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{{Short description|Harbour estuary in New Zealand}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox body of water
| image = Kaipara Harbour location map.png
| caption = Kaipara Harbour opens onto the [[Tasman Sea]]
▲ | caption = <br />{{center|Kaipara Harbour is a large estuary complex<br />which opens into the Tasman Sea<br /><br />[[File:Northisland NZ Kaipara Harbour detail.png|250px|center]]}}
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
▲ | label = Kaipara Harbour
|location= [[Northland Region|Northland]] and [[Auckland Region|Auckland]] Regions, [[New Zealand]]
|length= <!--{{convert|x|km|2|abbr=on}}-->
|width= <!--{{convert|x|km|2|abbr=on}}-->
|area=
|depth=
|frozen=
|islands=[[Manukapua Island]], Titipu Island, [[Moturemu Island]], [[Ōpāhekeheke Island]], Puharakeke Island, Motukuru Island, Waikauri Island
|coords={{coord|36|25|S|174|13|E|region:NZ_type:waterbody_scale:1000000|display=title,inline}}▼
|rivers= [[Araparera River]], [[Hikurangi River]], [[Hōteo River]], [[Kaihu River]], [[Kaipara River]], [[Kaiwaka River]], [[Kaukapakapa River]], [[Kumeū River]], [[Makarau River]], [[Mangakahia River]], [[Manganui River (Northland)|Manganui River]], [[Mangawai River]], [[Omaru River]], [[Opatu River]], [[Oruawharo River]], [[Otamatea River (Northland)|Otamatea River]], [[Topuni River]], [[Wairoa River (Northland)|Wairoa River]], [[Wairua River]], [[Whakapara River]]
|oceans= [[Tasman Sea]]
|countries= [[New Zealand]]
|settlements= [[Glorit]], [[Helensville]], [[Kaukapakapa]], [[Matakohe]], [[Maungaturoto]], [[Pahi, New Zealand|Pahi]], [[Parakai]], [[Port Albert, New Zealand|Port Albert]], [[Pouto Peninsula|Pouto]], [[Ruawai]], [[Shelly Beach, New Zealand|Shelly Beach]], [[Tapora]], [[Tauhoa]], [[Tinopai]], [[Waioneke]]
|sections= [[Arapaoa River]], [[Tauhoa River]], [[Whakaki River]]
|references=
}}
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According to [[Māori people|Māori]] tradition, the name Kaipara had its origins back in the 15th century when the [[Te Arawa|Arawa]] chief, [[Kahumatamomoe]], travelled to the Kaipara to visit his nephew at [[Pouto Peninsula|Pouto]]. At a feast, he was so impressed with the cooked root of the [[Ptisana salicina|para fern]], that he gave the name Kai-para to the district. ''Kaipara'' comes from the [[Māori language|Māori]] {{lang|mi|kai}} meaning "food", and {{lang|mi|para}} meaning "king fern".<ref name=Byrne>{{cite book|title=The Unknown Kaipara|last=Byrne|first=Brian|isbn=0-473-08831-2|year=2002|page=4}}</ref>
{{clear}}▼
== Geography ==
[[File:Kaipara
The harbour extends for some {{convert|60|km|mi}} from north to south. Several large arms extend into the interior of the peninsula at the northeast of the harbour, one of them ending near the town of [[Maungaturoto]], only ten kilometres (6 mi) from the [[Pacific Ocean]] coast. The harbour has extensive catchments feeding five rivers and over a hundred streams, and includes large estuaries formed by the [[Wairoa River (Northland)|Wairoa]], Otamatea, [[Oruawharo River|Oruawharo]], Tauhoa (Channel) and [[Kaipara River|Kaipara]]. A number of small islands off the shoreline are connected to the mainland by mudflats at low tide.
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The harbour head is a hostile place. Big waves from the Tasman Sea break over large [[Shoal|sandbanks]] about five metres below the surface, two to five kilometres from the shore. The sand in these sandbanks comes mainly from the [[Waikato River]]. Sand discharged from this river is transported northward by the prevailing coastal currents. Some of this sand is carried into the Kaipara harbour entrance, but mostly cycles out again and then continues moving northwards along the west coast. The southern sandbanks at the entrance are constantly accumulating and releasing this sand.<ref name="Bellve et al."/>
These treacherous sandbanks shift and change position, and are known locally as ''the graveyard''. The graveyard is responsible for more shipwrecks than any other place in New Zealand, and has claimed at least 43 vessels—some say as many as 110.<ref>Gerard Hutching. [http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/SeaAndAirTransport/Shipwrecks/3/en ''Shipwrecks: Graveyard harbours''] Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 31 March 2008.</ref><ref>King, Amanda (16 October 2008). "[http://www.times.co.nz/cms/news/2008/10/would_you_call_this_a_school_of_fish_.php Would you call this a school of fish?]." ''Howick and Pakuranga Times''. Retrieved on 7 November 2008.</ref> For this reason, a lighthouse was built in 1884 on the northern arm of the entrance ([[Pouto Peninsula]]).<ref>Ryburn, Wayne (1999). ''Tall spars, steamers & gum : a history of the Kaipara from early European settlement, 1854–1947'', pages 140-144. {{ISBN| 0-473-06176-7}}.</ref> It was automated in 1947 and closed in the mid 1950s. The structure still exists and was renovated in 1982–84.<ref>[http://www.kauricoast.co.nz/history.cfm?par_ListID=1016033 History of the Kauri Coast] Kauri Coast information. Retrieved 5 September 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite rowlett|nz}}</ref>
In [[Māori mythology]], the [[Māori migration canoes|ocean-going canoe]] [[Māhuhu-ki-te-rangi|''Māhuhu'']] voyaged from [[Hawaiki]] to New Zealand and overturned on the northern side of the entrance. It was commanded by the chief [[Rongomai]], who drowned. His body was eaten by [[White trevally|araara]] (white trevally), and his descendants to this day will not eat that type of fish.<ref name="Byrne"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/NgatiWhatua/1/ENZ-Resources/Standard/3/en|title=Poutō, Kaipara Harbour heads|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]}}</ref> The first European shipwreck was the ''Aurora'', a 550-ton barque, in 1840,<ref>Brett, Henry (1928), ''White Wings'' (volume II) [
== Geology ==
The Kaipara Harbour is a [[drowned river valley]] system, which first formed 2-3 million years ago as an open bay, becoming a sheltered harbour as elongated sand dune barriers formed at the harbour's mouth.<ref name="West-Bruce">{{cite book |last1=Hayward |first1=Bruce |author-link1=Bruce Hayward |chapter=Land, Sea and Sky |pages=17–18 |editor-last1=Macdonald |editor-first1=Finlay |editor-link1=Finlay Macdonald (editor) |editor-last2=Kerr |editor-first2=Ruth |title=West: The History of Waitakere |publisher=Random House |date=2009 |isbn=9781869790080}}</ref> Over the last two million years, the harbour has cycled between periods of being a forested river valley and a flooded harbour, depending on changes in the global [[sea level]]. The present harbour formed approximately 8,000 years ago, after the [[Last Glacial Maximum]].<ref name="West-Bruce"/>
▲{{clear}}
== Ecology ==
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[[File:AK 10-0173-001.jpg - Flickr - NZ Defence Force.jpg |thumb|upright=1.2|right| Battery field artillery training at the Kaipara weapons range using [[L118 light gun|105mm British light guns]]]]
The Kaipara Harbour is a productive [[marine ecosystem]], with diverse [[habitat]]s and [[ecotone]]s. There are tidal reaches, [[intertidal]] [[mudflat]]s and sandflats, freshwater [[swamps]], [[Juncaceae|maritime rushes]], [[reed bed]]s and coastal [[scrubland]]s.<ref name="Kaipara Harbour">
<gallery>
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</gallery>
The Kaipara is a [[migratory bird]] habitat of international significance. Forty–two coastal species are known, and up to 50,000 birds are common. Rare species use the harbour for feeding during summer before returning to the Northern Hemisphere to breed, such as the [[bar-tailed godwit]]<!--Limosa lapponica baueri-->, lesser [[red knot|knot]]<!--Calidris canutus canutus-->, and [[turnstone]]<!--Arenaria interpres interpres-->. Threatened or endangered native species, such as the North Island [[fernbird]]<!--Bowdleria punctata vealeae-->, [[New Zealand fairy tern|fairy tern]], [[Porzana|crake]], Australasian [[bittern]]<!--Botaurus stellaris poiciloptus-->, banded [[Rallidae|rail]]<!--Rallus philippensis assimilis-->, grey‑faced [[petrels]]<!--Pterodroma macroptera gouldi-->, banded<!--Charadrius bicinctus bicinctus--> and NZ [[dotterel]]s<!--Charadrius obsurus-->, South Island pied [[oystercatcher]]<!--Haematopus ostralegus finschi-->, [[pied stilt]]<!--H. haematopus leucocephalus-->, and [[wrybill]]<!--Anarhynchus frontalis--> are also present . Significant local populations of [[Cygnus atratus|black swan]], [[
Land habitats adjacent to the harbour support some rare botanical species, including native orchids, the [[Ptisana salicina|king fern]], and the endangered [[kaka beak]]<!--Clinathis puniceus-->.<ref name="Kaipara Harbour"/>
In particular, Papakanui Spit on the south head of the harbour entrance, a mobile [[Sandspit (landform)|sandspit]], is important as a breeding and roosting area for the New Zealand [[dotterel]] and the [[New Zealand fairy tern|fairy tern]]. It also has areas of [[pingao]].<ref>
Auckland Regional Council.</ref>
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Māori settlements and [[marae]] have been scattered around the harbour margins for hundreds of years. The waterways of the Kaipara provided, and still provide, Māori with resources and a ready means of moving between marae.<ref name="Upper Kaipara Harbour"/>
Today most marae are associated with the [[Ngāti Whātua]] sub-tribes, Te Taoū and [[Te Uri-o-Hau]].<ref name="Upper Kaipara Harbour"/> These sub-tribes both descend from the chief Haumoewhārangi who settled on the north end of the Kaipara entrance at [[Pouto Peninsula|Poutō]]. He was killed in an argument about [[kūmara]] (sweet potatoes). His widow Waihekeao developed a partnership with a [[Tainui]] warrior chief, Kāwharu. Kāwharu led several destructive campaigns around Kaipara. Eventually the descendants of Waihekeao and Haumoewhārangi came to control the Kaipara Harbour. Te Uri-o-Hau was founded by Hakiputatōmuri, and controlled the northern part of Kaipara Harbour. Te Taoū was founded by Mawake, and controlled the south.<ref name="Ngāti Whātua">Rāwiri Taonui. [http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/NgatiWhatua/2/en ''Ngāti Whātua: The tribes of Ngāti Whātua''] Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 28-Oct-2008.</ref>
=== European history ===
[[File:Cook_new_zealand.jpg|thumb|Chart of New Zealand explored 1769 and 1770 by Lieut. James Cook, commander of his majesty's barque ''Endeavour''. Showing the Kiapara Harbour named as "False Bay"]]
[[File:Dargaville gumdigger.jpg|thumb
In 1770, on his first voyage, [[James Cook]] sighted and recorded the harbour. He named it ''False Bay'', noting in his journal that it had "the appearance of a Bay or inlet, but I believe it is only low land".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bardsley |first1=Elaine |title=The Natural History of Kaipara Harbour: A Bibliography |url=https://docs.niwa.co.nz/library/public/MPNZOI79.pdf |access-date=15 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=James |title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 8 January 1770 |page=171}}</ref>
In 1839, [[Pakeha settlers|European settlers]] began arriving in the Kaipara to fell and mill kauri trees and build boats for local requirements.<ref name="Upper Kaipara Harbour"/> Despite the perilous bar at the harbour entrance, the Kaipara became a busy timber port from the 1860s, shipping thousands of tonnes of [[kauri|kauri timber]] and [[kauri gum|gum]].<ref Name="Margaret McClure">{{cite web|first=Margaret|last=McClure|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/Places/Auckland/AucklandPlaces/6/en|title=Auckland places: Kaipara Harbour and kauri towns|publisher=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|date=8 May 2008}}</ref> The first sailing ship wrecked at the entrance to the harbour was the [[New Zealand Company ships#Aurora|''Aurora'']] in April 1840.<ref>The Amelia Thompson, White Wings Vol II. Founding of the Provinces And Old-Time Shipping. Passenger Ships From 1840 To 1885, Henry Brett, The Brett Printing Company, 1928, Auckland, pages 51-52</ref> The brigantine ''Sophia Pate'' was wrecked at South Head in August 1841 with the loss of all 21 on board.<ref>Ryburn, Wayne (1999). Tall Spars, Steamers & Gum. Auckland, N.Z.: Kaipara Publications. p. 230. {{ISBN|0-473-06176-7}}</ref>
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Further south, [[Riverhead, New Zealand|Riverhead]] was an important trading link with the Kaipara and Helensville, and a centre for gum digging. Also set by a river, it milled timber and flour, and made paper. Later it turned to tobacco. From 1929 to 1933, the Riverhead State Forest was developed from 5,000 ha of exhausted gum land.<ref Name="Margaret McClure"/>
As the kauri ran out, the Kaipara became a backwater.<ref Name="Margaret McClure"/> After 1920 the gum and timber industries dwindled, and farming, mainly dairying, took over. In particular, there is dairying on the rich [[Ruawai|Ruāwai flats]]. These flats are below sea level, and are protected by a stopbank and a drainage system.<ref name="Dargaville"/> Coastal sawmill settlements at [[Tinopai]], Arapaoa, [[Batley]], [[Matakohe]], Oneriri, Ōruawharo, [[Pahi, New Zealand|Pahi]], [[Paparoa]], Tanoa and Whakapirau
Today, Dargaville is the principal centre in the Kaipara area. Its population levelled in the 1960s. It is the country's main [[kūmara]] (sweet potato) producer.<ref name="Dargaville"/>
[[File:StateLibQld 1 134090 Anglo-Norman (ship).jpg|thumb|Three-masted barque Anglo-Norman aground on Kaipara Bar, New Zealand.]]
===Fisheries===
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The marine and estuarine areas in the Kaipara Harbour breed [[Chrysophrys auratus|snapper]], [[Mugil cephalus|mullet]], [[Rhombosolea|flounder]], [[Peltorhamphus novaezeelandiae|sole]], [[Arripis trutta|kahawai]], [[white trevally]]<!--Caranx georgianus-->, [[Chelidonichthys kumu|gurnard]], [[Aldrichetta forsteri|yellow‑eyed mullet]] and [[Skate (fish)|skate]]s, [[Batoidea|ray]]s and [[shark]]s.<ref name="Conservation">Department of Conservation (1990) ''Coastal resource inventory: First order survey - Northland conservancy.'' Department of Conservation, Wellington.</ref> The Kaipara is the largest estuarine harbour on the west coast of New Zealand and provides significant areas of suitable breeding grounds and [[habitat]]s for juvenile fish. It has fewer problems with water quality than the [[Manukau Harbour|Manukau]], and is the single most significant wetland for west coast fisheries.<ref name="Conservation"/>
In 2009, [[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|NIWA]] scientists discovered that 98 percent of [[Australasian snapper|snapper]] on the west coast of the North Island were originally juveniles from nurseries in the Kaipara. Snapper is New Zealand's largest [[Recreational fishing|recreational fishery]], and is also a [[Commercial fishing|commercial fishery]] with an annual export value of $32 million. The findings show how fragile some [[Fish stocks|fish stock]]s can be, and highlights the importance of protecting natural habitats, like the Kaipara.
Native [[Saccostrea glomerata|rock oysters]] are plentiful on the rocky shores, and the introduced [[Crassostrea gigas|Pacific oysters]] flourish lower in the [[intertidal]] zone. There are [[Austrovenus stutchburyi|cockles]] and [[tuatua]] on the lower tidal flats, [[Perna canaliculus|mussels]] from low tide on the rocks to subtidal beds closer to the mouth of the harbour, and [[scallop]]s in the tidal channels.<ref name="Kaipara Harbour"/>
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The scallop population has periodic incidences of high mortality, the causes of which have not been identified. Concerns in recent years about the size and availability of [[scallop]]s have resulted in temporary closures of the scallop fisheries.<ref>[http://www.infonews.co.nz/news.cfm?l=3&t=45&id=6090 Kaipara Harbour scallop fishery needs more time to build]</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/4726877a6015.html |title=Scallops under threat |date=14 October 2008 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>
Early versions of [[oyster farming]] occurred between the early 1900s and 1950s. Thousands of tons of rocks were placed along the shorelines to act as an additional [[Substrate (biology)|substrate]] on which the natural rock oyster could grow.<ref name="Kaipara Harbour"/><ref>[
In recent years, there has been a perception amongst locals that [[commercial fishing|commercial fishers]] have damaged [[fisheries]] in the Kaipara. Locals have been frustrated in their attempts to gain government support. The veteran filmmaker [[Barry Barclay]] has examined this in his 2005 documentary, ''The Kaipara affair''.<ref name="Upper Kaipara Harbour">Claudia Orange. [http://www.teara.govt.nz/Places/Northland/NorthlandPlaces/14/en ''Northland places:Upper Kaipara Harbour''] Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 8-May-2008</ref><ref>[http://www.nzff.co.nz/n2608.html The Kaipara affair] NZ International Film Festival.</ref><ref>[http://www.filmarchive.org.nz/feature-project/pages/Kaipara-Affair.php The Kaipara Affair] The Film Archives.</ref>
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===Tidal power===
{{externalimage|
|image1=[http://www.crest-energy.com/images/large/q005.jpg Kaipara Harbour main channel]<ref name="Crest gallery">[http://www.crest-energy.com/gallery.htm Photo gallery of Kaipere Harbour] – Crest Energy.</ref>
|image2=[http://www.crest-energy.com/images/large/q085.jpg Proposed cable and turbines]<ref name="Crest gallery"/>
}}
{{Main|Kaipara Tidal Power Station}}
{{See also|Ocean power in New Zealand}}{{Update section|date=June 2021}}
In 2008, Crest Energy, a power company, received [[resource consent]] to install about 200 underwater [[Tidal stream generator|tidal turbines]] in the Kaipara Harbour, which would use the substantial [[tides|tidal flows]] moving in and out every day near the harbour mouth to produce electricity for approximately 250,000 homes.<ref name="Crest Energy">[http://www.crest-energy.com/ Crest Energy]</ref>
Crest
The peak level of generation for the combined turbines is about 200 MW. This exceeds the projected peak electricity needs of [[Northland Region|Northland]]. It would have environmental benefits in offsetting annual carbon emissions from a thermal-based, gas turbine generator of 575,000 tonnes of carbon.<ref name="Bellve et al."/> The project
However, while the Department of Conservation
==Management issues==
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As part of the worldwide trend, there is a decline in [[biodiversity]] within the Kaipara.<ref name="IKHMG">[http://www.kaiparaharbour.net.nz/management/issue.asp?PublicationIssues_ID=8 ''Management issues'']. Integrated Kaipara Harbour Management Group.</ref> The timber industry removed most of the native forest. Much of the [[kauri]] and [[kahikatea]] forest, and scrub and riparian vegetation, has been replaced with farm and urban areas. Mangrove forests and wetlands have been "reclaimed". Soil erosion has increased on the land and sedimentation in the harbour. Shellfish abundance has declined, especially toheroa, scallops, tuatua, cockles and pipi. Finfish like mullet, snapper, kanae and school shark have diminished.<ref name="IKHMG"/>
[[Habitat fragmentation]] has also occurred. Natural vegetation in the Kaipara catchments have been reduced to islands of wetlands and forest in
==Timeline==
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* [[Pouto Peninsula]]
* [[Alan Gibbs]] - Gibbs Farm
{{Clear}}
==References==
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* Diggle, E and Diggle, KGL (2007 8th ed) ''New Zealand Shipwrecks: Over 200 Years of Disasters at Sea.'' Hachette Livre. {{ISBN|978-1-86971-093-4}}
* Haggit T, Mead S and M Bellingham (2008) [http://www.arc.govt.nz/plans/technical-publications/technical-publications-351-373.cfm Review of Environmental Information on the Kaipara Harbour] ARC Technical Publication TP 354 (9 parts).
* Paulin CD and Paul LJ (2006) [http://www.tepapa.govt.nz/sitecollectiondocuments/tuhinga/tuhinga.17.1.paulin.pdf "The Kaipara mullet fishery: nineteenth-century management issues revisited"] ''Tuhinga'', '''17''': 1–26.
* Scott, Dick (1988) ''Seven Lives on Salt River.'' Hodder & Stoughton/Southern Cross. {{ISBN|978-0-340-49296-3}} (explores seven early families who lived on the shores of the Pahi and Arapāoa rivers).
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==External links==
* [http://www.kaiparaharbour.net.nz/ Integrated Kaipara Harbour Management Group]
*[https://kmr.org.nz/ Kaipara Moana Remediation Programme]
* [http://www.mahingakai.org.nz/ Te Tiaki Mahinga Kai] – coalition of Māori environmental guardians supporting the management of customary fishing areas.
* [http://www.bluegreenpictures.com/perl/Cyan.pl?mode=view;inum=102504;lightbox=201 Kaipara lighthouse 1884, NZ]
▲{{coord|36|25|S|174|13|E|region:NZ_type:waterbody_scale:1000000|display=title}}
[[Category:Geography of the Auckland Region]]
[[Category:Geography of the Northland Region]]
[[Category:Kaipara District]]
▲[[Category:Rodney District]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of New Zealand]]
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