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{{Use American English|date=October 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Psychology sidebar
'''Behaviorism''' is a systematic approach to understand the behavior of humans and other animals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 June 2023 |title=Behaviourism | Classical & Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement & Shaping | Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/behaviourism-psychology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Araiba |first=Sho |date=June 2019 |title=Current diversification of behaviorism |journal=[[Perspectives on Behavior Science]] |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=157–175 |doi=10.1007/s40614-019-00207-0 |pmc=7198672 |pmid=32440649}}</ref> It assumes that behavior is either a [[reflex]] elicited by the pairing of certain [[antecedent (behavioral psychology)|antecedent stimuli]] in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially [[reinforcement (psychology)|reinforcement]] and [[punishment (psychology)|punishment]] [[three-term contingency|contingencies]], together with the individual's current [[Motivation|motivational state]] and [[Stimulus control|controlling stimuli]]. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of [[heredity]] in determining behavior, deriving from Skinner's three levels of selection: phylogeny, ontogeny, and culture,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tryon |first=Warren W. |date=2002 |title=Expanding the explanatory base of behavior analysis via modern connectionism: Selectionism as a common explanatory core. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0099963 |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=104–118 |doi=10.1037/h0099963 |issn=1539-4352}}</ref> they focus primarily on environmental events. The [[cognitive revolution]] of the late 20th century largely replaced behaviorism as an explanatory theory with [[cognitive psychology]], which unlike behaviorism views internal mental states as explanations for observable behavior.
Behaviorism emerged in the early 1900s as a reaction to [[depth psychology]] and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally. It was derived from earlier research in the late nineteenth century, such as when [[Edward Thorndike]] pioneered the [[law of effect]], a procedure that involved the use of consequences to strengthen or weaken behavior.
With a 1924 publication, [[John B. Watson]] devised methodological behaviorism, which rejected [[introspection|introspective methods]] and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until 1945 that [[B. F. Skinner]] proposed that covert behavior—including [[cognition]] and [[emotion]]s—are subject to the same controlling variables as observable behavior,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skinner |first=B.F. |date=1945 |title=The operational analysis of psychological terms. Psychological Review, 52(5), 270–277 |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1946-00034-001 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=270–277 |doi=10.1037/h0062535 |via=APA}}</ref>
The application of radical behaviorism—known as [[applied behavior analysis]]—is used in a variety of contexts, including, for example, applied animal behavior and [[organizational behavior management]] to treatment of mental disorders, such as [[autism]] and [[substance abuse]].<ref name="JABA1968">{{Cite journal |
==Branches of behaviorism==
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B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of the [[experimental analysis of behavior]]. This viewpoint differs from other approaches to behavioral research in various ways, but, most notably here, it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors also subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism, it rejects the reflex as a model of all behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical positions, such as American [[pragmatism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moxley |first=R.A. |year=2004 |title=Pragmatic selectionism: The philosophy of behavior analysis |url=http://www.baojournal.com |format=PDF |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=108–25 |doi=10.1037/h0100137 |access-date=2008-01-10}}</ref>
Although John B. Watson mainly emphasized his position of methodological behaviorism throughout his career, Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the infamous [[Little Albert experiment]] (1920), a study in which [[Ivan Pavlov]]'s [[Classical conditioning#Forward conditioning|theory]] to respondent conditioning was first applied to eliciting a fearful reflex of crying in a human infant, and this became the launching point for understanding covert behavior (or private events) in ''radical'' behaviorism
In 1959, Skinner observed the emotions of two pigeons by noting that they appeared angry because their feathers ruffled. The pigeons were placed together in an operant chamber, where they were aggressive as a consequence of previous [[reinforcement (psychology)|reinforcement]] in the environment. Through [[stimulus control]] and subsequent discrimination training, whenever Skinner turned off the green light, the pigeons came to notice that the food [[extinction (psychology)|reinforcer is discontinued]] following each peck and responded without aggression. Skinner concluded that humans also learn aggression and possess such emotions (as well as other private events) no differently than do nonhuman animals.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}
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==Experimental and conceptual innovations==
As experimental behavioural psychology is related to [[behavioral neuroscience]], we can date the first researches in the area were done in the beginning of 19th century.<ref>Behavioral Neuroscience, APA, 1807</ref> Later, this essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books ''The Behavior of Organisms'' and ''Schedules of Reinforcement.''<ref name="Skinner1938 Organisms">{{Cite book |last=Skinner |first=B.F. |author-link=B.F. Skinner |title=The Behavior of Organisms |title-link=The Behavior of Organisms |publisher=[[Appleton-Century-Crofts]] |year=1938 |isbn=978-0-87411-487-4 |publication-place=New York, NY |page=473}}</ref>
▲Later, this essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books ''The Behavior of Organisms''<ref name="Skinner1938 Organisms">{{Cite book |last=Skinner |first=B.F. |author-link=B.F. Skinner |title=The Behavior of Organisms |title-link=The Behavior of Organisms |publisher=[[Appleton-Century-Crofts]] |year=1938 |isbn=978-0-87411-487-4 |publication-place=New York, NY |page=473}}</ref> and ''Schedules of Reinforcement''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cheney, Carl D. |title=Schedules of Reinforcement (B.F. Skinner Reprint Series) |last2=Ferster, Charles B. |publisher=Copley Publishing Group |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-87411-828-5 |location=Acton, MA |page=758}}</ref> Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and [[S–R theory]].
Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on [[trial-and-error]] learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so-called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work ''Are Theories of Learning Necessary?'' in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the [[Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Commons |first=M.L. |year=2001 |title=A short history of the Society for the Quantitative Analysis of Behavior |url=http://www.baojournal.com |format=PDF |journal=Behavior Analyst Today |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=275–9 |doi=10.1037/h0099944 |access-date=2008-01-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thornbury |first=Scott |date=1998 |title=The Lexical Approach: A journey without maps |url=http://nebula.wsimg.com/9129eed8a13130f4ee92cf2c3ce5b13e?AccessKeyId=186A535D1BA4FC995A73&disposition=0&alloworigin=1 |journal=Modern English Teacher |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=7–13}}</ref>
==Relation to language==
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Skinner |first=Burrhus Frederick |title=Verbal Behavior |publisher=Copley Publishing Group |year=1957 |isbn=978-1-58390-021-5 |location=Acton, Massachusetts}}</ref> and other language-related publications;<ref name="Skinner1969 Contingencies of reinforcement">{{Cite book |last=Skinner |first=B. F. |title=Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-13-171728-2 |publication-place=Englewood Cliffs, N.J |pages=133–157 |chapter=An operant analysis of problem-solving |oclc=12726275}}</ref> ''Verbal Behavior'' laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by [[Noam Chomsky]].<ref>{{Cite journal |
Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skinner |first=B.F. |year=1972 |title=I Have Been Misunderstood. |journal=Center Magazine |issue=March–April |page=63}}</ref> and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.<ref name="MacCorquodale1970">{{Cite journal |last=MacCorquodale |first=K. |year=1970 |title=On Chomsky's Review of Skinner's VERBAL BEHAVIOR |url=https://www.behavior.org/computer-modeling/maccorquodale/maccorquodale2.cfm |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=83–99 |doi=10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83 |pmc=1333660 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106061500/http://www.behavior.org/computer-modeling/maccorquodale/maccorquodale2.cfm |archive-date=2009-01-06 |access-date=2008-01-10}}</ref><ref name="pmid2103585">{{Cite journal |last=Stemmer |first=N. |year=1990 |title=Skinner's verbal behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism |journal=J Exp Anal Behav |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=307–15 |doi=10.1901/jeab.1990.54-307 |pmc=1323000 |pmid=2103585}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmer |first=David C |date=2006 |title=On Chomsky's Appraisal of Skinner's Verbal Behavior: A Half Century of Misunderstanding |journal=The Behavior Analyst |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=253–267 |doi=10.1007/BF03392134 |issn=0738-6729 |pmc=2223153 |pmid=22478467}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmer |first=David C. |date=2000 |title=Chomsky's nativism: A critical review |journal=The Analysis of Verbal Behavior |volume=17 |pages=39–50 |doi=10.1007/BF03392954 |issn=0889-9401 |pmc=2755455 |pmid=22477212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Virués-Ortega |first=Javier |date=2006 |title=The Case Against B. F. Skinner 45 years Later: An Encounter with N. Chomsky |journal=The Behavior Analyst |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=243–251 |doi=10.1007/BF03392133 |issn=0738-6729 |pmc=2223151 |pmid=22478466}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Adelman |first=Barry Eshkol |date=December 2007 |title=An Underdiscussed Aspect of Chomsky (1959) |journal=The Analysis of Verbal Behavior |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=29–34 |doi=10.1007/BF03393044 |issn=0889-9401 |pmc=2774611 |pmid=22477378}}</ref> [[Innateness hypothesis|Innateness theory]], which has been heavily critiqued,<ref>{{Cite journal |
==Education==
{{See also|Philosophy of education#Realism}}
B. F. Skinner's book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' (1957) does not quite emphasize on language development, but to understand human behavior. Additionally, his work serves in understanding social interactions in the child's early developmental stages focusing on the topic of caregiver-infant interaction.<ref name="McLaughlin 2010 114–131">{{Cite journal |last=McLaughlin |first=Scott F. |date=2010 |title=Verbal behavior by B.F. Skinner: Contributions to analyzing early language learning. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0100272 |journal=The Journal of Speech and Language Pathology – Applied Behavior Analysis |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=114–131 |doi=10.1037/h0100272 |issn=1932-4731}}</ref> Skinner's functional analysis of verbal behavior terminology and theories is commonly used to understand the relationship between language development but was primarily designed to describe behaviors of interest and explain the cause of those behaviors.<ref name="McLaughlin 2010 114–131" /> [[Noam Chomsky]], an American linguistic professor, has criticized and questioned Skinner's theories about the possible suggestion of parental tutoring in language development. However, there is a lack of supporting evidence where Skinner makes the statement.<ref name="McLaughlin 2010 114–131" /> Understanding language is a complex topic but can be understood through the use of two theories: innateness and acquisition. Both theories offer a different perspective whether language is inherently "acquired" or "learned".<ref>{{Citation |last=Ariew |first=André |title=INNATENESS |date=2007 |work=Philosophy of Biology |pages=567–584 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444515438500265 |access-date=2023-12-09 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-044451543-8/50026-5 |isbn=978-0-444-51543-8}}</ref>
==Operant conditioning==
{{main|Operant conditioning||}}
[[Operant conditioning]] was developed by [[B.F. Skinner]] in 1938 and is form of learning in which the frequency of a behavior is controlled by consequences to change behavior.<ref name="Murphy 165–194">{{Citation |
The following descriptions explains the concepts of four common types of consequences in operant conditioning:<ref name="CooperABA">{{Cite book |
* '''Positive reinforcement''': Providing a stimulus that an individual enjoys, seeks, or craves, in order to reinforce desired behaviors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chance |first=Paul |title=Learning and Behavior |publisher=Jon-David Hague |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-111-83277-3 |location=Belmont, CA |pages=133}}</ref> For example, when a person is teaching a dog to sit, they pair the command "sit" with a treat. The treat is the positive reinforcement to the behavior of sitting. The key to making positive reinforcement effect is to reward the behavior immediately.
* '''Negative reinforcement''': Increases the frequency of a behavior, but the behavior results from removing unpleasant or unwanted stimulus.<ref name="Murphy 165–194" /> For example, a child hates being nagged (negative) to clean his room (behavior) which increases the frequency of the child cleaning his room to prevent his mother from nagging. Another example would be putting on sunscreen (behavior) before going outside to prevent sunburn (negative).
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==In philosophy==
{{main|Logical behaviorism}}
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with [[philosophy of mind]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schlinger |first=Henry D. |date=2009-07-01 |title=Theory of Mind: An Overview and Behavioral Perspective |url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=tpr |journal=The Psychological Record |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=435–448 |doi=10.1007/BF03395673 |issn=2163-3452 |s2cid=145671713}}</ref><ref>Moore, J. (2013). Mentalism as a Radical Behaviorist Views It — Part 1. The Journal of Mind and Behavior. Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 133-164.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43854332?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents]</ref><ref>Moore, J. (2013). Mentalism as a Radical Behaviorist Views It — Part 2. The Journal of Mind and Behavior. Vol. 34, No. 3/4, pp. 205-232.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43854394?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents]</ref> The basic premise of behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a [[natural science]], such as [[chemistry]] or [[physics]].<ref name="Catania">[[A. Charles Catania|Catania, A. C.]] (2013). A natural science of behavior. ''Review of General Psychology, 17''(2), 133-139.[https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033026]</ref><ref name="Jackson">Jackson, M. (2009). The natural selection: behavior analysis as a natural science. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 10:2, 103-118.[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15021149.2009.11434313]</ref> Initially behaviorism rejected any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior, but B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism reintroduced reference to inner states and also advocated for the study of thoughts and feelings as behaviors subject to the same mechanisms as external behavior.<ref name="Catania" /><ref name="Jackson" /> Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. According to [[Edmund Fantino]] and colleagues: "Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral approach."<ref name="Fantino2003">{{Cite journal |
Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within [[philosophy of language]] and [[analytic philosophy]]. It is sometimes argued that [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] defended a [[Logical behaviorism|logical behaviorist]] position<ref name="SEP">{{cite SEP |url-id=behaviorism |title=Behaviorism}}</ref> (e.g., the ''[[Philosophical Investigations#Wittgenstein's beetle|beetle in a box]]'' argument). In [[logical positivism]] (as held, e.g., by [[Rudolf Carnap]]<ref name=SEP/> and [[Carl Hempel]]),<ref name=SEP/> the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. [[W. V. O. Quine]] made use of a type of behaviorism,<ref name=SEP/> influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Quine's work in semantics differed substantially from the empiricist semantics of Carnap which he attempted to create an alternative to, couching his semantic theory in references to physical objects rather than sensations. [[Gilbert Ryle]] defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book ''The Concept of Mind''.<ref name=SEP/> Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "[[category mistake]]s", and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. [[Daniel Dennett]] likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist,<ref name="Ref-1">{{Cite web |last=Dennett |first=D.C. |author-link=Daniel Dennett |title=The Message is: There is no Medium |url=http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/msgisno.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111100055/http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/msgisno.htm |archive-date=11 January 2008 |access-date=2008-01-10 |publisher=Tufts University}}</ref> though he offers extensive criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility of free will.<ref name="Dennett1981">{{Cite book |last=Dennett |first=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xwObaAZEwoC&pg=PA53 |title=Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology |publisher=MIT Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-262-54037-7 |series=Bradford Books |page=53 |lccn=78013723}}</ref>
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===Law of effect and trace conditioning===
* '''[[Law of effect]]''': Although [[Edward Thorndike]]'s methodology mainly dealt with reinforcing observable behavior, it viewed [[mentalism|cognitive]] antecedents as the causes of behavior,<ref name="BehaviorAnalysisLearning">{{Cite book |
* '''[[Classical conditioning#Forward conditioning|Trace conditioning]]''': Akin to B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism, it is a [[classical conditioning|respondent conditioning]] technique based on [[Ivan Pavlov]]'s concept of a "memory trace" in which the observer recalls the [[conditioned stimulus]] (CS), with the memory or recall being the [[unconditioned response]] (UR). There is also a time delay between the CS and [[unconditioned stimulus]] (US), causing the [[conditioned response]] (CR)—particularly the [[reflex]]—to be faded over time.<ref name=BehaviorAnalysisLearning/> According to Marchand,<ref>{{Cite journal |
===Molecular versus molar behaviorism===
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== Behavior analysis and culture ==
From its inception, behavior analysis has centered its examination on cultural occurrences ([[B. F. Skinner|Skinner]], 1953,<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1954 |title=Skinner, B. F. Science and human behavior. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953. 461 P. $4.00 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sce.37303805120 |journal=Science Education |language=en |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=436 |bibcode=1954SciEd..38S.436. |doi=10.1002/sce.37303805120 |issn=0036-8326}}</ref> 1961,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Metzger |first=Duane |date=1963 |title=The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self-Instruction. James G. Holland and B. F. Skinner |url=https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/aa.1963.65.1.02a00410 |journal=American Anthropologist |language=en |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=179–183 |doi=10.1525/aa.1963.65.1.02a00410 |issn=0002-7294}}</ref> 1971,<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1973 |title=Beyond Freedom and Dignity: By B. F. Skinner New York, Allred A. Knopf, 1972. 225 pp. $6.95 |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/004057367303000115 |journal=Theology Today |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=80 |doi=10.1177/004057367303000115 |issn=0040-5736 |s2cid=220985103}}</ref> 1974<ref>{{Cite journal |
== Behavior informatics and behavior computing ==
With the fast growth of big behavioral data and applications, behavior analysis is ubiquitous. Understanding behavior from the informatics and computing perspective becomes increasingly critical for in-depth understanding of what, why and how behaviors are formed, interact, evolve, change and affect business and decision. [[Behavior informatics]] and [[behavior computing]] deeply explore behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.
Pavel et al. (2015) found that in the realm of [[Health care|healthcare]] and [[health psychology]], substantial evidence supports the notion that personalized health interventions yield greater effectiveness compared to standardized approaches. Additionally, researchers found that recent progress in sensor and communication technology, coupled with data analysis and computational modeling, holds significant potential in revolutionizing interventions aimed at changing health behavior. Simultaneous advancements in sensor and communication technology, alongside the field of [[data science]], have now made it possible to comprehensively measure behaviors occurring in real-life settings. These two elements, when combined with advancements in computational modeling, have laid the groundwork for the emerging discipline known as [[Behavior informatics|behavioral informatics]]. Behavioral informatics represents a scientific and engineering domain encompassing behavior tracking, evaluation, computational modeling, deduction, and intervention.<ref>{{Cite journal |
== Criticisms and limitations ==
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In more recent years, several scholars have expressed reservations about the pragmatic tendencies of behaviorism.
* Burgos (2003) highlights the potential peril of pragmatism, noting that within [[William James]] pragmatism—widely discussed in philosophy and science, including behaviorism and behavior analysis—there exists a tolerance for anything deemed useful, even if nonsensical.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burgos |first=José E. |date=2003 |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=S. C. |editor2-last=Barnes-Holmes |editor2-first=D. |editor3-last=Roche |editor3-first=B. |title=Laudable Goals, Interesting Experiments, Unintelligible Theorizing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27759445 |journal=Behavior and Philosophy |volume=31 |pages=19–45 |issn=1053-8348 |jstor=27759445}}</ref> Additionally, Burgos (2007) contends that pragmatism engenders a relativism that contradicts the emphasis on science as the paramount path to knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |
* Staddon (2018, as cited in Araiba, 2019) further argues that the proliferation of diversification in [[social science]] poses disadvantages by hindering healthy and open scientific communication and critique among specialized areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Araiba |first=Sho |date=2020 |title=Current Diversification of Behaviorism |journal=Perspectives on Behavior Science |language=en |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=157–175 |doi=10.1007/s40614-019-00207-0 |issn=2520-8969 |pmc=7198672 |pmid=32440649}}</ref>
* Rider (1991) shares a similar concern, highlighting reduced communication between the experimental analysis of behavior and [[applied behavior analysis]]. Contrarily, diversification is portrayed as an innate and uncontrollable consequence of the environment, a natural facet contributing to species' survival. It is viewed as an integral aspect of the evolution of behaviorism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rider |first=David P. |date=1991 |title=The Speciation of Behavior Analysis |journal=The Behavior Analyst |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=171–181 |doi=10.1007/BF03392567 |issn=0738-6729 |pmc=2733502 |pmid=22478096}}</ref>
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[[Applied behavior analysis]] (ABA)—also called behavioral engineering—is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of behavior analysis to change behavior. ABA derived from much earlier research in the ''[[Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior]]'', which was founded by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues at [[Harvard University]]. Nearly a decade after the study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) was published in that journal, which demonstrated how effective the [[token economy]] was in reinforcing more adaptive behavior for hospitalized patients with [[schizophrenia]] and [[intellectual disability]], it led to researchers at the [[University of Kansas]] to start the ''[[Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis]]'' in 1968.
Although ABA and [[behavior modification]] are similar behavior-change technologies in that the learning environment is modified through respondent and operant conditioning, behavior modification did not initially address the causes of the behavior (particularly, the environmental stimuli that occurred in the past), or investigate solutions that would otherwise prevent the behavior from reoccurring. As the evolution of ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s, functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify the function of that behavior, so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement contingencies will be most effective and less likely for [[aversive]] [[punishment]]s to be administered.<ref name="JEAB2010">{{Cite journal |
The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also continues to develop.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kellaway |first=Lucy |date=7 January 2015 |title=My team gets more excited by loo roll than business budgets: Work problems answered |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a06bab2a-8ab7-11e4-8e24-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3sEMws3TI |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210221258/https://www.ft.com/content/a06bab2a-8ab7-11e4-8e24-00144feabdc0#axzz3sEMws3TI |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |location=London |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Eyres |first=Harry |date=19 December 2009 |title=Peaks in a trough year: The Slow Lane |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/ec975ad6-e9cb-11de-ae43-00144feab49a,Authorised=false.html?siteedition=uk&_i_location=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fec975ad6-e9cb-11de-ae43-00144feab49a.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&_i_referer=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3DPeaks%2Bin%2Ba%2Btrough%2BEYRES&classification=conditional_standard&iab=barrier-app |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |page=22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Stern |first=Stefan |date=5 August 2008 |title=Keep up motivation levels through long summer days |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658,Authorised=false.html?siteedition=uk&_i_location=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&_i_referer=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3DKeep%2Bup%2Bmotivation%2Blevels%2Bstern&classification=conditional_standard&iab=barrier-app#axzz3sEMws3TI |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122232423/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658,Authorised=false.html?siteedition=uk&_i_location=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F8e995bca-6284-11dd-9a1e-000077b07658.html%3Fsiteedition%3Duk&_i_referer=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fsearch.ft.com%2Fsearch%3FqueryText%3DKeep%2Bup%2Bmotivation%2Blevels%2Bstern&classification=conditional_standard&iab=barrier-app#axzz3sEMws3TI |archive-date=2015-11-22 |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |location=London |page=12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Skapinker |first=Michael |date=11 December 2002 |title=Human capitalism: Does treating workers well help business too? A PwC report provides some evidence |work=Financial Times |location=London |page=22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Skapinker |first=Michael |date=9 April 2013 |title=The 50 ideas that shaped business today |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/90c6cac0-a02f-11e2-88b6-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3sEMws3TI |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210221215/https://www.ft.com/content/90c6cac0-a02f-11e2-88b6-00144feabdc0#axzz3sEMws3TI |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=22 November 2015 |work=Financial Times |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=24 October 2015 |title=Reinventing the deal; American capitalism |
The field of [[Animal training|applied animal behavior]]—a sub-discipline of ABA that involves training animals—is regulated by the Animal Behavior Society, and those who practice this technique are called applied animal behaviorists. Research on applied animal behavior has been frequently conducted in the ''Applied Animal Behaviour Science'' journal since its founding in 1974.
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===Cognitive-behavior therapy===
{{main|Cognitive-behavior therapy}}
[[Cognitive-behavioral therapy|Cognitive-behavior therapy]] (CBT) is a behavior therapy discipline that often overlaps considerably with the clinical behavior analysis subfield of ABA, but differs in that it initially incorporates cognitive restructuring and emotional regulation to alter a person's cognition and emotions. Various forms of CBT have been used to treat physically experienced symptoms that disrupt individuals' livelihood, which often stem from complex mental health disorders. Complications of many trauma-induced disorders result in lack of sleep and nightmares, with cognitive behavior therapy functioning as an intervention found to reduce the average number of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] patients suffering from related sleep disturbance.<ref>{{Cite journal |
A popularly noted counseling intervention known as [[dialectical behavior therapy]] (DBT) includes the use of a chain analysis, as well as cognitive restructuring, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement). DBT is quite similar to acceptance and commitment therapy, but contrasts in that it derives from a CBT framework. Although DBT is most widely researched for and empirically validated to reduce the risk of suicide in psychiatric patients with [[borderline personality disorder]], it can often be applied effectively to other mental health conditions, such as substance abuse, as well as mood and eating disorders. A study on BPD was conducted, confirming DBT as a constructive therapeutic option for emotionally unregulated patients. Before DBT, participants with borderline personality disorder were shown images of highly emotional people and neuron activity in the [[amygdala]] was recorded via [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]]; after 1 year of consistent dialectical behavior therapy, participants were re-tested, with fMRI capturing a decrease in amygdala hyperactivity (emotional activation) in response to the applied stimulus, exhibiting increases in emotional regulation capabilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |
Most research on exposure therapies (also called desensitization)—ranging from [[eye movement desensitization and reprocessing|eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy]] to [[exposure and response prevention]]—are conducted through a CBT framework in non-behavior analytic journals, and these enhanced exposure therapies are well-established in the research literature for treating phobic, [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|post-traumatic stress]], and other anxiety disorders (such as [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], or OCD).
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* Watson, J.B. (1924). ''Behaviorism''.
* Zuriff, G.E. (1985). [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=86092256 ''Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624073146/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=86092256 |date=24 June 2011 }}, Columbia University Press.
* {{Cite book |
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