Algerian War: Difference between revisions

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| casualties2 = *2517,600456<ref name=Horne/>{{rp|538}} to 30,000<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vie-publique.fr/discours/284485-emmanuel-macron-60eme-anniversaire-accords-devian-guerre-dalgerie | title=Déclaration de M. Emmanuel Macron, président de la République, sur le 60ème anniversaire des accords d'Évian et la guerre d'Algérie, à Paris le 19 mars 2022 | access-date=19 December 2022 | archive-date=1 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201034558/https://www.vie-publique.fr/discours/284485-emmanuel-macron-60eme-anniversaire-accords-devian-guerre-dalgerie | url-status=live }}</ref> French soldiers killed

The '''Algerian War''' (also known as the '''Algerian Revolution''' or the '''Algerian War of Independence''')<ref group="nb">{{lang-langx|ar|الثورة الجزائرية}} ''{{lang|ar-Latn|al-Thawra al-Jaza'iriyah}}; {{lang-langx|fr|Guerre d'Algérie}}'' (and sometimes in Algeria as the ''War of 1 November'')</ref> was a major armed conflict between [[France]] and the Algerian [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) from 1954 to 1962, which led to [[Algeria]] winning its independence from France.<ref name="vic">{{cite book|author=Matthew James Connelly|title=A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-cold War Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9ffptE_r4YC&pg=PA263|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-514513-7|pages=263–277|quote=The Algerians' victory enabled the French to become free--free from their colonial charges, and free from the United States....... Although France was obviously eager to get out, it had to accept the terms of its defeat.}}<br><br>{{cite book|author=Robert Malley|title=The Call From Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYUD5v52CNUC&pg=PA81|date=20 November 1996|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-91702-6|page=81|quote=Then, in 1962, came the FLN's victory in Algeria, a defining moment in the history of the Third Worldism, for the battle had lasted so long, had been so violent, and had been won by a movement so acutely aware of its international dimension.}}<br><br>{{cite book|author1=Ruud van Dijk|author2=William Glenn Gray|author3=Svetlana Savranskaya|title=Encyclopedia of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgX0bQ3Enj4C&pg=PA16|date=13 May 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-92311-2|page=16|quote=During this war of independence, Algeria was at the center of world politics. The FLN's victory made the country one of the most prominent in the Third World during the 1960s and 1970s.}}</ref> An important [[decolonization war]], it was a complex conflict characterized by [[guerrilla warfare]] and war crimes. The conflict also became a [[civil war]] between the different communities and within the communities.<ref>[[:fr:Guy Pervillé|Guy Pervillé]], ''Pour une histoire de la guerre d´Algérie'', chap. "Une double guerre civile", Picard, 2002, pp.132–139</ref> The war took place mainly on the territory of [[Algeria]], with repercussions in [[metropolitan France]].

The war caused the deaths of between 400,000 and 1.5 million Algerians,<ref>{{cite news|title=Ombres et lumières de la révolution algérienne|url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1982/11/BALTA/37021|magazine=Le Monde diplomatique|language=fr|date=1 November 1982|access-date=9 February 2018|archive-date=29 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929091404/https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1982/11/BALTA/37021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="France NICOLAS SARKOZY"/><ref name=democide/> 25,600 French soldiers,<ref name=Horne/>{{rp|538}} and 6,000 Europeans. [[#Atrocities and war crimes|War crimes]] committed during the war included massacres of civilians, rape, and [[Torture during the Algerian War|torture]]; the French destroyed over 8,000 villages and relocated over 2 million Algerians to [[Internment camps in France#Algerian War|concentration camps]].<ref name="Kevin Shillington">{{cite book|author=Kevin Shillington|title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45670-2|pages=60|quote=The Algerian war for independence had lasted eight years. More than 8,000 villages had been destroyed in the fighting. Some three million people were displaced, and more than one million Algerians and some 10,000 colons lost their lives.|access-date=28 October 2022|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164808/https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Aoudjit"/> Upon independence in 1962, 900,000 European-Algerians (''{{lang|fr|[[Pieds-noirs]]}}'') fled to France within a few months for fear of the FLN's revenge. The French government was unprepared to receive such a vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. The majority of Algerian Muslims who had worked for the French were disarmed and left behind, as the [[Évian Accords|agreement]] between French and Algerian authorities declared that no actions could be taken against them.<ref>Évian accords, Chapitre II, partie A, article 2</ref> However, the [[Harki]]s in particular, having served as auxiliaries with the French army, were regarded as traitors and {{Ill|Harki massacres|lt=many were murdered|fr|Massacres de harkis}} by the FLN or by lynch mobs, often after being abducted and tortured.<ref name=Horne/>{{rp|537}}<ref>See http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/qa-happened-algeria-harkis-150531082955192.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024034/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/qa-happened-algeria-harkis-150531082955192.html |date=7 November 2017 }} and Pierre Daum's "The Last Taboo: Harkis Who Stayed in Algeria After 1962". November 2017</ref> About 20,000 Harki families (around 90,000 people) managed to flee to France, some with help from their French officers acting against orders, and today they and their descendants form a significant part of the population of [[Algerians in France]].{{cncitation needed|date=April 2024}}

After the collapse of the [[Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties|MTLD]], the veteran nationalist [[Messali Hadj]] formed the [[leftist]] [[Mouvement National Algérien]] (MNA), which advocated a policy of violent revolution and total independence similar to that of the FLN, but aimed to compete with that organisation. The ''[[Armée de Libération Nationale]]'' (ALN), the military wing of the FLN, subsequently wiped out the MNA [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] operation in Algeria, and Messali Hadj's movement lost what littleweak influence it had had there. However, the MNA retained the support of many Algerian workers in France through the ''[[Union Syndicale des Travailleurs Algériens]]'' (the [[Trade union|Union]] of Algerian Workers). The FLN also established a strong organization in France to oppose the MNA. The "[[Café wars]]", resulting in nearly 5,000 deaths, were waged in France between the two rebel groups throughout the years of the War of Independence.

After his time as governor general, Soustelle returned to France to organize support for de Gaulle's return to power, while retaining close ties to the army and the ''pieds-noirs''. By early 1958, he had organized a [[coup d'état]], bringing together dissident army officers and ''pieds-noirs'' with sympathetic Gaullists. An army junta under General Massu seized power in Algiers on the night of May 13, thereafter known as the [[May 1958 crisis]]. General Salan assumed leadership of a Committee of Public Safety formed to replace the civil authority and pressed the junta's demands that de Gaulle be named by French president [[René Coty]] to head a government of national unity invested with extraordinary powers to prevent the "abandonment of Algeria.".

Firstly, the FLN exploited the tensions between the American-led [[Western Bloc]] and the Soviet-led [[East Bloc|Communist bloc]]. FLN sought material support from the Communists, goading the Americans to support of Algerian independence to keep the country on the western side. Furthermore, the FLN used the tensions within each bloc, including between France and the US and between the USSR and Mao's China. The US, which generally opposed [[Colonization|colonisation]], had every interest in pushing France to give Algeria its independence.<ref>{{Cite book|title="La Guerre d'Algérie, facteur de changement du système international" de Jeffrey James Byrne dans Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale|last=Bouchène|first=Abderrahmane|publisher=La Découverte|year=2014}}</ref>

Death toll estimates vary. Algerian historians and the FLN estimated that nearly eight years of revolution caused 1.5&nbsp;million Algerian deaths.<ref name="France NICOLAS SARKOZY"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/france-returns-algerian-remains-as-nations-mend-ways/1904563|title=France returns Algerian remains as nations mend ways|website=www.aa.com.tr|access-date=23 November 2020|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201130134/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/france-returns-algerian-remains-as-nations-mend-ways/1904563|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=France admits torture during Algeria's war of independence|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/9/13/france-admits-torture-during-algerias-war-of-independence|access-date=2020-11-23|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201121745/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/9/13/france-admits-torture-during-algerias-war-of-independence|url-status=live}}</ref> Some other French and Algerian sources later put the figure at approximately 960,000 dead, while French officials and historians estimated it at around 350,000,<ref name="Pervillé">Guy Pervillé, ''La Guerre d'Algérie'', PUF, 2007, {{p.|115}}.</ref><ref>Voir [http://guy.perville.free.fr/spip/article.php3?id_article=74 « Mémoire et histoire de la guerre d'Algérie, de part et d'autre de la Méditerranée »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422064118/http://guy.perville.free.fr/spip/article.php3?id_article=74 |date=22 April 2022 }}, Guy Pervillé, page 157-68 in ''Confluences Méditerranée'' (No.&nbsp;19), automne 1996.</ref> but this was regarded by many{{Who|date=May 2022}} as an underestimate. French military authorities listed their losses at nearly 2517,600456 dead (65,000966 from non-combat-related causesaccidents) and 65,000 wounded. European-descended civilian casualties exceeded 10,000 (including 3,000 dead) in 42,000 recorded violent incidents. According to French official figures during the war, the army, security forces and militias killed 141,000 presumed rebel combatants.<ref name=Horne/>{{rp|538}} But it is still unclear whether this includes some civilians.

Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 1 million.<ref name="Alistair Horne">{{cite book|author=Alistair Horne|title=A Savage War of Peace Algeria 1954-1962|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4-UHiZTlpMC&pg=PA|year=2012|publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4472-3343-5|quote=It was undeniably and horribly savage , bringing death to an estimated one million Muslim Algerians and the expulsion from their homes of approximately the same number of European settlers.}}</ref><ref name="David P. Forsythe">{{cite book|author=David P. Forsythe|title=Encyclopedia of Human Rights |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=PA37|year=2009|publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-533402-9|page=37|quote=Alistair Horne estimates one million Algerians and twenty thousand French were casualties of the war.}}</ref> Uncounted thousands of Muslim civilians died in French Army ratissages, bombing raids, or vigilante reprisals. The war uprooted more than 2&nbsp;million Algerians, who were forced to relocate in French camps or to flee into the Algerian hinterland, where many thousands died of starvation, disease, and exposure. One source estimates 300,000 Algerians civilians perished of starvation, depredation, and disease inside and outside the camps.<ref name="clayton">{{cite book |last1=Clayton |first1=Anthony |title=Frontiersmen: Warfare In Africa Since 1950 |date=2001 |pages=34}}</ref>

Massacres and torture were frequent from the beginning of the [[French Algeria|colonization of Algeria]], which started in 1830.<ref name="Kiernan2007"/> Atrocities committed against Algerians by the French army during the war included indiscriminate shootings into civilian crowds (such as during the [[Paris massacre of 1961]]), execution of civilians when rebel attacks occurred,<ref>{{cite book |first=Travis |last=Hannibal |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbWdlRL8WzMC&pg=PA137 |title=Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations: Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945 |publisher= Routledge |page=137|isbn=9780415531252 }}</ref> bombings of villages suspected of helping the FLN,<ref name="Aoudjit">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179 |title=The Algerian Novel and Colonial Discourse: Witnessing to a Différend |author=Abdelkader Aoudjit |year=2010 |page=179 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=9781433110740 |quote=From 1957 to 1960 more than two million Algerians were thus relocated, leaving behind their houses. crops, and livestock, and over 800 villages were destroyed. |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161116/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Wartime sexual violence|rape]],<ref name=Hanssen>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Middle Eastern and North African History |author1=Jens Hanssen |author2=Amal N. Ghazal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA261 |page=261 |year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-165279-0 }}</ref> [[disembowelment]] of pregnant women,<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0iVpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |title= The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question |page=122 |author= Marnia Lazreg |year= 1994 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 9781134713301 |quote=Reports of French soldiers, especially members from the French Legion, cutting up pregnant women's bellies were not uncommon during the war}}</ref> imprisonment [[Starvation|without food]] in small cells (some of which were small enough to impede lying down),<ref name="VIDAL-NAQUET2014">{{cite book|author=Pierre VIDAL-NAQUET|title=Les crimes de l'armée française: Algérie, 1954-1962|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd09BQAAQBAJ&pg=PT118|date=20 November 2014|publisher=La Découverte|isbn=978-2-7071-8309-5|page=118}}</ref> [[Death flights|throwing detainees from helicopters]] and into the sea with concrete on their feet, and [[Premature burial|burying people alive]].<ref name="Huma00">{{cite news|url= http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522|title= Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?|newspaper= [[L'Humanité]]|date= 24 June 2000|language= fr|access-date= 15 February 2007|archive-date= 25 June 2005|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050625201336/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-06-24/2000-06-24-227522|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>[http://ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&num_notice=8&total_notices=8&mc=Favre,%20Bernard Film testimony] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081128154820/http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice|date=2008-11-28}} by [[Paul Teitgen]], [[Jacques Duquesne (journalist)|Jacques Duquesne]] and [[Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc]] on the [[Institut national de l'audiovisuel|INA]] archive website {{dead link|date=September 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095 Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020203219/http://elwatan.com/spip.php?page=article&id_article=7095 |date=2007-10-20 }}, ''[[El Watan]]'', 1 November 2004.</ref><ref>[http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778 Des guerres d'Indochine et d'Algérie aux dictatures d'Amérique latine], interview with [[Marie-Monique Robin]] by the [[Ligue des droits de l'homme]] (LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930181518/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article1778 |date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> Torture methods included beatings, mutilations, burning, hanging by the feet or hands, torture by electroshock, [[waterboarding]], sleep deprivation and sexual assaults.<ref name=Hanssen/><ref name="Huma00"/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm THE FRENCH ARMY AND TORTURE DURING THE ALGERIAN WAR (1954–1962)], [[Raphaëlle Branche]], Université de [[Rennes]], 18 November 2004</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Horne |first = Alistair |publication-date = 2006 |year = 1977 |title = A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962 |publisher = New York Review |isbn = 978-1-59017-218-6 |pages=198–200}}</ref><ref name="Rey">Text published in ''Vérité Liberté'' n°9 May 1961.</ref>

During the war, the French military relocated entire villages to {{Lang|de|centres de regroupements}} (regrouping centres), which were built for forcibly displaced civilian populations, in order to separate them from FLN guerillaguerrilla combatants. Over 8,000 villages were destroyed.<ref name="Kevin Shillington" /><ref name="Aoudjit"/><ref name="Hill 2009 p. 60">{{cite book|last=Hill|first=J.N.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REwOAQAAMAAJ|title=Identity in Algerian Politics: The Legacy of Colonial Rule|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=2009|isbn=978-1-58826-608-8}}</ref> Over 2 million Algerians were resettled in regrouping internment camps, with some being [[Unfree labour|forced into labour]].<ref name="Fabien">SACRISTE Fabien, « Les « regroupements » de la guerre d'Algérie, des « villages stratégiques » ? », Critique internationale, 2018/2 (N° 79), p. 25-43. DOI : 10.3917/crii.079.0025. URL : https://www.cairn.info/revue-critique-internationale-2018-2-page-25.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516092842/https://www.cairn.info/revue-critique-internationale-2018-2-page-25.htm |date=16 May 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=127 |language=fr}}</ref>

Torture was also used by both sides during the [[First Indochina War]] (1946–54).<ref>[[Mohamed Harbi]], ''La guerre d'Algérie''</ref><ref name=":3">[[Benjamin Stora]], ''La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie''</ref><ref>[[Raphaëlle Branche]], ''La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962'', Paris, Gallimard, 2001 See also [http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm The French Army and Torture During the Algerian War (1954–1962)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020184243/http://www.mfo.ac.uk/Publications/comptesrendus/branche.htm |date=2007-10-20 }}, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de [[Rennes]], 18 November 2004 {{in lang|en}}</ref> [[Claude Bourdet]] denounced acts of torture in Algeria on 6 December 1951, in the magazine ''[[L'Observateur]]'', rhetorically asking, "Is there a [[Gestapo]] in Algeria?". D. Huf, in his seminal work on the subject, argued that the use of torture was one of the major factors in developing French opposition to the war.<ref>[[David Huf]], ''Between a Rock and a Hard Place: France and Algeria, 1954–1962''</ref> Huf argued, "Such tactics sat uncomfortably with France's revolutionary history, and brought unbearable comparisons with [[Nazi Germany]]. The French national psyche would not tolerate any parallels between their experiences of occupation and their colonial mastery of Algeria." General [[Paul Aussaresses]] admitted in 2000 that systematic torture techniques were used during the war and justified them. He also recognized the assassination of lawyer [[Ali Boumendjel]] and the head of the FLN in Algiers, [[Larbi Ben M'Hidi]], which had been disguised as suicides.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899|title=L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie|newspaper=Le Monde|date=3 May 2001|access-date=12 February 2007|archive-date=4 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904085335/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=702899|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bigeard|Marcel Bigeard]], who called FLN activists "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100219041813/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/recherche_breve/1,13-0,37-90746,0.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2010 |title=Guerre d'Algérie: le général Bigeard et la pratique de la torture|newspaper=Le Monde|date=4 July 2000}}</ref><ref>[http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797 Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop "] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624162750/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2000-12-05/2000-12-05-235797 |date=June 24, 2005 }}, ''[[L'Humanité]]'', May 12, 2000 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> To the contrary, General [[Jacques Massu]] denounced it, following Aussaresses's revelations and, before his death, pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l'exigence de vérité] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209225257/http://www.aidh.org/faits_documents/algerie/verite.html |date=2007-02-09 }}, AIDH</ref>

File:Algerian woman sexually abused by the French army.jpg|Algerian woman sexually abused by the French armyArmy

Another matter concerns the teaching of the war as well as of colonialism and decolonization, particularly in [[Education in France|French secondary schools]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=''Terminale'' history class: teaching about torture during the Algerian war |last=McCormack |first=J. |journal=[[Modern & Contemporary France]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=75–86 |doi=10.1080/0963948042000196379 |s2cid=145083214 }}</ref> Hence, there is only one reference to [[racism]] in a French textbook, one published by [[Bréal]] publishers for ''terminales'' students, those passing their [[baccalauréat]]. Thus, many are not surprised that the first to speak about the October[[Paris 17,massacre 1961of massacre1961]] were music bands, including hip-hop bands such as the famous [[Suprême NTM]] (''les Arabes dans la Seine'') or politically-engaged [[La Rumeur]]. Indeed, the Algerian War is not even the subject of a specific chapter in the textbook for ''terminales''<ref name="DiploApril">[http://mondediplo.com/2001/04/04algeriatorture Colonialism Through the School Books – The hidden history of the Algerian war] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422180941/https://mondediplo.com/2001/04/04algeriatorture |date=22 April 2019 }}, ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]'', April 2001 {{in lang|en|fr}}</ref> Henceforth, Benjamin Stora stated:

* [[Adolfo Kaminsky]] (b. 1925), famous [[Identity document forgery|forger]] who worked for the FLN, draft dodgers, etc., to make false IDIDs

* {{Cite journal |last=Bradby, |first=David. "|date=October 1994 |title=Images of the Algerian warWar on the French stageStage 1988-1992." ''French|journal=Theatre CulturalJournal Studies''|volume=46 5.14|issue=3 (1994):|pages=375–384 179-189|doi=10.2307/3208613|jstor=3208613 }}

* {{Cite book |last=Clayton, |first=Anthony. ''|title=The wars of French decolonization'' (|date=1994). |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-09802-2 |series=Modern wars in perspective |location=London; New York}}

* {{Cite book |last=Dine, |first=Philip. ''|title=Images of the Algerian War: French fiction and film, 1954-1992'' (|date=1994 |publisher=Clarendon Press; Oxford UP,University Press 1994).|isbn=978-0-19-815875-2 |location=Oxford [England] : New York}}

* {{citeCite book |last=Galula |first=David |title=Pacification in Algeria:, 1956–19581956-1958 |yeardate=19632006 |publisher=RAND Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-3920-0 |location=Santa Monica, CA |oclc=227297246 |orig-date=1963}} Primary source

* [[Alistair{{Cite book Horne|last=Horne, |first=Alistair]]. ''[[|author-link=Alistair Horne |title=A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954-1962 |title-link=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962]]''1954–1962 (|date=1978). In|publisher=Viking Press |isbn=978-depth0-670-61964-1 |location=New narrative.York}}

* {{Cite journal |last=LeJeune, |first=John. "|date=July 2019 |title=Revolutionary Terror and Nation-Building: Frantz Fanon and the Algerian Revolution." ''|journal=Journal for the Study of Radicalism'' |language=en |volume=13. |issue=2 (2019):|pages=1–44 1-44. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/|doi=10.14321/jstudradi.13.2.0001 online]|issn=1930-1189}}

* {{citeCite journal |last=McDougall |first=James |year=2017 |title=The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:3fcec5a2-738d-4cc7-ae7d-0e8acd9adae7 |journal=[[The Journal of Modern History]] |language=en |volume=89 |issue=4 |year=2017 |pages=772–811 |doi=10.1086/694427 |s2cidissn=1486022700022-2801 |urls2cid=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:3fcec5a2-738d-4cc7-ae7d-0e8acd9adae7 148602270}}

* {{citeCite book |last=McDougall |first=James |title-link=History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria |title-link=History and the Cultureculture of Nationalismnationalism in Algeria |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-84373-17 |series=Cambridge Middle East studies |location=Cambridge, UK; New York |oclc=ocm61879728}}

* {{CitationCite book |last=McDougall |first=James | title=A Historyhistory of Algeria | title-link=A History of Algeria | date=2017 | publisher=Cambridge University Presspress |isbn=978-0-521-85164-0 |edition=1 |location=Cambridge}}

* {{citeCite book |last=ShepardSartre |first=ToddJean-Paul |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5629332M/On_genocide. |title=TheOn Inventiongenocide.: ofAnd Decolonization:a Thesummary Algerianof Warthe evidence and the Remakingjudgments of Francethe International War Crimes Tribunal |locationdate=Ithaca1968 |publisher=Cornell UniversityBeacon Press |yearlocation=2006Boston |isbnol=0-8014-4360-1 5629332M}}

* {{Cite book |last=Camus, |first=Albert. ''|author-link=Albert Camus |title=Resistance, rebellionRebellion, and death''Death (1961);|title-link=Resistance, EssaysRebellion, fromand theDeath ''pied noirs'' viewpoint|date=1961}}

* De{{Cite book |last=Gaulle, |first=Charles de |author-link=Charles de Gaulle |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofhoperen0000gaul ''|title=Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor'' (|date=1971). |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-21118-9 |language=en}}

* {{Cite book |last=Maier, |first=Charles S., and Dan S|url=https://archive.org/details/thirteenthofmaya0000maie White, eds. ''|title=The thirteenth of May: the advent of De Gaulle's Republic'' (Oxford University Press, |date=1968), French|publisher=New documentsYork translated: inOxford English,University plus excerpts from French and Algerian newspapers..Press}}

* {{Cite book |last=Servan-Schreiber, |first=Jean Jacques. ''|title=Lieutenant in Algeria'' (|date=1957). On French draftees|publisher=Knopf viewpoint.|language=en}}