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{{More citations needed|date=September 2022}}
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[[File:Mercator World Map.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[world map]] by the Italian [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (from whose name the word ''America'' is derived) and Belgian [[Gerardus Mercator]] shows (besides the classical continents [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]]) the [[Americas]] as ''America sive India Nova', [[New Guinea]], and other islands of [[Southeast Asia]], as well as a hypothetical [[Hyperborea|Arctic continent]] and a yet undetermined ''[[Terra Australis]]''.<ref name="NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue">Modern reference works on the period tend to follow the introduction of the Gregorian calendar for the sake of clarity; thus [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendar.html NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue] states "The Gregorian calendar is used for all dates from 1582 Oct 15 onwards. Before that date, the Julian calendar is used." For dates after 15 October 1582, care must be taken to avoid confusion of the two styles.</ref>'']]The '''16th century''' began with the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] year [[1501]] (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDI) and ended with either the Julian or the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] year [[1600]] (MDC), depending on the reckoning used (the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582).<ref name="NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue"/>
The [[Renaissance]] in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include [[accounting]] and [[political science]]. [[Copernicus]] proposed the [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric universe]], which was met with strong resistance, and [[Tycho Brahe]] refuted the theory of [[celestial spheres]] through observational measurement of the [[SN 1572|1572 appearance]] of a [[Milky Way]] [[supernova]]. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by [[Ptolemy]] and [[Aristotle]], and led to major revolutions in [[astronomy]] and science. [[Galileo Galilei]] became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of [[physics]] and [[astronomy]], becoming a major figure in the [[Scientific Revolution]] in Europe.
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In the [[Middle East]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] continued to expand, with the [[sultan]] taking the title of [[caliph]], while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] sect of [[Islam]] under the rule of the [[Safavid dynasty]] of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority-[[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslim world]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Vries |first1=Jan |date=14 September 2009 |title=The limits of globalization in the early modern world |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=710–733 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.2862 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x |jstor=40929823 |s2cid=219969360 |ssrn=1635517}}</ref>
In the [[Indian subcontinent]], following the defeat of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Vijayanagara Empire]], new powers emerged, the [[Sur Empire]] founded by [[Sher Shah Suri]], [[Deccan sultanates]]
Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as the [[Sengoku period]], and emerged from it as a unified nation under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty, which was becoming increasingly [[Isolationism#China|isolationist]], coming into conflict with Japan over the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|control of Korea]] as well as [[Wokou|Japanese pirates]].
In Africa, [[Christianity in Africa#Jesuit missions in Africa|Christianity]] had begun to spread in [[Central Africa]] and [[Southern Africa]]. Until the [[Scramble for Africa]] in the late 19th century, most of Africa was left uncolonized.
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* [[1535]]: The [[Münster Rebellion]], an attempt of radical, [[Millennialism|millennialist]], [[Anabaptists]] to establish a [[theocracy]], ends in bloodshed.
* [[1535]]: The Portuguese in Ternate depose Sultan [[Tabariji of Ternate|Tabariji]] (or Tabarija) and send him to Portuguese Goa where he converts to Christianity and bequeaths his Portuguese godfather [[Jordao de Freitas]] the island of [[Ambon Island|Ambon]].<ref name="RICKLEFS_p25">Ricklefs (1991), page 25</ref> [[Hairun]] becomes the next sultan.
* [[1536]]: [[
* [[1536]]: In England, [[Anne Boleyn]] is beheaded for adultery and treason.
* [[1536]]: Establishment of the [[Portuguese Inquisition|Inquisition]] in Portugal.
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===[[1540s]]===
[[File:copernicus.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nicolaus Copernicus]]]]
*[[1540]]: The [[Jesuits|Society of Jesus]], or the Jesuits, is founded by [[Ignatius of Loyola]] and six companions with the approval of [[Pope Paul III]].
*[[1540]]: [[Sher Shah Suri]] founds the [[Sur Empire|Suri dynasty]] in [[South Asia]], an ethnic [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] ([[Pathan]]) of the house of [[Sur Dynasty|Sur]], who supplanted the [[Mughal dynasty]] as rulers of North [[India]] during the reign of the relatively ineffectual second Mughal emperor [[Humayun]]. Sher Shah Suri decisively defeats Humayun in the Battle of Bilgram (May 17, 1540).
*[[1541]]: [[Pedro de Valdivia]] founds [[Santiago
*[[1541]]: An [[Algeria]]n military campaign by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V of Spain]] ([[Habsburg]]) is unsuccessful.
*[[1541]]: [[Amazon River]] is encountered and explored by [[Francisco de Orellana]].
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* [[1578]]: King [[Sebastian of Portugal]] is killed at the [[Battle of Alcazarquivir]].
* [[1578]]: The Portuguese establish a fort on [[Tidore]] but the main centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku becomes Ambon.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p25" />
* [[1578]]: [[3rd Dalai Lama|Sonam Gyatso]] is conferred the title of [[Dalai Lama]] by Tumed Mongol ruler, [[Altan Khan]]. Recognised as the reincarnation of two previous Lamas, Sonam Gyatso becomes the third Dalai Lama in the lineage.<ref name=":0">{{cite book| first=Peter| last=Schwieger| title=The Dalai Lama and the Emperor of China: a political history of the Tibetan institution of reincarnation| location=New York| publisher=Columbia University Press| date=2014| oclc=905914446| isbn=9780231538602| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHoyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33}}</ref>
* [[1578]]: [[Governor-General]] [[Francisco de Sande]] officially declared war against [[Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)|Brunei]] in 1578, starting the [[Castilian War|Castilian War of 1578]].
* [[1579]]: The [[Union of Utrecht]] unifies the northern Netherlands, a foundation for the later [[Dutch Republic]].
* [[1579]]: The [[Union of Arras]] unifies the southern Netherlands, a foundation for the later states of the [[Spanish Netherlands]], the [[Austrian Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]].[[File:The Image of Irelande - plate03.jpg|thumb|The [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Gaels|Gaelic]] chieftain's feast, from ''[[The Image of Irelande, with a Discoverie of Woodkarne|The Image of Ireland]]''|270x270px]]
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* [[1600]]: [[Elizabeth I]] grants a charter to the [[British East India Company]] beginning the English advance in Asia.
* [[1600]]: [[Michael the Brave]] unifies the three principalities: [[Wallachia]], [[Moldavia]] and [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvania]] after the [[Battle of Șelimbăr]] from 1599.
{{for|later events|Timeline of the 17th century}}
=== Undated ===
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File:François Ier Louvre.jpg|[[Francis I of France|Francis I]] of France
File:Hans Holbein, the Younger, Around 1497-1543 - Portrait of Henry VIII of England - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Hans Holbein the Younger]], c. 1536 – 1537, ''[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]],'' [[King of England]] and [[Ireland]]
File:Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, III Duque de Alba, por
File:Ivan IV by anonim (18th c., GIM).jpg|[[Ivan IV the Terrible]]
File:1590 or later Marcus Gheeraerts, Sir Francis Drake Buckland Abbey, Devon.jpg|[[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]]
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