelker, E., and Mueller, B., (Eds.), ''BusinessFocus China, Energy: A Comprehensive Overview of the Chinese Energy Sector'' ( Deutschland Verlag, 2007); 281 pp., {{ISBN|978-3-940114-00-6}} pp. 62–68)
* Latzko, David A. "Coal mining and regional economic development in Pennsylvania, 1810–1980." ''Economies et Sociétés'' 44 (2011): 1627–1649. [http://www.personal.psu.edu/~dxl31/research/articles/coal.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528042008/http://www.personal.psu.edu/~dxl31/research/articles/coal.pdf |date=28 May 2023 }}
* Lovejoy, Owen R. "The coal mines of Pennsylvania." ''The
* Madsen, Peter M. "These lives will not be lost in vain: Organizational learning from disaster in US coal mining." ''Organization Science'' 20.5 (2009): 861–875.
* Merrill, Travers, and Lucy Kitson. ''End of Coal Mining in South Wales: Lessons learned from industrial transformation.'' (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2017) [https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/end-of-coal-mining-south-wales-lessons-learned.pdf online]
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* Oei, Pao-Yu, Hanna Brauers, and Philipp Herpich. "Lessons from Germany's hard coal mining phase-out: policies and transition from 1950 to 2018." ''Climate Policy'' 20.8 (2020): 963–979. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14693062.2019.1688636?needAccess=true&role=button online]
* Srivastava, A.K. ''Coal Mining Industry in India'' (1998) ({{ISBN|81-7100-076-2}})
* Stern, Gerald M. ''The Buffalo Creek Disaster: How the survivors of one of the worst disasters in coal-mining history brought suit against the coal
* Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. ''World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks'' (1953) pp. 840–881; with many tables and maps on the worldwide coal industry in 1950
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===Government documents and primary sources===
* Illinois Dept. of Commerce and Economic Opportunity.
* Kowalski-Trakofler, K. M., et al. "Underground coal mining disasters and
* {{cite web |author=National Energy Information Center |title=Greenhouse Gases, Climate Change, Energy |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html |access-date=16 October 2007 }}
* U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Natural Resources.
{{Refend}}
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