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{{Short description|Form of therapy or recreation for humans}}
{{About|the activity of swimming with dolphins|the [[electronica]] band|Swimming With Dolphins (band)}}
[[File:Human pulled along by dolphin.jpg|thumb|Human pulled along by captive dolphin]]The popularity of '''swimming with dolphins''' increased in the 1980s and 1990s, occurring in over 65 countries,<ref name="Orams">{{cite journal |last=Orams |first=Mark B |date=August 1997 |title=Historical accounts of human-dolphin interaction and recent developments in wild dolphin based tourism in Australasia |journal=Tourism Management |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=317–326 |doi=10.1016/S0261-5177(96)00022-2}}</ref> both as a form of therapy as well as a tourist activity.<ref name="Orams" /><ref name=":5" /> Proponents of dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) say that interacting with dolphins can help to treat mental and physical disorders in humans, but there is limited clinical evidence proving its benefits.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Bekoff |first=Marc |date=January 27, 2021 |title=Is Dolphin-Assisted Therapy Actually Therapy? A scholarly review of available data strongly suggests it's not. |work=Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/animal-emotions/202101/is-dolphin-assisted-therapy-actually-therapy |access-date=2022-10-14}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Maron |first=Dina Fine |date=August 11, 2021 |title=Inside the murky world of dolphin therapy |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/inside-the-murky-world-of-dolphin-therapy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811172520/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/inside-the-murky-world-of-dolphin-therapy |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 11, 2021 |access-date=2022-10-14}}</ref> Marine parks and other tourist destinations offering "swim-with-dolphin" experiences have also promoted the purported healing attributes of dolphins.<ref name=":6" /> Opponents argue that interactions between humans and dolphins have had a negative impact on dolphin populations both in the wild and in captivity,<ref name=":0" /> and that the practice can be dangerous for humans.<ref name=":3" /> Concerns over animal welfare have led to bans on swimming with dolphins in [[Costa Rica]],<ref name=":14">{{Cite news |date=August 13, 2005 |title=New law bans swimming with dolphins |work=[[Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A135093021/STND?u=wikipedia&sid=ebsco&xid=1b3e5791 |access-date=2022-10-21 |via=[[Gale OneFile]]}}</ref> as well as certain locations in [[New Zealand]] and [[Hawaii]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Mercer |first=Phil |date=August 29, 2019 |title=New Zealand bans swimming with dolphins |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A597711265/STND?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-STND&xid=87cac6a5 |access-date=2022-10-13 |via=[[Gale OneFile]]}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite news |date=October 2, 2021 |title=Swimming With Dolphins In Hawaii Now Banned, Newest Addition To Protect Island |work=International Business Times |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A677639316/AONE?u=wikipedia&sid=ebsco&xid=8da21a4d |access-date=2022-10-13 |via=[[Gale OneFile]]}}</ref>
== Dolphin-assisted therapy ==
[[File:Dolphin Adventure at The Palm Atlantis Dubai.jpg|thumb|Human interacting with captive dolphin|left]]
=== Claims ===
Dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) is a form of [[animal-assisted therapy]] (AAT), in which captive dolphins interact with humans with a range of [[Mental disorder|psychological]] and [[neurological disorder]]s.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Marino |first1=Lori |last2=Lilienfeld |first2=Scott O. |date=2021 |title=Third time's the charm or three strikes you're out? An updated review of the efficacy of
While some forms of DAT involve patients swimming with, or being pulled around by, dolphins, others entail simply observing, touching, or feeding them.<ref name=":5" /> In general, it is a very expensive form of therapy, costing thousands of dollars in addition to the expense of travel and accommodations to the facilities, located in the United States and Mexico, as well as the Caribbean, South America, Middle East, and Europe.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> Critics have expressed concern that families are forgoing more effective, scientifically proven therapy and treatments order to be able to pay for DAT.<ref name=":3" />
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Possible explanations for why dolphin-assisted therapy works are usually vague, often using scientific terms incorrectly or out of context, and are generally unproven.<ref name=":8" /> One of the most popular theories is that when dolphins produce "clicks" as part of [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]], they emit an ultrasound that stimulates the human endocrine and neural systems, helping to heal body tissue and cell structure.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5" /> There is no scientific evidence supporting this.<ref name=":5" /> Dolphins used in DAT do not always echolocate on the patient,<ref name=":5" /> and the ultrasound emitted by dolphins is different from therapeutic ultrasound currently used by medical practitioners, which is applied repeatedly at a specific intensity and duration.<ref name=":8" />
Another theory is that contact with dolphins has a calming effect and increases relaxation in humans.<ref name=":8" /> Analysis of patients' brain wave patterns using [[electroencephalography]] (EEG) scans have suggested that DAT produces a temporary "nonspecific relaxation effect", but it is unclear how this connects to therapeutic benefits for specific conditions such as [[Autism spectrum|autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD).<ref name=":5" />
The theory promoted by Nathanson and his co-authors is that swimming with dolphins improves attention and responsiveness to external stimuli.<ref name=":5" /> In a major review of the literature through 2020, Lori Marino and Scott O. Lilienfeld point out that many of the patients in Nathanson's studies had neurological disorders such as cerebral palsy that are not linked to attention deficits.<ref name=":5" /> Even for patients with autism, they argue, "the minimal nature of the intervention of swimming with dolphins strains credulity as an adequate treatment for such a profound, complex, and lifelong disorder as ASD."<ref name=":5" />
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=== Effectiveness ===
There are very few scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals examining the efficacy of DAT in treating autism or other conditions.<ref name=":5" /> Past studies have been found to have fundamental methodological flaws, such as the lack of control groups, small sample size, lack of randomization, selection bias, and the absence of reliability and validity measurements.<ref name=":8" /> Investigator bias has been a problem in studies conducted by Nathanson and others, because most individuals were involved aware of the anticipated or "desired" outcomes.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Humphries |first=Tracy L. |date=May 6, 2003 |title=Effectiveness of Dolphin-Assisted Therapy as a Behavioral Intervention for Young Children with Disabilities |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265286232 |journal=Bridges |volume=1 |issue=6 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Respondent bias has also been a problem in studies where children were selected to participate because their families expressed interested in DAT.<ref name=":12" />
Likely interference of other treatments and the lack of experimental controls for other factors, such as the warmness of the water, or the novelty of having traveled by plane to a new location, are common problems across many studies.<ref name=":12" /> The novelty of dolphins, which most humans don't regularly interact with, is a likely influence on participant behavior as well.<ref name=":12" /> Lori Marino of [[Emory University]] has stated, "Dolphin-assisted therapy is not a valid treatment for any disorder", with no scientific evidence for long-term benefits, and that at best, it affords "fleeting improvements in mood."<ref>{{Cite news |date=December 31, 2007 |title=Dolphin 'therapy' a dangerous fad, Emory researchers warn |work=Health & Medicine Week |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A214216192/AONE?u=wikipedia&sid=ebsco&xid=0642e48b |access-date=2022-11-04 |via=[[Gale OneFile]]}}</ref>
[[File:Spinner dolphins underwater.jpg|thumb|Wild [[
There is limited clinical evidence that dolphin therapy is effective in treating [[Depression (mood)|depression]].<ref name=":4" /> In 2005, psychiatrists from the [[University of Leicester]] published a report in the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' on a study which found that patients with depression experienced significant improvements in mood after swimming and snorkelling with dolphins.<ref name="Laur">{{cite news |last=Laurance |first=Jeremy |date=2005-11-25 |title=Swimming with dolphins 'is good for your soul' |work=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/111222341/swimming-with-dolphins-is-good-for/ |access-date=2022-10-13 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=March–April 2006 |title=Swimming with dolphins |volume=40 |work=The Futurist |issue=2 |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A146549942/AONE?u=wikipedia&sid=ebsco&xid=25bd5fe1 |access-date=2022-10-13 |via=[[Gale OneFile]]}}</ref> During the two-week controlled trial in Honduras, 30 patients discontinued their medical and psychotherapy treatments and participated in water activities instead.<ref name=":1" /> Half the group swam and snorkelled alongside dolphins, while the control group swam and snorkelled only with each other.<ref name="Laur" /> The researchers found that patients who swam with dolphins experienced "greater elevations of mood and longer-lasting effects" than those swimming without dolphins.<ref name=":1" />
In recent years, interest has grown in [[virtual reality therapy]] which simulates swimming with dolphins underwater to reduce the impact of stress for patients with depression, anxiety and psychotic disorders,<ref>{{Cite journal |
== Tourist activity ==
[[File:Child swimming with dolphin.jpg|thumb|Child "swimming" with dolphin]]
Swimming with both captive and wild dolphins has become a popular tourist activity around the world.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Curtin |first=Susanna |date=2006 |title=Swimming with Dolphins: a Phenomenological Exploration of Tourist Recollections |journal=International Journal of Tourism Research |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1002/jtr.577}}</ref> Fascination with dolphins is deep-rooted in many cultures; wild dolphins appear in stories as mythical or god-like creatures with a symbiotic relationship to humans, for example in the legends of pre-historic Africans, ancient Greeks and Romans, and the Maori in New Zealand.<ref name=":6" /> Historical accounts of dolphin-human interaction, particularly around cooperative fishing, have been reported in geographically diverse locations for centuries.<ref name="Orams" /> During the 20th century, there were many cases of solitary wild dolphins who developed friendships with humans and eventually became tourist attractions themselves.<ref name="Orams" />
Modern representations of dolphins in the popular media, such as the 1960s television series ''[[Flipper (1964 TV series)|Flipper]]'';<ref name=":6" /> depictions of happy people swimming with dolphins in advertisements for holiday destinations;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campelo |first1=Adriano |last2=Aitken |first2=Robert |last3=Gnoth |first3=Juergen |date=2011 |title=Visual Rhetoric and Ethics in Marketing of Destinations |journal=Journal of Travel Research |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=3–14 |doi=10.1177/0047287510362777|s2cid=154743350 }}</ref> the belief that dolphins love humans and performing for them;<ref name=":13" /> the rise of wildlife-adventure tourism;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McKay |first=Tracey |date=December 2018 |title=An analysis of the South African adventure tourism industry |url=https://
=== Captive dolphins ===
[[File:Captive dolphins perform tricks for human tourists.jpg|thumb|Captive dolphins performing tricks for tourists]]
Large marine parks in the United States such as [[SeaWorld Orlando|Sea World in Florida]] first started offering a small number of tourists the opportunity to enter their dolphin pools to touch and swim with dolphins in the 20th century.<ref name=":6" /> As of 2006, there were approximately 18 facilities for swimming with dolphins in the United States alone.<ref name=":6" />
In a typical tourist encounter with captive dolphins, a small group of up to twelve people are briefed about how to behave; upon entering the water, dolphins swim past them.<ref name=":6" /> The tourists are then given an opportunity to touch or stroke the dolphins, which perform tricks in exchange for "rewards" from their trainers.<ref name=":6" /> The highlight for most tourists is "the feeling of being dragged along while holding on to the dolphin's fins"; having photos or videos taken during the experience also adds to their enjoyment long afterwards.<ref name=":6" /> Tourism industry studies have concluded that while most tourists taking part in swim-with-dolphin activities are impressed with the "grace, size, and power of dolphins", they tend to feed back that the experience is too short and too staged, and come away with concerns over the dolphins' welfare in captivity.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Curtin |first1=Susanna |last2=Wilkes |first2=Keith |date=2007 |title=Swimming With Captive Dolphins: Current Debates and Post-experience Dissonance |journal=International Journal of Tourism Research |volume=9 |pages=131–146 |doi=10.1002/jtr.577}}</ref><ref name=":6" />
In Hawaii, captive dolphin attractions have become controversial.<ref name=":112">{{Cite news |last=Schaefers |first=Allison |date=May 19, 2017 |title=Of research and dolphins |pages=A1, A10 |work=[[Honolulu Star-Advertiser]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/15982908/honolulu-star-advertiser/ |url-status=live |access-date=2022-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929232352/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/15982908/honolulu-star-advertiser/ |archive-date=September 29, 2022 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> While resorts such as [[The Kahala Hotel & Resort]] and the [[Waikoloa Beach|Hilton Waikoloa Village]] offer tourists with the opportunity to swim with dolphins, newer establishments such as the [[Ko Olina Resort]] have stated that they will not keep captive dolphins.
=== Wild dolphins ===
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=== Health ===
[[File:Dolphin pod.jpg|thumb|Pod of [[Pacific white-sided dolphin
Swimming with dolphins has resulted in stress, injury, and death for dolphins.<ref name="Orams" /> Dolphins are often susceptible to similar respiratory ailments as humans, and swimming in confined spaces can add to mental distress and weaken their immune systems.<ref name=":3" /> Behavioral and wildlife biologist Toni Frohoff has stated that even if dolphins appear to be enjoying their interaction with humans, they may be "performing" out of fear of isolation and punishment.<ref name=":3" />
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== Risks to humans ==
Humans have been injured while swimming with dolphins, which are not domesticated animals. According to ''[[National Geographic]]'' magazine, "Reports in peer-reviewed papers indicate that dolphins have bitten people, rammed into them, or slapped them with their flukes. Even professional dolphin trainers have been charged, butted, bitten, or held down at the bottom of a tank."<ref name=":3" /> Dolphins are able to distinguish between men and women, and can be sexually aggressive towards women.<ref>Linden, E. (1989). An Uneasy Dip with the Dolphins Swimming with Flipper is fun, but is it unwarranted exploitation? TIME Magazine, 134(22), 80.</ref>
Although the shape of the dolphins' jaw is interpreted by many humans as "smiling", dolphins in captivity may in fact be suffering from distress. Wild dolphins may become aggressive when they swim close to boats anticipating snacks, and don't receive any.<ref name=":3" />
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*[[List of dolphinariums]]
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