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{{Redirect|Coal miner|the John J. Szaton statue|Coal Miner (statue)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
[[File:Lackawanna Coal Mine car, Nov 2014.jpg|thumb|A coal
[[File:FIRST SHIFT OF MINERS AT THE VIRGINIA-POCAHONTAS COAL COMPANY MINE ^4 NEAR RICHLANDS, VIRGINIA, LEAVING THE ELEVATOR.... - NARA - 556393 tweaked.jpg|thumb|Coal miners exiting a [[Hoist (mining)|winder]] [[Shaft sinking|cage]] at a mine near [[Richlands, Virginia]] in 1974]]
[[File:Coal mine Wyoming.jpg|thumb|Surface coal mining in [[Wyoming]], U.S.]]
[[File:0 Frameries - Charbonnage de Crachet Picquery (1).JPG|thumb|A coal mine in [[Frameries]], Belgium]]
'''Coal mining''' is the process of [[resource extraction|extracting]] [[coal]] from the ground or from a mine. Coal is valued for its [[Energy value of coal|energy content]] and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. [[Steel]] and [[cement]] industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from [[iron ore]] and for cement production. In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[South Africa]], a coal mine and its structures are a '''colliery''', a coal mine is called a "pit", and above-ground mining structures are referred to as a "[[pit head]]". In [[Australia]], "colliery" generally refers to an underground coal mine.
Coal mining has had many developments in recent years, from the early days of men tunneling, digging, and manually extracting the coal on carts to large [[Open-pit mining|open-cut]] and [[Longwall mining|longwall]] mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of [[Dragline excavator|draglines]], trucks, [[conveyor]]s, [[hydraulic jack]]s, and shearers.
The coal mining industry has a long history of significant negative [[Health and environmental impact of the coal industry|environmental impacts]] on local ecosystems, health impacts on local communities and workers, and contributes heavily to the global environmental crises, such as [[Air pollution|poor air quality]] and [[climate change]]. For these reasons, coal has been one of the first [[Fossil fuel phase-out|fossil fuels to be phased out]] of various parts of the [[Energy industry|global energy economy]]. The major coal producing countries, though, such as [[Coal in China|China]], Indonesia, [[Coal in India|India]] and [[Australia]], have not reached peak production, with production increases replacing falls in Europe and
==History==
{{Excerpt|History_of_coal_mining}}
[[File:Boats hauling coal.jpg|thumb|Ships have been used to haul coal since the [[Roman Empire]]]]
{{Coal sidebar|state=collapsed}}
==Methods of extraction==
Coal extraction methods vary depending on whether the mine is an underground mine or a surface (also called an open cast) mine. Additionally, coal seam thickness and geology are factors in the selection of a mining method. The most economical method of coal extraction for surface mines is the electric shovel or drag line. The most economical form of underground mining is the long wall, which involves using two spinning drums with carbide bits that runs along sections of the coal seam. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a [[coal preparation plant]]. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; [[overburden]] characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography, especially altitude and slope; climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; groundwater conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.<ref>[http://www.greatmining.com/articles/methods-of-coal-mining/ "Methods of Coal Mining"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318121002/http://www.greatmining.com/articles/methods-of-coal-mining/ |date=18 March 2012 }} ''Great Mining'' (2003) accessed 19 December 2011</ref>
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====Mountaintop removal mining====
{{Main|Mountaintop removal mining}}
Mountaintop coal mining is a surface mining practice involving removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams, and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills." Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternatives.<ref>{{
[[Mountaintop removal mining]] combines area and contour strip mining methods. In areas with rolling or steep terrain with a coal seam occurring near the top of a ridge or hill, the entire top is removed in a series of parallel cuts. Overburden is deposited in nearby valleys and hollows. This method usually leaves the ridge and hilltops as flattened plateaus.<ref name="Christman, R.C. 1980"/> The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of creating ''head-of-hollow-fills'', or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mountainjusticesummer.org/facts/steps.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051029154012/http://mountainjusticesummer.org/facts/steps.php|archive-date=29 October 2005|title=Mountain Justice Summer – What is Mountain Top Removal Mining?|date=29 October 2005}}</ref><ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Philadelphia, PA (2005). [http://www.epa.gov/region3/mtntop/eis2005.htm "Mountaintop mining/valley fills in Appalachia: Final programmatic environmental impact statement."]</ref>
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[[File:Coal Washer.JPG|thumb|A coal wash plant in [[Clay County, Kentucky]]]]
[[File:Continuous Miner.jpg|thumb|A remote Joy HM21 continuous miner used underground]]
Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, a method that currently accounts for about 60 percent of world coal production.<ref name="CoalMining2009"/> In deep mining, the [[room and pillar|room and pillar or bord and pillar]] method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof. Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point limited by geology, ventilation, or economics, a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or [[retreat mining]], is commonly started. Miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section.<ref>{{Citation
Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area. The mobile roof supports are similar to a large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs. After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area. The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
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There are six principal methods of underground mining:
* [[Longwall mining]] accounts for about 50 percent of underground production. The longwall shearer has a face of {{convert|1000|ft|m}} or more. It is a sophisticated machine with a rotating drum that moves mechanically back and forth across a wide coal seam. The loosened coal falls onto an armored chain conveyor or pan line that takes the coal to the conveyor belt for removal from the work area. Longwall systems have their own hydraulic roof supports which advance with the machine as mining progresses. As the longwall mining equipment moves forward, overlying rock that is no longer supported by coal is allowed to fall behind the operation in a controlled manner. The supports make possible high levels of production and safety. Sensors detect how much coal remains in the seam while robotic controls enhance efficiency. Longwall systems allow a 60-to-100 percent coal recovery rate when surrounding geology allows their use. Once the coal is removed, usually 75 percent of the section, the roof is allowed to collapse in a safe manner.<ref name="CoalMining2009" />
* [[Continuous mining]] utilizes a continuous miner machine with a large rotating steel drum equipped with tungsten carbide picks that scrape coal from the seam. Operating in a "room and pillar", also known as "bord and pillar" system, where the mine is divided into a series of 20-to-30-foot (5–10 m) "rooms" or work areas cut into the coalbed—it can mine as much as 14 tons of coal a minute, more than a non-mechanised mine of the 1920s would produce in an entire day. Continuous miners account for about 45 percent of underground coal production. [[Conveyor system|Conveyors]] transport the removed coal from the seam. Remote-controlled continuous miners are used to work in a variety of difficult seams and conditions, and robotic versions controlled by computers are becoming increasingly common. Continuous mining is a misnomer, as room and pillar coal mining is very cyclical. In the US, one can generally cut up to around {{convert|20|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us|0}}. This may be increased with [[Mine Safety and Health Administration|MSHA]] permission. In South Africa, the limit may be as high as {{Convert|12|m|ft}}. After the cutting limit is reached, the continuous miner assembly is removed and the roof is supported by the use of a roof bolter, after which the face has to be serviced before it can be advanced again. During servicing, the "continuous" miner moves to another face. Some continuous miners can bolt and rock dust the face, two major components of servicing, while cutting coal, while a trained crew may be able to advance ventilation, to truly earn the "continuous" label. However, very few mines are able to achieve it. Most continuous mining machines in use in the US lack the ability to bolt and dust. This may partly be because the incorporation of bolting makes the machines wider, and therefore, less maneuverable.<ref>{{
* [[Room and pillar|Room and pillar mining]] consists of coal deposits that are mined by cutting a network of rooms into the coal seam. Pillars of coal are left behind in order to keep up the roof. The pillars can make up to forty percent of the total coal in the seam, however, where there was space to leave the head and floor coal there is evidence from recent open cast excavations that 18th-century operators used a variety of room and pillar techniques to remove 92 percent of the ''in situ'' coal. However, this can be extracted at a later stage (''see'' [[retreat mining]]).<ref name="CoalMining2009">{{cite web|title=Coal Mining. World Coal|work= World Coal Institute |date=10 March 2009 |url=http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=92>|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428202846/http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=92|archive-date=28 April 2009}}</ref>
* [[Rock blasting|Blast mining]] or conventional mining, is an older practice that uses [[explosive]]s such as [[dynamite]] to break up the coal seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded onto shuttle cars or conveyors for removal to a central loading area. This process consists of a series of operations that begins with "cutting" the coalbed so it will break easily when blasted with explosives. This type of mining accounts for less than 5 percent of total underground production in the US today.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}
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{{Excerpt|Coal refuse}}
====Disasters====
{{Excerpt|Coal refuse|Disasters}}
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The use of sophisticated sensing equipment to monitor air quality is common and has replaced the use of small animals such as canaries, often referred to as "[[domestic Canary#Miner's canary|miner's canaries]]".<ref>{{cite web| last=Engelbert| first=Phillis| title=Energy – What Is A "Miner's Canary"?| url=http://www.enotes.com/science-fact-finder/energy/what-miners-canary| publisher=enotes| access-date=18 August 2010| archive-date=1 October 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001041554/http://www.enotes.com/science-fact-finder/energy/what-miners-canary| url-status=dead}}</ref>
In the United States, the increase in technology has significantly decreased the mining workforce. in 2015 US coal mines had 65,971 employees, the lowest figure since [[Energy Information Administration|EIA]] began collecting data in 1978.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/coal/annual/|title=Annual Coal Report – Energy Information Administration|website=www.eia.gov}}</ref> However, a 2016 study reported that a relatively minor investment would allow most coal workers to retrain for the solar energy industry.<ref name=Louie>{{cite journal|last1=Louie|first1=Edward P.|last2=Pearce|first2=Joshua M.|title=Retraining investment for U.S. transition from coal to solar photovoltaic employment|journal=Energy Economics|date=June 2016|volume=57|pages=295–302|doi=10.1016/j.eneco.2016.05.016|bibcode=2016EneEc..57..295L |s2cid=156845876 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02113504/file/Retraining_Investment_for_U.S._Transitio.pdf}}</ref>
== Safety ==
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Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps, possibly from the German word {{Lang|de|Dampf}} which means steam or vapor:
* [[Black damp]]: a mixture of [[carbon dioxide]] and [[nitrogen]] in a mine can cause suffocation, and is formed as a result of corrosion in enclosed spaces so removing [[oxygen]] from the atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haldane |first=John |author-link=John Scott Haldane |date=1894 |title=Notes of an Enquiry into the Nature and Physiological
* [[Afterdamp|After damp]]: similar to black damp, after damp consists of [[carbon monoxide]], [[carbon dioxide]] and nitrogen and forms after a mine explosion.
* [[Firedamp|Fire damp]]: consists of mostly [[methane]], a highly flammable gas that explodes between 5% and 15% – at 25% it causes [[asphyxiation]].
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Improvements in mining methods (e.g. longwall mining), hazardous gas monitoring (such as [[safety-lamp]]s or more modern electronic gas monitors), gas drainage, [[Electrical equipment in hazardous areas|electrical equipment]], and ventilation have reduced many of the risks of rock falls, explosions, and unhealthy air quality. Gases released during the mining process can be recovered to generate electricity and improve worker safety with [[gas engines]].<ref>[http://www.clarke-energy.com/gas-type/coal-gas/ Coal Gas Utilisation], www.clarke-energy.com</ref> Another innovation in recent years is the use of [[Self-contained self-rescue device|closed circuit escape respirator]]s, respirators that contain oxygen for situations where mine ventilation is compromised.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2013/08/07/super-workplace/ |title = The Importance of Occupational Safety and Health: Making for a "Super" Workplace |date = 7 August 2013 |access-date = 15 January 2015 |first1 = Jaclyn |last1 = Krah |first2 = Richard L. |last2 = Unger |publisher = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health}}</ref> Statistical analyses performed by the US Department of Labor's [[Mine Safety and Health Administration]] (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds. But according to the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]], even in 2006, mining remained the second most dangerous occupation in America, when measured by [[mortality rate|fatality rate]].<ref name="laborbureau2006">U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. [http://stats.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/cfoi/cfch0005.pdf Stats.bls.gov]</ref>{{Verify source|date=May 2015}} These numbers, however, include all mining activities, and [[oil well|oil and gas mining]] contribute to the majority of fatalities. Coal mining resulted in 47 fatalities that year.<ref name="laborbureau2006"/> One study, though, has suggested that hazards of modern mining are now more accretive with workers facing long-term health impacts, such as sleep deprivation, that build up over time.<ref name="T3">Ryan Driskell Tate, "Slow Violence and Hidden Injuries: The Work of Stripmining in the American West," ''Violence of Work: New Essays in Canadian and US Labour History'' (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2020).</ref>
==
{{Excerpt|Health and environmental impact of the coal industry|Impact to land and surroundings}}
==Coal mining by country==
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===Canada===
{{main|Coal in Canada}}
Canada was ranked as the [[List of countries by coal production|15th]] coal producing country in the world in 2010, with a total production of 67.9 million tonnes. Canada's [[coal reserves]], the 12th largest in the world, are located largely in the province of [[Alberta]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiapacificpartnership.org/pdf/Coalmining/expo_vegas/Overview_Canada_Coal_Sector.pdf |title=Overview of Canada's Coal Sector |work=Natural Resources Canada |access-date=6 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525231929/http://www.asiapacificpartnership.org/pdf/Coalmining/expo_vegas/Overview_Canada_Coal_Sector.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=
The first coal mines in North America were located in [[Joggins]] and [[Port Morien]], [[Nova Scotia]], mined by French settlers beginning in the late 1600s. The coal was used for the British garrison at [[Annapolis Royal]], and in the construction of the [[Fortress of Louisbourg]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
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===China===
{{Main|Coal power in China}}
===Colombia===
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===Germany===
[[File:Ende Gelände 2017 CHB 23 (cropped).jpg|thumb|An [[Open-pit mining|open-pit]] coal mine in the [[Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier|Rhineland lignite mining area]] in Germany]]
[[Germany]] has a long history of coal mining, going back to the [[Middle Ages]]. Coal mining greatly increased during the [[
Coal mining reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century. After 1950, the coal producers started to struggle financially. In 1975, a subsidy was introduced (''Kohlepfennig'', ''coal penny'' as part of the electricity bill), which was discontinued in the 1990s. In 2007, due to EU regulations, the [[Bundestag]] decided to end subsidies by 2018. As a consequence, [[RAG AG]], the owner of the two remaining coal mines in Germany, Prosper Haniel and Ibbenbüren, announced it would close all mines by 2018, thus ended underground coal mining in Germany.
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===New Zealand===
{{
===Poland===
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===Russia===
Russia ranked as the [[List of countries by coal production|fifth largest coal producing country]] in 2010, with a total production of 316.9 Mt. Russia has the world's second largest coal reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls |title=BP Statistical review of world energy June 2007 |publisher=BP |format=XLS |date=June 2007 |access-date=22 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206104056/http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls |archive-date=6 February 2009 }}</ref> Although Russian oil and gas exports get a lot more attention, Russia is the world's third largest coal exporter and these exports are an important source of foreign revenue and are important for the coal mining communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Overland |first1=Indra |last2=Loginova |first2=Julia |date=2023-08-01 |title=The Russian coal industry in an uncertain world: Finally pivoting to Asia? |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=102 |pages=103150 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2023.103150 |issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023ERSS..10203150O }}</ref> Russia and Norway share the coal resources of the Arctic archipelago of [[Svalbard]], under the [[Svalbard Treaty]].{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}
===Spain===
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==See also==
{{columns-list|
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* {{annotated link|Glossary of coal mining terminology}}
*
* {{annotated link|Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia}}
* {{annotated link|Hurrying}}
*
* {{annotated link|Mine fire}}
*
*
*
}}
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* Kuenzer, Claudia. ''Coal Mining in China'' (In: Schumacher-Voelker, E., and Mueller, B., (Eds.), ''BusinessFocus China, Energy: A Comprehensive Overview of the Chinese Energy Sector'' ( Deutschland Verlag, 2007); 281 pp., {{ISBN|978-3-940114-00-6}} pp. 62–68)
* Latzko, David A. "Coal mining and regional economic development in Pennsylvania, 1810–1980." ''Economies et Sociétés'' 44 (2011): 1627–1649. [http://www.personal.psu.edu/~dxl31/research/articles/coal.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528042008/http://www.personal.psu.edu/~dxl31/research/articles/coal.pdf |date=28 May 2023 }}
* Lovejoy, Owen R. "The coal mines of Pennsylvania." ''The
* Madsen, Peter M. "These lives will not be lost in vain: Organizational learning from disaster in US coal mining." ''Organization Science'' 20.5 (2009): 861–875.
* Merrill, Travers, and Lucy Kitson. ''End of Coal Mining in South Wales: Lessons learned from industrial transformation.'' (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2017) [https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/end-of-coal-mining-south-wales-lessons-learned.pdf online]
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* Mitchell, Brian R. ''Economic development of the British coal industry 1800–1914'' (Cambridge UP, 1984). [https://books.google.com/books?id=BFQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR11 online]
* Nielsen, Charles V., and George F. Richardson. ''1982 Keystone Coal Industry Manual'' (1982)
* Oei, Pao-Yu, Hanna Brauers, and Philipp Herpich. "Lessons from
* Srivastava, A.K. ''Coal Mining Industry in India'' (1998) ({{ISBN|81-7100-076-2}})
* Stern, Gerald M. ''The Buffalo Creek Disaster: How the survivors of one of the worst disasters in coal-mining history brought suit against the coal
* Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. ''World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks'' (1953) pp. 840–881; with many tables and maps on the worldwide coal industry in 1950
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===Government documents and primary sources===
* Illinois Dept. of Commerce and Economic Opportunity.
* Kowalski-Trakofler, K. M., et al. "Underground coal mining disasters and
* {{cite web |author=National Energy Information Center |title=Greenhouse Gases, Climate Change, Energy |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html |access-date=16 October 2007 }}
* U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Natural Resources.
{{Refend}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Coal Mining}}
[[Category:Coal mining| ]]
[[Category:Fuel production]]
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