|
| width =
| partof = the [[Italian War of 1494–1498|First Italian War]]
| image = Battle of1495 Fornoue 6 July 1495.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| alt =
| caption = ''Bataille de Fornoue, 6 juillet 1495'' (oil on canvas by [[Éloi Firmin Féron]], 1837) depicts king [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] on the left and [[Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard|Bayard]] on the right.
| caption =
| date = 6 July 1495
| place = [[Fornovo di Taro|Fornovo]], [[Emilia-Romagna|Emilia]], [[Italy]]
| coordinates = <!--Use the {{coordCoord|44|41|N|10|06|E|type:event_region:IT|display=inline}} template -->
|map_type=Italy
| result = French tactical victory{{sfn|Mallett|Hale|1984|p=56}} ▼|map_size=200
| combatant1 = {{flag|Kingdom of France|valois|name=France}} ▼|map_caption={{centre|Fornovo di Taro, now a ''[[comune]]'' (municipality) in the [[province of Parma]]}}
| combatant2 = [[League of Venice]]:<br />[[File:Coat of Arms of the Republic of Venice.svg|17px]] [[Republic of Venice]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Duchy of Milan (1450).svg}} [[Duchy of Milan]]<br />[[File:Coat of arms of the House of Gonzaga (1433).svg|17px]] [[Margraviate of Mantua]] ▼|map_label=Fornovo di Taro
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|valois}} King [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] ▼▲| result = French tactical victory{{sfn|Mallett|Hale|1984|p=56}}
| commander2 = [[File:Coat of arms of the House of Gonzaga (1433).svg|17px]] [[Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua|Francesco Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua]]{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}} ▼▲| combatant1 = {{flag|[[Kingdom of France| valois|name=France }}]]
| strength1 = 10,000–12,000 men{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303}}<ref>Bernardo Corio, ''Storia di Milano'', p. 585</ref> ▼▲| combatant2 = [[League of Venice]]:<br /> [[File:Coat of Arms of the Republic of Venice.svg|17px]] [[Republic of Venice]]<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Duchy of Milan (1450).svg}} [[Duchy of Milan]]<br /> [[File:Coat of arms of the House of Gonzaga (1433).svg|17px]] [[Margraviate of Mantua]]
| strength2 = 14,000–20,000 men{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}<ref>Bernardo Corio, ''Storia di Milano'', p. 588</ref>
▲| commander1 = {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|valois}} King [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]]
| casualties1 = *1,000 killed, 1,000 captured{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=438}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}<ref>Trevor Dupuy, ''Harper Encyclopedia of Military History'', p. 462</ref><ref>David Nicolle, ''Fornovo 1495 - France's bloody fighting retreat'', p. 43</ref>
▲| commander2 = [[File:Coat of arms of the House of Gonzaga (1433).svg|17px]] [[Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua|Francesco Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua]]{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}
| casualties2 = *2,000-3,500 killed and wounded{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}}<ref>Trevor Dupuy, ''Harper Encyclopedia of Military History'', p. 462</ref><ref>David Nicolle, ''Fornovo 1495 - France's bloody fighting retreat'', p. 43</ref>
| strength1 = 10,000–11,000 men{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303}}{{efn|"The French army of 10,000–11,000 men came down the valley of the Taro towards Parma. Gonzaga had about 20,000 troops...".{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}}}
| units2 = [[Stradioti]] ▼▲| strength1strength2 = 1020, 000–12000–21, 000500 men{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn| NolanDupuy| 20061993|p= 303462}} <ref>Bernardo Corio, ''Storia di Milano'', p. 585</ref>
| casualties1 = * 100–200 killed{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}}{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=462}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}
{{Campaignbox Italian War of 1494–1498}} ▼* 200 wounded{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=462}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}
| casualties2 = * 3,350–4,000 killed{{sfn|Dupuy|1993|p=462}}{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}}
▲| units2 = [[Stradioti]]
▲|campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Italian War of 1494–1498}}
{{Campaignbox Italian Wars}}
The '''Battle of Fornovo''' took place {{convert|30 | km |abbr=in}} (19 miles) southwest of the city of [[Parma]] on 6 July 1495. It was fought as [[Charles VIII of France|King Charles VIII]] of [[Kingdom of France|France]] left [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] upon hearing the news of the grand coalition assembled against him. Despite the numerical advantage of their opponents, the French won the engagement and Charles was able to break through and march his army out of Italy. The battleIt was anonetheless pyrrhicdevoid victoryof becauseany thestrategic Frenchresult abandonedas all of their conquests in the [[Italian Peninsula]] andwere lost all the loot captured during the campaignabandoned. Fornovo was the first bigmajor pitched battle of the [[Italian Wars]]. ▼
==Antecedents==
▲The '''Battle of Fornovo''' took place {{convert|30|km|abbr=in}} southwest of the city of [[Parma]] on 6 July 1495. It was fought as [[Charles VIII of France|King Charles VIII]] of [[Kingdom of France|France]] left [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] upon hearing the news of the grand coalition assembled against him. Despite the numerical advantage of their opponents, Charles was able to break through and march his army out of Italy. The battle was a pyrrhic victory because the French abandoned all of their conquests in the [[Italian Peninsula]] and lost all the loot captured during the campaign. Fornovo was the first big battle of the [[Italian Wars]].
In the year 1495, [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] was the youthful King of France, the most powerful state in medieval Europe. A dreamer who saw himself as the saviour of Christian Europe, he believed he could roll-back the ever-spreading tide of Ottoman Turkish conquest. As a base for his crusade, he was determined to seize Southern Italy. His claim on the [[Kingdom of Naples]] through his paternal grandmother, [[Marie of Anjou]] (1404–1463) presented such an opportunity.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005}}
To have his hands free in Italy, Charles made various pacts with his neighbours, so they would not interfere. [[Henry VII of England]] was given cash,{{sfn|Palmer|1994|p=19}} [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] was given [[Roussillon]] and [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximillian]] was given [[Artois]] and [[Franche-Comté]]. This handing out of territory could be regarded as a total lack of foresight on Charles' behalf but he was willing to take such steps to establish his Neapolitan base for his crusade.
==Background==
In 1495, [[Charles VIII of France]] was king of the most powerful state in medieval Europe. A dreamer who saw himself as the saviour of Christian Europe, he believed he could stem tide of Ottoman conquest. As a base for his crusade, he was determined to seize Southern Italy. His claim on the [[Kingdom of Naples]] through his paternal grandmother, [[Marie of Anjou]] (1404–1463) presented such an opportunity. Charles made pacts with his neighbours, so they would not interfere. [[Henry VII of England]] was given cash, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] was given [[Roussillon]] and [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximillian]] was given [[Artois]] and [[Franche-Comté]].{{sfn|Palmer|1994|p=19}} Italian armies of the late medieval period consisted of forces from the many independent towns of Italy. They were raised by establishing a contract or "condotta", between the town leaders and the chiefs of mercenary bands, who came to be called [[Condottieri]]. Military doctrines and tactics destined to establish field supremacy were developed, as were methods of capture of wealthy prisoners for ransom and astuces to minimize casualties.
==PreludeCampaign==
Charles VIII was on good terms with the two powers in northern Italy, [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], whichand both had encouraged his claim over the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. CharlesThus he assumed he would expectedhave their support when he moved against [[Alfonso II of Naples]], especially as the rival claimant was [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], [[King of Spain]]. At the end of August 1494, in a rapidlightning campaign, he used France's powerful modern army, reinforced by a large contingent of [[Swiss mercenaries]], to sweep through Italy, his mobile field artillery train demolishingsmashing into dust the tall towers of Italy's medieval castles. He was granted free passage through Milan, but was vigorously opposed by [[Florence]], [[Pope Alexander VI]], and [[Naples]].
On their way to Naples, the French defeated every army sent against them and were ruthless with any city that resisted the invasion. This shocked the Italians, who were accustomed to the relatively bloodless wars of the Condottieri. On 22 February 1495, Charles VIII and his chief commander, [[Louis II de La Trémoille]], entered Naples, almost without opposition. The speed and violence of the campaign left the Italians stunned. TheRealization struck them, especially the Venetians and the new Duke of Milan, [[Ludovico Sforza]], realised that unless Charles was stopped, Italy would soon just be another province of France. The Italian states rallied and on March 31 in Venice, the [[League of Venice|Holy League]] was proclaimed. The signatories were the Republic of Venice, the Duke of Milan, the Pope, the monarchs of Castile and Aragon, the King of England and the Holy Roman Emperor. The League engaged a veteran Condottiero, [[Francesco II of Gonzaga]], [[Duke of Mantua]] to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. Upon hearing the news of the coalition assembled against him, Charles left a garrison in Naples and marched north with the remainder of his army, his artillery train and the considerable booty seized in the campaign to join a smaller army under [[Louis II, Duke of Orléans]] in Piedmont in north-western Italy. While in Naples, the French army had been swept by an outbreak of syphilis and as the army moved north, it spread throughout Italy, where it became known as the "French Disease".
==Retreat==
The League engaged a veteran condottiero, [[Francesco II of Gonzaga]], [[Duke of Mantua]] to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. Upon hearing the news of the coalition assembled against him, Charles VIII left behind a garrisoning force in Naples and marched north with the remainder of his army, his artillery train and the considerable booty seized in the campaign thus far in order to join a smaller army under [[Louis II, Duke of Orléans]] in Piedmont in north-western Italy.
[[File:Fornovo-battle-Vaticano.jpg|thumb|The Battle of Fornovo in [[the Gallery of Maps]] ([[Vatican Museums]])]]
On 27 June the Venetians and their allies established camp near [[Fornovo di Taro]] ({{Coord|44|41|N|10|06|E}}), about {{cvt|30|km|mi}} southwest of [[Parma]], to wait for the French. The [[Venetian Senate]] was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize their loot, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle as this was just one French army and others could be called upon. ▼
▲On 27 June the Venetians and their allies established camp near [[Fornovo di Taro]] ({{Coord|44|41|N|10|06|E}}), aboutsome {{cvt|30 | km |mi}} southwest of [[Parma]], to wait for the French. TheThey would not have to wait long, but the [[Venetian Senate]] was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize their loot, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle as this was just one French army and others could potentially be called upon.
On 4 July, [[Ercole d'Este]], Duke of [[Ferrara]], Charles' most powerful Italian ally, wrote to him that the Senate had not yet decided what to do. Charles was anxious about the growing strength of his opponents, while he had no hope of quick reinforcement. An attempt to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians and Charles sent a messenger to request free passage to France but the Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests first. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The forty soldiers Charles sent to reconnoiter were attacked and quickly routed by the [[Stradioti]], mostly Albanian mercenaries from the Balkans.{{sfn|Birtachas|2018|pp=327–328}} ▼
▲On 4 July 4, [[ Ercole I d'Este|Ercole d'Este]], [[Duke of [[Ferrara]], Charles' moststrongest powerfulally Italianin allyItaly, wrote to him and informed him that the Senate had not yet decided whaton toan doaction. But Charles was anxious , aboutseeing the growingenemy strength ofnumbers his opponentsgrowing, while he himself had no hope of quickreinforcements reinforcementfor the time being. AnWhen an attempteffort to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians and, Charles instead sent a messenger to request free passage to return to France , but the Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests firstbefore such could be considered. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The forty40 soldiers Charles subsequently sent to reconnoiter were attacked and quickly routed by the [[Stradioti]], mostly Albanian mercenaries from the Balkans.{{sfn|Birtachas|2018|pp=327–328}}
Two days later, on July 6, Charles decided to offer battle because the French were short of provisions. South of Milan, the path of his army of some 10,000 to 12,000 French and Swiss was blocked by Venetian and Mantuan troops under Gonzaga, whose strength is estimated between 14,000 and 20,000.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303}} The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battles. The first battle consisted of about 2,500 men and was led by [[Gian Giacomo Trivulzio]]. The second and largest was led by Charles and the last battle consisted of about 1,400 men, led by [[Francesco Secco]]. There was also a large infantry force of spearmen. The French artillery was arranged in front of the first line, as well as on the side of the Taro, protecting the second line.
Two days later, on July 6, Charles decided to offer battle because the French were short of provisions. South of Milan, the path of his army of some 10,000 French and Swiss was blocked by 20,000 Venetians and Mantuans under Gonzaga.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=303}} Melchiorre Trevisan promised the League soldiers the spoils of battle if they were victorious, igniting their combat ardor. Francesco Gonzaga divided his forces into nine lines. His battle plan was to distract the first and middle battlesgroups of the French with two lines while outflanking the rear. Once the French battlesgroups were disorganized, the rest of the Italian troops would attack. The League's overall goal was the complete destruction of the French army.{{efn|Malipiero mentions the League's failure to stop the French from reaching Asti.{{sfn|Malipiero|1843|p=353}}{{sfn|Luzio|Renier|1890|p=219}}}}{{sfn|Santosuosso|1994|p=232}}
Instead of the usual feckless and nearly bloodless affair then common in Italian condottieri warfare, the French opened with an artillery bombardment, intending to kill as many of their opponents as possible.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|pp=303–304}} Then they charged with their heavy cavalry, scattering the disordered Italian ranks.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}} The fight was perhaps more memorable for the ineffectiveness of artillery on either side, other than the psychological effect achieved by the French guns. One eyewitness estimated that fewer than 10 men were killed by cannon fire.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}} ▼The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battle groups. The first section consisted of about 2,500 men and was led by Marshal Gie and [[Gian Giacomo Trivulzio]].{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=52}} The second and largest section, led by Englebert of Cleves and Antoine de Bessey, consisted of 3000 infantry, 300 dismounted archers and 200 crossbowman.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=52}} The final section, about 1,750 men, was led by Jean de Foix. There was in addition a large infantry force of spearmen. The French artillery was arranged in front of the first line, as well as on the side of the Taro, protecting the second line.{{sfn|Oman|1987|p=111}} The League's right wing was commanded by Count Caiazzo with 400 Milanes men-at-arms and 2000 infantry, with 180 Bolognese men-at-arms in reserve.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|pp=56–57}} The central division consisted of 492 men-at-arms and 600 mounted crossbowmen under the command of Francesco Gonzaga, while keeping a large contingent of cavalry in reserve.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=57}} The left wing, commanded by Fortebraccio di Montone, had 352 Venetian men-at-arms supported by cavalry.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=57}} Also in the center were 4,000 Venetian foot and 1,000 Mantuan infantry, with a contingent of 600 [[Stradioti]] on the French left flank.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=57}}
▲Instead of the usual feckless and nearly bloodless affair then common in Italian condottieri warfare, theThe French opened with an artillery bombardment, intending to kill as many of their opponents as possible.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|pp=303–304}} Then they charged with their heavy cavalry, destroying and scattering the disordered Italian ranks in just minutes.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}} The fight was perhaps more memorable for the ineffectiveness of artillery on either side, other than the psychological effect achieved by the French guns. {{efn|The French guns stopped firing due to the rain making the powder wet.{{sfn|Santosuosso|1994|p=236}}}} Of the French and Italian casualties,{{efn|[[Paolo Giovio]] states 4,000 casualties for the League and 1,000 for the French, which Santosuosso believes is more accurate.{{sfn|Santosuosso|1994|p=246}}}} Oneone eyewitness estimated that fewer than 10 men were killed by cannon fire.{{sfn|Nolan|2006|p=304}}
The battle began in the early afternoon with an exchange of artillery shells that generated more fear and disorder than casualties. The cavalry on the right wing led by Galeazzo Sanseverino attacked the French vanguard without suffering much damage from enemy artillery, perhaps also due to the conditions of the terrain that made the artillery difficult to maneuver. The French vanguard responded with a charge of the heavy knights led by Trivulzio. Both sides soon found themselves fighting on banks full of ditches, twigs and thorns. The French finally prevailed by sending the Swiss halberdiers against the Milanese cavalry, which was unable to fight on such an unfavorable terrain. In the meantime, Gonzaga's cavalry had attacked, followed by the infantry, the French center and there Rodolfo Gonzaga had fallen. Bernardino Fortebraccio's cavalry had bypassed the French rearguard together with Duodo's stradioti, attacking it on its side, but with a certain delay due to the unusually high water of the river. After an hour of fighting Gonzaga’s troops were repulsed, while the light cavalry of Fortebraccio, after a brief skirmish, together with the stradioti and part of the Venetian infantry, devoted themselves to plundering the enemy baggage.
Fortebraccio, unable to reorganize his men, withdrew from the fray. The Count of Pitigliano conducted the last attacks with little effect. The Venetian administrators and Niccolò Orsini, who took advantage of the opportunity to free himself from the French, tried to convince many fugitives to return by saying that the battle was almost won.<ref>Francesco Guicciardini, ''Storia d'Italia'', p. 9</ref><ref>David Nicolle, ''Fornovo 1495 - France's bloody fighting retreat'', p. 43</ref>
After the battle, Charles then marched on into Lombardy and returned to France.{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}
After more than an hour of fighting, the French sought refuge on a hill. The Venetians willing to pursue them were too few, and both contenders set up camp. The French lost more than a thousand men, while the Venetians more than two thousand, but the nobles on both sides were either isolated or dead.<ref>David Nicolle, ''Fornovo 1495 - France's bloody fighting retreat'', p. 43</ref>
==Result==
Charles lost all his booty, valued at more than 300,000 ducats. A one-day truce was declared to bury the dead. The dead and also the wounded were stripped by the Italian infantry and local inhabitants.
Both parties strove to present themselves as the victors in the battle.{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}} The battle was reported in Venice as a victory, and was recorded and celebrated as such, which included the capture of Mathieu de Bourbon.{{sfn|Santosuosso|1994|pp=248–249}} Regardless of the self-proclamations of victory by League commanders, [[Domenico Malipiero]] recognized that the League failed to stop the French from reaching Asti.{{sfn|Luzio|Renier|1890|p=219}} [[Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua|Francesco Gonzaga]] claimed victory and the ordered the portrait of the ''[[Madonna della Vittoria]]'',{{sfn|Kuiper|2009|p=114}} while the Italian historian [[Francesco Guicciardini]]'s judgement was to award the palm of victory to the French.{{efn|If officially Italians celebrated the Battle of Fornovo as a victory – to the surprise of the French – privately,
Rodolfo Gonzaga, son of the Marquis of Mantua Ludovico III Gonzaga, was among the casualties. On the night after the end of the truce, Charles withdrew with his army from the battlefield, marching on into Lombardy and returning to France.{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=361}}<ref>David Nicolle, ''Fornovo 1495 - France's bloody fighting retreat'', p. 43</ref>
many were not so sure. [[Francesco Guicciardini|Guicciardini’s]] verdict was that ‘general consent awarded the palm to the French’{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}}}}{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}} Privately, Gonzaga confessed to his wife that the battle was a near run thing and that if the French had turned on them, the League's forces would have been destroyed.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=83}} A week later, Bernardino Fortebraccio spoke to the Venetian senate, stating the League's army could have defeated the French if their troops would have stayed in the battle and left the baggage train alone.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|p=84}}
The French had won their battle, fighting off superior numbers and proceeding on their march to Asti.{{efn|The battle of Fornovo, by which Charles forced his way past the enemy who stood in his path, was not an indecisive action but a definite victory for France.{{sfn|Taylor|1921|p=14}}}}{{efn|Santosuosso states the French had won the battle, both strategically and tactically, but not decisively.{{sfn|Santosuosso|1994|p=222}}}}{{sfn|Santosuosso|1994|p=222}}{{sfn|Taylor|1921|p=14}}{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=493–494}}{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}} The League took much higher casualties and could not prevent the French army from crossing Italian lands on its way back to France.{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=493–494}}
==Aftermath==
===Analysis=Consequences==
On the same day ofas the battle was fought, [[Ferdinand II of Naples |Ferdinand II]] appeared before Naples with a Spanish fleet ; andhe re-entered and occupied Naples the following day. He was welcomed with rejoicing by the citizens, as the French had made themselves hated through their behaviour. Pope Alexander VI denounced the French as having committed worse crimes in Italy than had the [[Goths]]. Already under threat of excommunication, Charles VIII was ordered to lay down his arms and promote the peace of Christendom by the Popepope. Alexander also wrote to the Venetians to congratulate them on winning "immortal fame" by their liberation of Italy.{{sfn|Setton|1978| ppp=495–496}} ▼Both parties strove to present themselves as the victors in the battle.{{sfn|Mallett|Shaw|2012|p=31}} Due to the recapture of all the booty looted by Charles' troops and of his baggage train (among the trophies captured were Charles' personal helmet and seal, two royal flags and the French king's personal collection of erotic images), the battle was reported and celebrated in Venice as a victory.<ref>Bradford, Sarah (1976). ''Cesare Borgia''. New York: Macmillan. pp. 49–51</ref> The French army, however, had managed to avoid being encirled and destroyed by the League army and to march back to France, thus fulfilling its objective.{{sfn|Setton|1978|p=493–494}}
Charles left Italy abandoning all his conquests. He attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army, but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the previous one, and he never succeeded in recouping anything substantive. He died two-and-a-half years after his retreat, of an accident, striking his head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later.
▲On the day of the battle, [[Ferdinand II of Naples]] appeared before Naples with a Spanish fleet and re-entered Naples the following day. He was welcomed with rejoicing by the citizens, as the French had made themselves hated through their behaviour. Pope Alexander VI denounced the French as having committed worse crimes in Italy than had the [[Goths]]. Already under threat of excommunication, Charles VIII was ordered to lay down his arms and promote the peace of Christendom by the Pope. Alexander also wrote to the Venetians to congratulate them on winning "immortal fame" by their liberation of Italy.{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=495–496}}
Charles bequeathed a meagre legacy: he left France in debt and in disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic, and having lost several important provinces that it would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian [[humanists]], energizing French art and letters in the latter [[Renaissance]].
===Subsequent events===
Charles left Italy abandoning all his conquests. He attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the campaign and he never succeeded. Charles died two-and-a-half years after his retreat, of an accident, striking his head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later. Charles left France in debt and in disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic and having lost several important provinces that it would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian [[humanists]], energizing French art and letters in the latter [[Renaissance]]. Charles proved to be the last of the elder branch of the [[House of Valois]] and upon his death at Amboise the throne passed to a cousin, the Duc d'Orléans, who reigned as King [[Louis XII of France]], who would try to make good his clearer claim to the Duchy of Milan.
Charles proved to be the last of the elder branch of the [[House of Valois]], and upon his death at Amboise the throne passed to a cousin, the Duc d'Orléans, who reigned as King [[Louis XII of France]], who would try to make good his clearer claim to the [[Duchy of Milan]].
For Italy the consequences were catastrophic. Europe knew now, from Charles' expedition, of an enormously rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities and defended only by mercenary armies that refused to fight at the slightest disadvantage. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, with the result that the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. Only Venice, [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], the [[Papal States]], [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] and [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]] survived as independent nations after the end of the Italian Wars, losing their original power and stability. ▼
▲ForHowever, for Italy the consequences were catastrophic. {{efn|In his work, ''La prima parte dell'historie del suo tempo'', Giovio claimed that Italian soldiers were despised following the Leagues' defeat at Fornovo.{{sfn|Santosuosso|1994|p=221}}}} Europe knew now, from Charles' expedition, of an enormously rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities , and defended only by mercenary armies that refused to fight atwith the slightest disadvantage. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, with the result that the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. Only [[Republic of Venice |Venice]], [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], the [[Papal States]], [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] , and [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]] survivedwould survive as independent nations after the end of the Italian Wars, losing however their original power and stability.
==See also==
* [[Madonna della Vittoria]]
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|20em3}}
==Sources==
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*{{cite journal |title=Francesco Gonzaga alla Battaglia di Fornovo (1495) Secondo I Documenti Mantovani |first1=Alessandro |last1=Luzio |first2=Rodolfo |last2=Renier |journal=Archivio Storico Italiano Serie V |volume=6 |year=1890 |issue=179 |pages=205–246 |publisher=Casa Editrice Leo S. Olschki s.r.l. |language=Italian }}
* {{cite book |last=Nolan |first=Cathal |title=The Age Of Wars Of Religion, 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization A-K |volume=I |year=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport Connecticut |isbn=978-0-313-33733-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mallett |first1=M. E. |last2=Hale |first2=J. R. |series=Cambridge studies in early modern history |title=The ProblemMilitary Organisation of Irelanda inRenaissance TudorState: ForeignVenice Policy,c. 1485–16031400 |first=Williamto |last=Palmer1617 |publisher=TheCambridge BoydellUniversity Press |location=Woodbridge |year=19941984 |isbn=978-0-85115521-56224842-36}}
* {{cite book |lastfirst1=RitchieMichael |firstlast1=RobertMallett |author-linkfirst2=Robert Ritchie (historian)Christine |yearlast2=2004Shaw |titleseries=HistoricalModern AtlasWars ofin Perspective |title=The RenaissanceItalian Wars 1494–1559 |publisher=ThalamusPearson Publishing|location=Harlow |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-8160582-573105758-3 6}}
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* {{cite book |last=Setton |first=Kenneth M. |title=The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The Fifteenth Century |volume=II |year=1978 |publisher=The American philosophical society |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-87169-127-9}}
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* {{cite book |series=Cambridge library collection. European History |title=The Art of War in Italy 1494–1529: Prince Consort Prize Essay 1920 |url=https://archive.org/details/artofwarinitaly100taylrich |via=Archive Foundation |first=Frederick Lewis |last=Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1921 |oclc=967401725}} ▼* {{cite book |editor-first1last=GeorgiosNolan |editor-last1first=Theotokis |editor-first2=Aysel |editor-last2=Yıldız |series=History of Warfare (118)Cathal |title=AThe MilitaryAge HistoryOf ofWars theOf MediterraneanReligion, Sea1000–1650: AspectsAn Encyclopedia of War,Global Diplomacy,Warfare and MilitaryCivilization ElitesA-K |volume=I |year=20182006 |publisher=BrillGreenwood Press |location=Leiden/BostonWestport |edition=e-bookConnecticut |isbn=978-900-04313-3620433733-8}}
*{{cite book |title=A History of The Art of War in the Sixteenth Century |first=Charles |last=Oman |publisher=Stackpole Books |year=1987 }}
▲** {{harvc |last=Birtachas |first=Stathis |c=Stradioti, Cappelletti, Compagnie or Milizie Greche: 'Greek' Mounted and Foot Troops in the Venetian State (Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries) |year=2018 |in1=Theotokis |in2=Yıldız}}
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* {{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&q=spencer+tucker+battle+of+muret&pg=PA269 |title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East |volume=I |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-672-5}} ▼▲* {{cite book | last= DupuyRitchie | first= Trevor N.Robert |author-link= TrevorRobert N.Ritchie Dupuy(historian) |year= 19932004 |title= HarperHistorical EncyclopediaAtlas of MilitaryThe HistoryRenaissance |publisher= [[HarperCollins]]Thalamus Publishing |isbn= 978-0- 068160- 2700565731- 83 }}
*{{cite journal |title=Anatomy of Defeat in Renaissance Italy: The Battle of Fornovo in 1495 |first=Antonio |last=Santosuosso |journal=The International History Review |volume=16, No. 2 (May) |year=1994 |issue=2 |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |pages=221–250 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1994.9640674 }}
*{{The Papacy and the Levant|volume=2}}
▲* {{cite book |series=Cambridge library collection. European History |title=The Art of War in Italy 1494–1529: Prince Consort Prize Essay 1920 |url=https://archive.org/details/artofwarinitaly100taylrich |via=Archive Foundation |first=Frederick Lewis |last=Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1921 |oclc=967401725}}
*{{cite book |editor-first1=Georgios |editor-last1=Theotokis |editor-first2=Aysel |editor-last2=Yıldız |series=History of Warfare (118) |title=A Military History of the Mediterranean Sea: Aspects of War, Diplomacy, and Military Elites |year=2018 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden/Boston |edition=e-book |isbn=978-90-04-36204-8}}
▲* {{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&q=spencer+tucker+battle+of+muret&pg=PA269 |title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East |volume=I |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-672-5}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Battle of Fornovo}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Battles of the Italian Wars|Fornovo 1495]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Republic of Venice|Fornovo 1495]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Duchy of Ferrara|Fornovo]]
[[Category:BattlesMilitary inhistory of Emilia-Romagna|Fornovo]]
[[Category:Italian War of 1494–1495]]
[[Category:Charles VIII of France]]
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