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{{Short description|Systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals}}
{{Distinguish|Behavioralism}}
{{Psychology sidebar |basic}}▼
{{Use American English|date=October 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
'''Behaviorism'''
Behaviorism emerged in the early 1900s as a reaction to [[depth psychology]] and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally
With a 1924 publication, [[John B. Watson]] devised methodological behaviorism, which rejected [[introspection|introspective methods]] and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until
The application of radical behaviorism—known as [[applied behavior analysis]]—is used in a variety of contexts, including, for example, applied animal behavior and [[organizational behavior management]] to treatment of mental disorders, such as [[autism]] and [[substance abuse]].<ref name="JABA1968">{{
==Branches of behaviorism==
The titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:
* [[Behavioral genetics]]: Proposed in 1869 by [[Francis Galton]], a relative of [[Charles Darwin]]. Galton believed that inherited factors had a significant impact on
* [[Interbehaviorism]]: Proposed by [[Jacob Robert Kantor]] before [[B. F. Skinner]]'s writings.
* '''Methodological behaviorism'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->: [[John B. Watson]]'s behaviorism states that only public events (motor behaviors of an individual) can be objectively observed. Although it was still acknowledged that thoughts and feelings exist, they were not considered part of the science of behavior.<ref name=RadicalBehaviorismCAB/><ref name="Skinner1976">{{
* [[Psychological behaviorism]]: As proposed by Arthur W. Staats, unlike the previous behaviorisms of Skinner, Hull, and Tolman, was based upon a program of human research involving various types of human behavior. Psychological behaviorism introduces new principles of human learning. Humans learn not only by animal learning principles but also by special human learning principles. Those principles involve humans' uniquely huge learning ability. Humans learn repertoires that enable them to learn other things. Human learning is thus cumulative. No other animal demonstrates that ability, making the human species unique.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Muckler |first=Frederick A. |date=June 1963 |title=On the Reason of Animals: Historical Antecedents to the Logic of Modern Behaviorism |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1963.12.3.863 |journal=Psychological Reports |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=863–882 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1963.12.3.863
* [[Radical behaviorism]]: Skinner's philosophy is an extension of Watson's form of behaviorism by theorizing that processes within the organism—particularly, private events, such as thoughts and feelings—are also part of the science of behavior, and suggests that environmental variables control these internal events just as they control observable behaviors. Behavioral events may be observable but not all are, some are considered
* [[Teleological behaviorism]]: Proposed by [[Howard Rachlin]], post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to [[microeconomics]]. Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
* [[Theoretical behaviorism]]: Proposed by [[J. E. R. Staddon]],<ref name="Staddon2014">Staddon, John (2014) ''The New Behaviorism'' (2nd edition). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.</ref><ref>Staddon, John (2016) ''The Englishman: Memoirs of a psychobiologist.'' University of Buckingham Press.</ref><ref>{{
Two subtypes of theoretical behaviorism are:
* [[Clark L. Hull|Hullian]] and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological
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===Modern-day theory: radical behaviorism===
{{main|Radical behaviorism}}
B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of the [[experimental analysis of behavior]]. This viewpoint differs from other approaches to behavioral research in various ways, but, most notably here, it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors also subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism, it rejects the reflex as a model of all behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical positions, such as American [[pragmatism]].<ref>{{
Although John B. Watson mainly emphasized his position of methodological behaviorism throughout his career, Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the infamous [[Little Albert experiment]] (1920), a study in which [[Ivan Pavlov]]'s [[Classical conditioning#Forward conditioning|theory]] to respondent conditioning was first applied to eliciting a fearful reflex of crying in a human infant, and this became the launching point for understanding covert behavior (or private events) in ''radical'' behaviorism
In 1959, Skinner observed the emotions of two pigeons by noting that they appeared angry because their feathers ruffled. The pigeons were placed together in an operant chamber, where they were aggressive as a consequence of previous [[reinforcement (psychology)|reinforcement]] in the environment. Through [[stimulus control]] and subsequent discrimination training, whenever Skinner turned off the green light, the pigeons came to notice that the food [[extinction (psychology)|reinforcer is discontinued]] following each peck and responded without aggression. Skinner concluded that humans also learn aggression and possess such emotions (as well as other private events) no differently than do nonhuman animals.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}
==Experimental and conceptual innovations==
As experimental behavioural psychology is related to [[behavioral neuroscience]], we can date the first researches in the area were done in the beginning of 19th century.<ref>Behavioral Neuroscience, APA, 1807</ref> Later, this essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books ''The Behavior of Organisms'' and ''Schedules of Reinforcement.''<ref name="Skinner1938 Organisms">{{
Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on [[trial-and-error]] learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so-called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work ''Are Theories of Learning Necessary?'' in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the [[Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior]].<ref>{{
▲Later, this essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books ''The Behavior of Organisms''<ref name="Skinner1938 Organisms">{{cite book |last= Skinner |first=B.F. |author-link= B.F. Skinner |title=The Behavior of Organisms |publisher=[[Appleton-Century-Crofts]] |year=1938 |page=473 |isbn=978-0-87411-487-4|title-link=The Behavior of Organisms |publication-place= New York, NY}}</ref> and ''Schedules of Reinforcement''.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Cheney, Carl D. |author2=Ferster, Charles B. |title=Schedules of Reinforcement (B.F. Skinner Reprint Series) |publisher=Copley Publishing Group |location=Acton, MA |year=1997 |page=758 |isbn=978-0-87411-828-5}}</ref> Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and [[S–R theory]].
▲Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on [[trial-and-error]] learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so-called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work ''Are Theories of Learning Necessary?'' in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the [[Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Commons |first=M.L. |year=2001 |title=A short history of the Society for the Quantitative Analysis of Behavior |journal=Behavior Analyst Today |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=275–9 |url=http://www.baojournal.com |format=PDF |access-date=2008-01-10|doi=10.1037/h0099944 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Thornbury |first1= Scott|title=The Lexical Approach: A journey without maps|journal=Modern English Teacher|date=1998|volume=7 | issue = 4 |pages= 7–13| url= http://nebula.wsimg.com/9129eed8a13130f4ee92cf2c3ce5b13e?AccessKeyId=186A535D1BA4FC995A73&disposition=0&alloworigin=1}}</ref>
==Relation to language==
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]''<ref>{{
Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,<ref>{{
==Education==
{{See also|Philosophy of education#Realism}}
B. F. Skinner's book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' (1957) does not quite emphasize on language development, but to understand human behavior. Additionally, his work serves in understanding social interactions in the child's early developmental stages focusing on the topic of caregiver-infant interaction.<ref name="McLaughlin 2010 114–131">{{Cite journal |last=McLaughlin |first=Scott F. |date=2010 |title=Verbal behavior by B.F. Skinner: Contributions to analyzing early language learning. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0100272 |journal=The Journal of Speech and Language Pathology – Applied Behavior Analysis |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=114–131 |doi=10.1037/h0100272 |issn=1932-4731}}</ref> Skinner's functional analysis of verbal behavior terminology and theories is commonly used to understand the relationship between language development but was primarily designed to describe behaviors of interest and explain the cause of those behaviors.<ref name="McLaughlin 2010 114–131" /> [[Noam Chomsky]], an American linguistic professor, has criticized and questioned Skinner's theories about the possible suggestion of parental tutoring in language development. However, there is a lack of supporting evidence where Skinner makes the statement.<ref name="McLaughlin 2010 114–131" /> Understanding language is a complex topic but can be understood through the use of two theories: innateness and acquisition. Both theories offer a different perspective whether language is inherently "acquired" or "learned".<ref>{{Citation |last=Ariew |first=André |title=INNATENESS |date=2007 |work=Philosophy of Biology |pages=567–584 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444515438500265 |access-date=2023-12-09 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-044451543-8/50026-5 |isbn=978-0-444-51543-8}}</ref>
==Operant conditioning==
{{main|Operant conditioning||}}
[[Operant conditioning]] was developed by [[B.F. Skinner]] in 1938 and is form of learning in which the frequency of a behavior is controlled by consequences to change behavior.<ref name="Murphy 165–194">{{Citation |
The following descriptions explains the concepts of four common types of consequences in operant conditioning:<ref name="CooperABA">{{
* '''Positive reinforcement''': Providing a stimulus that an individual enjoys, seeks, or craves, in order to reinforce desired behaviors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chance |first=Paul |title=Learning and Behavior |publisher=Jon-David Hague |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-111-83277-3 |location=Belmont, CA |pages=133}}</ref> For example, when a person is teaching a dog to sit, they pair the command "sit" with a treat. The treat is the positive reinforcement to the behavior of sitting. The key to making positive reinforcement effect is to reward the behavior immediately.
* '''Negative reinforcement''': Increases the frequency of a behavior, but the behavior results from removing unpleasant or unwanted stimulus.<ref name="Murphy 165–194" /> For example, a child hates being nagged (negative) to clean his room (behavior) which increases the frequency of the child cleaning his room to prevent his mother from nagging. Another example would be putting on sunscreen (behavior) before going outside to prevent sunburn (negative).
* '''Positive punishment''': Providing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to decrease undesired behaviors. For example, if a child engages in an undesired behavior, then parents may spank (stimulus) the child to correct their behavior.
* '''Negative punishment''': Removing a stimulus that an individual desires in order to decrease undesired behaviors. An example of this would be grounding a child for failing a test. Grounding in this example is taking away the child's ability to play video games. As long as it is clear that the ability to play video games was taken away because they failed a test, this is negative punishment. The key here is the connection to the behavior and the result of the behavior.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Li |first=Pamela |date=2020-01-14 |title=What is Negative Punishment (Examples and Effectiveness) |url=https://www.parentingforbrain.com/negative-punishment/ |access-date=2021-03-21 |website=Parenting For Brain |language=en-US}}</ref>
A classical experiment in operant conditioning, for example, is the ''Skinner Box'', "puzzle box" or [[operant conditioning chamber]] to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats, cats and other species. From
Skinner's model was based on the premise that reinforcement is used for the desired actions or responses while punishment was used to stop the responses of the undesired actions that are not. This theory proved that humans or animals will repeat any action that leads to a positive outcome, and
These historical consequential contingencies subsequently lead to (antecedent) [[stimulus control]], but in contrast to respondent conditioning where antecedent stimuli elicit reflexive behavior, operant behavior is only emitted and therefore does not force its occurrence. It includes the following controlling stimuli:<ref name=CooperABA/>
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==Respondent conditioning==
{{main|Classical conditioning}}
Although [[operant conditioning]] plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, [[classical conditioning|respondent conditioning]] (also called Pavlovian or classical conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process that needs not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning procedure. In the beginning, the dog was provided meat (unconditioned stimulus, UCS, naturally elicit a response that is not controlled) to eat, resulting in increased salivation (unconditioned response, UCR, which means that a response is naturally caused by UCS). Afterward, a bell ring was presented together with food to the dog. Although bell ring was a neutral stimulus (NS, meaning that the stimulus did not have any effect), dog would start to salivate when only hearing a bell ring after a number of pairings. Eventually, the neutral stimulus (bell ring) became conditioned. Therefore, salivation was elicited as a conditioned response (the response same as the unconditioned response), pairing up with meat—the conditioned stimulus)
[[John B. Watson|Watson]]'s "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve special recognition: one is that psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious experience being removed, thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour"; the second one is that the goals of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious mental states); the third one is that there is no notable distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Following Darwin's theory of evolution, this would simply mean that human behaviour is just a more complex version in respect to behaviour displayed by other species.<ref>Richard Gross, Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour</ref>
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==In philosophy==
{{main|Logical behaviorism}}
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with [[philosophy of mind]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schlinger |first=Henry D. |date=2009-07-01 |title=Theory of Mind: An Overview and Behavioral Perspective |url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=tpr |journal=The Psychological Record |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=435–448 |doi=10.1007/BF03395673
Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within [[philosophy of language]] and [[analytic philosophy]]. It is sometimes argued that [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] defended a [[Logical behaviorism|logical behaviorist]] position<ref name="SEP">{{cite SEP |url-id=behaviorism |title=Behaviorism}}</ref> (e.g., the ''[[Philosophical Investigations#Wittgenstein's beetle|beetle in a box]]'' argument). In [[logical positivism]] (as held, e.g., by [[Rudolf Carnap]]<ref name=SEP/> and [[Carl Hempel]]),<ref name=SEP/> the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. [[W. V. O. Quine]] made use of a type of behaviorism,<ref name=SEP/> influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Quine's work in semantics differed substantially from the empiricist semantics of Carnap which he attempted to create an alternative to, couching his semantic theory in references to physical objects rather than sensations. [[Gilbert Ryle]] defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book ''The Concept of Mind''.<ref name=SEP/> Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "[[category mistake]]s", and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. [[Daniel Dennett]] likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist,<ref name="Ref-1">{{
{{Blockquote|text=This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned
===Law of effect and trace conditioning===
* '''[[Law of effect]]''': Although [[Edward Thorndike]]'s methodology mainly dealt with reinforcing observable behavior, it viewed [[mentalism|cognitive]] antecedents as the causes of behavior,<ref name="BehaviorAnalysisLearning">{{
* '''[[Classical conditioning#Forward conditioning|Trace conditioning]]''': Akin to B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism, it is a [[classical conditioning|respondent conditioning]] technique based on [[Ivan Pavlov]]'s concept of a "memory trace" in which the observer recalls the [[conditioned stimulus]] (CS), with the memory or recall being the [[unconditioned response]] (UR). There is also a time delay between the CS and [[unconditioned stimulus]] (US), causing the [[conditioned response]] (CR)—particularly the [[reflex]]—to be faded over time.<ref name=BehaviorAnalysisLearning/> According to Marchand,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Federighi |last2=Traina |first2=G. |last3=Bernardi |first3=R. |date=2018 |title=Contextual fear conditioning modulates the gene expression over time |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.12871/00039829201814 |journal=Archives Italiennes de Biologie |volume=156 |issue=1 |pages=40–47 |doi=10.12871/00039829201814 |
===Molecular versus molar behaviorism===
Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by Consequences".<ref name="Skinner1981">{{Cite journal |
Molar behaviorists, such as [[Howard Rachlin]], [[Richard Herrnstein]], and William Baum, argue that behavior cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associative strength", are better replaced by molar variables such as [[rate of reinforcement]].<ref>{{
===Theoretical behaviorism===
{{main|Theoretical behaviorism}}
Skinner's radical behaviorism has been highly successful experimentally, revealing new phenomena with new methods, but Skinner's dismissal of theory limited its development. [[Theoretical behaviorism]]<ref name="Staddon2014" /> recognized that a historical system, an organism, has a state as well as sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to emit responses. Indeed, Skinner himself acknowledged the possibility of what he called "latent" responses in humans, even though he neglected to extend this idea to rats and pigeons.<ref>Staddon, J. Theoretical behaviorism. Philosophy and Behavior. (45) in press.</ref> Latent responses constitute a repertoire, from which operant reinforcement can select. Theoretical behaviorism links between the brain and the behavior that provides a real understanding of the behavior, rather than a mental presumption of how brain-behavior relates.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roback |first=A. A. |title=Behaviorism at twenty-five |date=1937 |publisher=Sci-Art Publishers |oclc=881361266}}</ref> The theoretical concept of behaviorism are blended with knowledge of mental structure such as memory and expectancies associated with inflexable behaviorist stances that have traditionally forbidden the examination of the mental state.<ref>{{
== Behavior analysis and culture ==
From its inception, behavior analysis has centered its examination on cultural occurrences ([[B. F. Skinner|Skinner]], 1953,<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1954 |title=Skinner, B. F. Science and human behavior. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953. 461 P. $4.00 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sce.37303805120 |journal=Science Education |language=en |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=436 |bibcode=1954SciEd..38S.436. |doi=10.1002/sce.37303805120 |issn=0036-8326}}</ref> 1961,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Metzger |first=Duane |date=1963 |title=The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for
== Behavior informatics and behavior computing ==
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In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the [[cognitive revolution]].<ref>Friesen, N. (2005). Mind and Machine: Ethical and Epistemological Implications for Research. Thompson Rivers University, B.C., Canada.</ref><ref>Waldrop, M.M. (2002). ''The Dream Machine: JCR Licklider and the revolution that made computing personal''. New York: Penguin Books. (pp. 139–40).</ref> This shift was due to radical behaviorism being highly criticized for not examining mental processes, and this led to the development of the [[cognitive therapy]] movement.
In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought:
* [[Noam Chomsky]]'s 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated what would come to be known as the "[[cognitive revolution]]".<ref>{{
Chomsky N. Preface to the reprint of A Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. In: Jakobovits L.A, Miron M.S, editors. Readings in the psychology of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1967.</ref>
* Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought. [[Allen Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] spent years developing the concept of [[artificial intelligence]] (AI) and later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result was more of a framework conceptualization of mental functions with their counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.).
* Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such as [[George Mandler]]'s Center for Human Information Processing in 1964. Mandler described the origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in the ''Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences''<ref>{{
In more recent years, several scholars have expressed reservations about the pragmatic tendencies of behaviorism.
* Burgos (2003) highlights the potential peril of pragmatism, noting that within [[William James]] pragmatism—widely discussed in philosophy and science, including behaviorism and behavior analysis—there exists a tolerance for anything deemed useful, even if nonsensical.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burgos |first=José E. |date=2003 |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=S. C. |editor2-last=Barnes-Holmes |editor2-first=D. |editor3-last=Roche |editor3-first=B. |title=Laudable Goals, Interesting Experiments, Unintelligible Theorizing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27759445 |journal=Behavior and Philosophy |volume=31 |pages=19–45
▲* Burgos (2003) highlights the potential peril of pragmatism, noting that within [[William James]] pragmatism—widely discussed in philosophy and science, including behaviorism and behavior analysis—there exists a tolerance for anything deemed useful, even if nonsensical.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burgos |first=José E. |date=2003 |editor-last=Hayes |editor-first=S. C. |editor2-last=Barnes-Holmes |editor2-first=D. |editor3-last=Roche |editor3-first=B. |title=Laudable Goals, Interesting Experiments, Unintelligible Theorizing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27759445 |journal=Behavior and Philosophy |volume=31 |pages=19–45 |jstor=27759445 |issn=1053-8348}}</ref> Additionally, Burgos (2007) contends that pragmatism engenders a relativism that contradicts the emphasis on science as the paramount path to knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burgos |first1=José E. |last2=Murillo-Rodríguez |first2=Esther |date=2007-06-01 |title=Neural-network simulations of two context-dependence phenomena |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635707000289 |journal=Behavioural Processes |series=Proceedings of the Meeting of the Society for the Quantitative Analyses Behavior(SQAB 2006) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=242–249 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2007.02.003 |pmid=17346905 |s2cid=24283635 |issn=0376-6357}}</ref>
* Staddon (2018, as cited in Araiba, 2019) further argues that the proliferation of diversification in [[social science]] poses disadvantages by hindering healthy and open scientific communication and critique among specialized areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Araiba |first=Sho |date=2020 |title=Current Diversification of Behaviorism |journal=Perspectives on Behavior Science |language=en |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=157–175 |doi=10.1007/s40614-019-00207-0 |issn=2520-8969 |pmc=7198672 |pmid=32440649}}</ref>
* Rider (1991) shares a similar concern, highlighting reduced communication between the experimental analysis of behavior and [[applied behavior analysis]]. Contrarily, diversification is portrayed as an innate and uncontrollable consequence of the environment, a natural facet contributing to species' survival. It is viewed as an integral aspect of the evolution of behaviorism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rider |first=David P. |date=1991 |title=The Speciation of Behavior Analysis |journal=The Behavior Analyst |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=171–181 |doi=10.1007/BF03392567 |issn=0738-6729 |pmc=2733502 |pmid=22478096}}</ref>
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=== Limitations ===
Staddon (1993) found that [[B. F. Skinner|Skinner's]] theory presents two significant deficiencies: Firstly, he downplayed the significance of processes responsible for generating novel behaviors, which it is term as "behavioral variation." [[B. F. Skinner|Skinner]] primarily emphasized reinforcement as the sole determinant for selecting responses, overlooking these critical processes involved in creating new behaviors. Secondly, both [[B. F. Skinner|Skinner]] and many other behaviorists of that era endorsed contiguity as a sufficient process for response selection. However, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rescorla%E2%80%93Wagner_model&oldid=1138116120 Rescorla and Wagner] (1972) later demonstrated, particularly in [[classical conditioning]], that competition is an essential complement to contiguity. They showed that in [[operant conditioning]], both contiguity and competition are imperative for discerning [[cause-and-effect]] relationships.<ref name="
The influential [[Rescorla–Wagner model|Rescorla-Wagner model]] highlights the significance of competition for limited [[Association value|"associative value,"]] essential for assessing predictability. A similar formal argument was presented by Ying Zhang and John Staddon (1991, in press) concerning operant conditioning: the combination of contiguity and competition among action tendencies suffices as an assignment-of-credit mechanism capable of detecting genuine instrumental contingency between a response and its reinforcer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scholars@Duke publication: ON THE ASSIGNMENT-OF-CREDIT PROBLEM IN OPERANT LEARNING |url=https://scholars.duke.edu/publication/915273 |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=scholars.duke.edu}}</ref> This mechanism delineates the limitations of [[B. F. Skinner|Skinner's]] idea of adventitious reinforcement, revealing its efficacy only under stringent conditions – when the reinforcement's strengthening effect is nearly constant across instances and with very short intervals between reinforcers. However, these conditions rarely hold in reality: behavior following reinforcement tends to exhibit high variability, and superstitious behavior diminishes with extremely brief intervals between reinforcements.<ref name="
==Behavior therapy==
{{main|Behavior therapy}}
'''Behavior therapy''' is a term referring to different types of therapies that treat mental health disorders. It identifies and helps change people's unhealthy behaviors or destructive behaviors through learning theory and conditioning. [[Ivan Pavlov]]'s classical conditioning, as well as counterconditioning are the basis for much of clinical behavior therapy, but also includes other techniques, including operant conditioning—or contingency management, and modeling (sometimes called [[observational learning]]). A frequently noted behavior therapy is [[systematic desensitization]] (graduated exposure therapy), which was first demonstrated by Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolpe |first=Joseph |title=Behavior therapy techniques: a guide to the treatment of neuroses
===Behavior analysis===
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[[Applied behavior analysis]] (ABA)—also called behavioral engineering—is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of behavior analysis to change behavior. ABA derived from much earlier research in the ''[[Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior]]'', which was founded by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues at [[Harvard University]]. Nearly a decade after the study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) was published in that journal, which demonstrated how effective the [[token economy]] was in reinforcing more adaptive behavior for hospitalized patients with [[schizophrenia]] and [[intellectual disability]], it led to researchers at the [[University of Kansas]] to start the ''[[Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis]]'' in 1968.
Although ABA and [[behavior modification]] are similar behavior-change technologies in that the learning environment is modified through respondent and operant conditioning, behavior modification did not initially address the causes of the behavior (particularly, the environmental stimuli that occurred in the past), or investigate solutions that would otherwise prevent the behavior from reoccurring. As the evolution of ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s, functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify the function of that behavior, so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement contingencies will be most effective and less likely for [[aversive]] [[punishment]]s to be administered.<ref name="JEAB2010">{{
The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also continues to develop.<ref>{{
The field of [[Animal training|applied animal behavior]]—a sub-discipline of ABA that involves training animals—is regulated by the
ABA has also been particularly well-established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s, but it was not until the late 1980s that individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders were beginning to grow so rapidly and groundbreaking research was being published that parent advocacy groups started demanding for services throughout the 1990s, which encouraged the formation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, a credentialing program that certifies professionally trained behavior analysts on the national level to deliver such services. Nevertheless, the certification is applicable to all human services related to the rather broad field of behavior analysis (other than the treatment for autism), and the ABAI currently has 14 accredited MA and Ph.D. programs for comprehensive study in that field.
Early behavioral interventions (EBIs) based on ABA are empirically validated for teaching children with autism and
[[Discrete trial training]]—also called early ''intensive'' behavioral intervention—is the traditional EBI technique implemented for thirty to forty hours per week that instructs a child to sit in a chair, imitate fine and gross motor behaviors, as well as learn eye contact and speech, which are taught through [[shaping (psychology)|shaping]], [[modeling (psychology)|modeling]], and [[Errorless learning|prompting]], with such prompting being phased out as the child begins mastering each skill. When the child becomes more verbal from discrete trials, the table-based instructions are later discontinued, and another EBI procedure known as incidental teaching is introduced in the natural environment by having the child ask for desired items kept out of their direct access, as well as allowing the child to choose the play activities that will motivate them to engage with their facilitators before teaching the child how to interact with other children their own age.
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[[Organizational behavior management]], which applies contingency management procedures to model and reinforce appropriate work behavior for employees in organizations, has developed a particularly strong following within ABA, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and ''Journal of Organizational Behavior Management'', which was rated the third-highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating.
Modern-day [[clinical behavior analysis]] has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research, with the development of [[relational frame theory]] (RFT), which is described as an extension of verbal behavior and a "post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition."<ref>Hayes, S.C.; Barnes-Holmes, D. & Roche, B. (2001) Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. Kluwer Academic: New York.</ref><ref name="
[[Incentive]]-based contingency management (CM) is the standard of care for adults with substance-use disorders; it has also been shown to be highly effective for other addictions (i.e., obesity and gambling). Although it does not directly address the underlying causes of behavior, incentive-based CM is highly behavior analytic as it targets the function of the client's motivational behavior by relying on a preference assessment, which is an assessment procedure that allows the individual to select the preferred reinforcer (in this case, the monetary value of the voucher, or the use of other incentives, such as prizes). Another evidence-based CM intervention for substance abuse is [[community reinforcement approach and family training]] that uses FBAs and counterconditioning techniques—such as behavioral skills training and relapse prevention—to model and reinforce healthier lifestyle choices which promote self-management of abstinence from drugs, alcohol, or cigarette smoking during high-risk exposure when engaging with family members, friends, and co-workers.
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While schoolwide positive behavior support consists of conducting assessments and a [[task analysis]] plan to differentially reinforce curricular supports that replace students' disruptive behavior in the classroom, pediatric feeding therapy incorporates a liquid chaser and chin feeder to shape proper eating behavior for children with feeding disorders. [[Habit reversal training]], an approach firmly grounded in counterconditioning which uses contingency management procedures to reinforce alternative behavior, is currently the only empirically validated approach for managing [[tic disorders]].
Some studies on exposure ([[desensitization (psychology)|desensitization]]) therapies—which refer to an array of interventions based on the respondent conditioning procedure known as [[habituation]] and typically infuses counterconditioning procedures, such as [[meditation]] and [[Diaphragmatic breathing|breathing exercises]]—have recently been published in behavior analytic journals since the 1990s, as most other research
Other widely published behavior analytic journals include ''Behavior Modification'', ''The Behavior Analyst'', ''Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions'', ''Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science'', ''The Analysis of Verbal Behavior'', ''Behavior and Philosophy'', ''Behavior and Social Issues'', and ''[[The Psychological Record]]''.
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===Cognitive-behavior therapy===
{{main|Cognitive-behavior therapy}}
[[Cognitive-behavioral therapy|Cognitive-behavior therapy]] (CBT) is a behavior therapy discipline that often overlaps considerably with the clinical behavior analysis subfield of ABA, but differs in that it initially incorporates cognitive restructuring and emotional regulation to alter a person's cognition and emotions. Various forms of CBT have been used to treat physically experienced symptoms that disrupt individuals' livelihood, which often stem from complex mental health disorders. Complications of many trauma-induced disorders result in lack of sleep and nightmares, with cognitive behavior therapy functioning as an intervention found to reduce the average number of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] patients suffering from related sleep disturbance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lancel |first1=Marike |last2=van Marle |first2=Hein J. F. |last3=Van Veen |first3=Maaike M. |last4=van Schagen |first4=Annette M. |date=2021-11-24 |title=Disturbed Sleep in PTSD: Thinking Beyond Nightmares |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.767760 |
A popularly noted counseling intervention known as [[dialectical behavior therapy]] (DBT) includes the use of a chain analysis, as well as cognitive restructuring, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement). DBT is quite similar to acceptance and commitment therapy, but contrasts in that it derives from a CBT framework. Although DBT is most widely researched for and empirically validated to reduce the risk of suicide in psychiatric patients with [[borderline personality disorder]], it can often be applied effectively to other mental health conditions, such as substance abuse, as well as mood and eating disorders. A study on BPD was conducted, confirming DBT as a constructive therapeutic option for emotionally unregulated patients. Before DBT, participants with borderline personality disorder were shown images of highly emotional people and neuron activity in the [[amygdala]] was recorded via [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]]; after 1 year of consistent dialectical behavior therapy, participants were re-tested, with fMRI capturing a decrease in amygdala hyperactivity (emotional activation) in response to the applied stimulus, exhibiting increases in emotional regulation capabilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Flechsig |first1=Ariane |last2=Bernheim |first2=Dorothee |last3=Buchheim |first3=Anna |last4=Domin |first4=Martin |last5=Mentel |first5=Renate |last6=Lotze |first6=Martin |date=2023-06-28 |title=One Year of Outpatient Dialectical Behavioral Therapy and Its Impact on Neuronal Correlates of Attachment Representation in Patients with Borderline Personality Disorder Using a Personalized fMRI Task |journal=Brain Sciences |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=1001 |doi=10.3390/brainsci13071001 |
Most research on exposure therapies (also called desensitization)—ranging from [[eye movement desensitization and reprocessing|eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy]] to [[exposure and response prevention]]—are conducted through a CBT framework in non-behavior analytic journals, and these enhanced exposure therapies are well-established in the research literature for treating phobic, [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|post-traumatic stress]], and other anxiety disorders (such as [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], or OCD).
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===Related therapies===
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* [[Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)]]
* [[Animal training|Applied animal behavior]]
* [[Behavioral activation]]
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* [[Contingency management]]
* [[Desensitization (medicine)|Desensitization]]
* [[Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)]]
* [[Direct instruction]]
* [[Discrete trial training]]
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* [[Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing]]
* [[Flooding (psychology)]]
* [[Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP)]]
* [[Habit reversal training]]
* [[Organizational behavior management]]
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* [[Fred S. Keller]]
* [[Robert Koegel]]
* [[Robert (Bob) J. Kohlenberg]]
* [[Jon Levy (behaviorist)|Jon Levy]]
* [[Marsha M. Linehan]]
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==See also==
{{Portal||Psychology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Behavior analysis of child development]]
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* [[Ethology]]
* [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)]]
* {{section link|Models of abnormality|Behavioural model}}
* [[Operationalization]]
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* Cao, L.B. (2014) [https://web.archive.org/web/20161220110547/http://www-staff.it.uts.edu.au/~lbcao/publication/compj13.pdf Non-IIDness Learning in Behavioral and Social Data], The Computer Journal, 57(9): 1358–1370.
* Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). ''Schedules of reinforcement''. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
* [[Richard Malott|Malott, Richard W.]] (2008) ''Principles of Behavior''. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Print.
* Mills, John A. (2000) ''Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology'', Paperback Edition, New York University Press.
* Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum.
* {{
* Rachlin, H. (1991) ''Introduction to modern behaviorism.'' (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
* Skinner, B.F. ''Beyond Freedom & Dignity'', Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002.
* {{
* {{
* Klein, P. (2013) "Explanation of Behavioural Psychotherapy Styles". [http://www.kleincbt.com/#!What-is-CBT/cgzo].
* Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. ''Psychological Review'', 20, 158–177. ([http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm on-line]).
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* Watson, J.B. (1924). ''Behaviorism''.
* Zuriff, G.E. (1985). [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=86092256 ''Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624073146/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=86092256 |date=24 June 2011 }}, Columbia University Press.
* {{
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